Raqqa - Knowledge

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from the Numayrid dynasty (although the Numayrids in general remained nomadic pastoralists). The biggest projects were in his capital of Harran, but he probably also started some in Raqqa as well. He certainly had a mint active in Raqqa at this point — archaeologists found coins struck in his name in Raqqa, dated to 1058, buried under a collapsed wall in the city's congregational mosque. Remains of a workshop under the same wall may also indicate that restoration work was started on the mosque around the same time. However, it appears that this work was stopped soon after it started. A possible reason is Mani's sudden death in 1062, which left the Numayrids without an effective ruler and dealt a huge blow to their overall political power.

822: 975:("the companion"), about 200 metres (660 feet) west of Raqqa as part of a general investment in strengthening the empire's fortifications. The most critical part of this project was to secure the northwestern frontier with the Byzantine Empire, and al-Rafiqah was its largest and most important construction. It also happens to be the only one that survives to the present day. Although most of the interior layout of al-Rafiqah has since been built over, and much of its fortifications have also been demolished, about 2,660 metres (8,730 feet) of its massive city walls are still standing, as well as its 144: 1287:

and industrial debris. The site had many kilns producing pottery of various types including unglazed, moulded, and high-quality glazed. It lay at the eastern end of the northernmost main road. Its location was probably chosen because it was downwind from the rest of the city, so that the wind wouldn't blow smoke from its kilns over residents' houses. However, this site was also vulnerable and exposed to nomadic attacks, which may have ultimately been the reason for its abandonment. The latest coin find from here is from 825/6, and Tall Aswad probably declined in the first half of the 9th century.

79: 177: 111: 2013: 314: 1070:. Some of the palace complexes dating to the period have been excavated by a German team on behalf of the director general of antiquities. There was also a thriving industrial complex located between the twin cities. Both German and English teams have excavated parts of the industrial complex, revealing comprehensive evidence for pottery and glass production. Apart from large dumps of debris, the evidence consisted of pottery and glass workshops, containing the remains of pottery kilns and glass furnaces. 1283:

in the northeast. It passes by several mounds of medieval industrial debris in this area exist. These include Tall Fukhkhār, a ceramic producing site; as well as Tall Ballūr, Tall Abī 'Alī, and Tall Zujāj, which were all glass workshops. Henderson and McLoughlin suggested Tall Ballur may have later been a production site again during the late 11th century after 150 years of abandonment, and Tonghini and Henderson suggested the same for Tall Fukhkhar, although Heidemann considered the latter improbable.

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stabilized burnt-brick cladding. The walls had 132 towers. Like the Abbasid capital of Baghdad, al-Rafiqah was protected by a series of outer defenses, which together made up a triple line of defense that any attackers would have to get through. A second, outer wall, itself 4.5m thick, was built beyond the first wall (at a distance of 20.8m). Beyond that, there was a 15.9m-wide moat. Both the outer wall and the moat were bulldozed in the 1970s or 80s to make room for new construction.

1216:. A major north–south street connected the Bab Harran in the north with al-Rafiqah's Great Mosque, right at the center of the walled city. The mosque is 108x93m, about the same size as the Abbasid mosque built at Baghdad a decade earlier. However, its materials are more sophisticated: whereas the Baghdad mosque was originally made from mud bricks with wooden columns and ceiling, the al-Rafiqah mosque is entirely made out of kiln-fired bricks. The roof of al-Rafiqah's mosque was also 1177:

opening itself measures 4m. Archaeologists found two door posts made out of solid iron still standing in place here. These probably represent the last traces of a pair of massive iron doors, like the ones that historical texts often mention as part of the entryways to early Islamic cities and palaces. For Raqqa in particular, although not necessarily the Bab Harran itself, different traditions mention an iron gate that originally was part of the Byzantine city of

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alliance in Raqqa province.... more than 90% of Raqqa city has been leveled due to the deliberate and barbaric bombardment of the city and the towns near it by the alliance, which also destroyed all services and infrastructures and forced tens of thousands of locals to leave the city and become refugees. Syria still considers Raqqa to be an occupied city, and it can only be considered liberated when the Syrian Arab Army enters it".

1074: 7426: 6930: 250: 1002:), squares, and streets" as the recently-built Abbasid capital. In practice, there were some significant differences between the two: al-Rafiqah was somewhat smaller but more heavily fortified than Baghdad, and its shape was more elongated along a north–south axis instead of the famously round city of Baghdad. Construction continued at al-Rafiqah at least until 774–5, when al-Mahdi was again sent to check on its progress. 2112: 1395:), also called the Bizūnā monastery. It was somewhere between Raqqa and al-Rafiqah, in the area of al-Muhtariqa. It was burned by the rebels Umar, a former prisoner in Raqqa, and Nasr ibn Shabath, a prominent Bedouin leader, during a violent conflict in 811/2 when Arab auxiliaries were mobilized at Raqqa. However, just a few years later in 818 it was the site of the installation of Patriarch 184: 151: 118: 1232:

mosque was the first to be built entirely from scratch on a coherent plan. It had an important influence on later mosque architecture, beginning in 808 when Harun al-Rashid – who was living in Raqqa at the time and would have been familiar with the al-Rafiqah mosque – had the original mosque at Baghdad rebuilt, adopting features of the design at al-Rafiqah. Later mosques such as the

2256:. These images clearly show the cuneiform characters in publication quality, which otherwise would have taken many hours to manually craft a matching drawing. The 3D-models and high-quality images have become accessible to both scholar and non-scholar communities worldwide. Physical replicas were produced using 3D-printing. The 3D-prints serve as teaching material in 1344:

late 20th century. Besides palaces and other buildings, this area included irrigation canals and underground watercourses in order to ensure a constant water supply. Many of the palaces were set in large garden enclosures, with wide avenues and racecourses. Toward the end of Harun al-Rashid's reign, this area was also expanded further to the north.

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Only parts were archaeologically explored. The 12th-century citadel was removed in the 1950s (today Dawwār as-Sā'a, the clock-tower circle). In the 1980s, rescue excavations in the palace area began, as well as the conservation of the Abbasid city walls with the Bāb Baghdād and the two main monuments intra muros, the Abbasid mosque and the

868:, Sa'id ibn Amir ibn Hidhyam, built the city's first mosque. The building was later enlarged to monumental proportions, measuring some 73 by 108 metres (240 by 354 feet), with a square brick minaret added later, possibly in the mid-10th century. The mosque survived until the early 20th century, being described by the German archaeologist 1264:), which according to legal norms at the time meant that it had to have a separate congregational mosque, and it had to be separated from other urban precincts by some sort of clearly-defined boundary. The congregational mosque may have been the "mosque suspended on columns", or perhaps the Samarran complex near the Bab al-Sibal. 2108:, mosques and parks have been restored, anti-extremism educational centers for youth have been established and the rebuilding and restoration of roads, roundabouts and bridges, installation of solar-powered street lighting, water restoration, demining, re-institution of public transportation and rubble removal has taken place. 1156:, which had horseshoe-shaped walls. Al-Rafiqah represents the location of present-day Raqqa; at some point the main center shifted here. The earliest evidence for this shift is a Fatimid dinar minted at Raqqa in 1010–11, which uses the name Raqqa rather than the official Abbasid name of al-Rafiqah. The writer 2770:

has been dedicated to him for a long time. It is considered a holy site placed under Uways's protection. At least until the 1940s, semi-nomadic families would leave their personal belongings at the foot of the tree before beginning their annual summer migration to keep livestock in the Balikh valley.

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monastery, situated on Tall al-Bi'a, became renowned. A mosaic inscription there is dated to the year 509, presumably from the period of the foundation of the monastery. Daira d'Mār Zakkā is mentioned by various sources up to the 10th century. The second important monastery in the area was the Bīzūnā

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has been reached. Rebuilding of residential houses and commercial buildings has been placed solely in the hands of civilians, there is a continued presence of rubble, unreliable electricity and water access in some areas, schools still lacking basic services and the presence of ISIL sleeper cells and

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for coins and was the only important mint city in the region from the time of Harun al-Rashid onward. The last dated copper coin from Abbasid Raqqa was struck in 892 (copper coins in general had fallen out of widespread use in the region during the late 9th century), but it continued minting gold and

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The 4th and 5th streets both have their west end at the Bab Baghdad. Together, they mark the southern end of the al-Muhtariqa area. Since the Bab Baghdad is a comparatively newer structure, probably from the late 11th or 12th century, these two streets might have also been built later. The 4th street

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The 2nd street runs southeast from the Bab al-Sibal towards the also-still-unlocated western gate of Raqqa/Kallinikos. Like the 1st street, it appears to cut deep into the flat-topped tell formed by centuries of debris. Further south was the southwestern gate of Raqqa/Kallinikos, which was called the

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At the eastern end of this northern street, and to the northeast of Raqqa/Kallinikos, was Tall Aswad. This was the largest and easternmost center of pottery production, and probably the oldest among the industrial mounds excavated. It is a large mound consisting of ruins of kilns, potsherds, wasters,

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Five main streets have been identified in al-Muhtariqa. The northernmost runs eastward from the east gate of al-Rafiqah, called the Bāb al-Sibāl, past the still-unlocated northwestern corner of Raqqa/Kallinikos, and then along the north side of Raqqa/Kallinikos before finally ending around Tall Aswad

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In 2019 a project called the "Shelter Project" was launched by international organisations in coordination with the Raqqa Civil Council, providing funding to residents of partially destroyed buildings in order to aid with their reconstruction. In April 2019 the rehabilitation of the Old Raqqa Bridge

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semi-nomadic tribes from whom they bought the right to settle within the Abbasid enclosure, near the Janissary garrison. They used the ancient bricks of the enclosure to build the first buildings of modern Raqqa. They came under the protection of the surrounding Arab semi-nomadic tribes because they

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Raqqa was conquered by the Hamdanids in 942. As a result, it lost its status as an Abbasid garrison city. This had a severe economic impact on Raqqa and the surrounding region: without the soldiers and their disposable income, the demand for food and goods decreased, and local artisans were deprived

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Farther south, at the southeastern corner of the palace complex, was a public square surrounded by several buildings. Some of these buildings were reception halls used for social gatherings. Other buildings were private residences, probably belonging to people who were not part of the caliph's inner

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in 806. Other theories connect it with cosmological events. The monument is preserved in a substructure of a square building in the centre of a circular walled enclosure, 500 metres (1,600 ft) in diameter. However, the upper part was never finished because of the sudden death of Harun al-Rashid

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The Islamic conquest of the region did not disrupt the existing trade routes too much, and new Byzantine coins continued to make their way into Raqqa until about 655–8. The Byzantine government may have seen the area as just temporarily in rebellion. Byzantine coinage probably continued to circulate

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region to the Raqqa area. However most of the tribe was returned to their original home as a result of diseases among their cattle and frequent deaths due to the Raqqa climate. In the mid-18th century, the Ottomans recognised the Kurdish tribal chiefs and appointed Mahmud Kalash Abdi as head of the

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Stylistically, like the mosque of al-Rafiqah, the palace complex contains decorative features typical of pre-Islamic Syria. These include stucco friezes depicting vine "scrolls", as well as the "use of decoration to emphasize key architectural features". This indicates that the builders were taking

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When Harun al-Rashid made Raqqa his capital, he built a whole "palace city" to the north of the main city. During the 12 years he resided here, it was built up to an area of 15 square kilometers. Like al-Rafiqah, this area has been almost completely obliterated by new housing construction since the

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At the western end of the street, right outside the Bab al-Sibal, there was a 200x200m square compound which was probably built during the Samarran period. It featured two rows of small rooms on different levels that were probably rows of shops. There was also some construction to the north of this

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Gate. Its basic layout is "a tower gate with a rectangular room and a deep entrance niche". The structure is 18 metres (59 feet) tall, with a ramp on the west side leading up to the top. The gateway was built from stone up to a height of about 2m (above that it was built from brick), while the door

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Now under Fatimid protection, the Numayrids reached the height of their power. Substantial amounts of Fatimid money were probably transferred into Mani's coffers at this point, which allowed him to undertake major construction projects in his cities and thus present himself as the only urban ruler

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for the palace guard. It had several identical rooms to serve as living quarters, while the commander of the guards had a central room flanked by three connected courtyards. Excavation at the barracks unearthed "a group of particularly luxurious glass vessels", indicating the high living standards

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When al-Muhtariqa finally declined and became abandoned is not clear. Physical evidence includes coins, as late as 825–6 at Tall Aswad and 840–1 at Tall Zujaj, and pottery remains, which at both sites include fragments of the so-called "Samarra ware" in the upper layers, so activity at those sites

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Still, about 2,660 metres (8,730 feet) of the original 4,580 metres (15,030 feet)-long city walls remain today, indicating the massive scale of al-Rafiqah's fortifications. The 6.20m-thick walls themselves consisted of mud brick on a stone foundation, and their exterior was further reinforced by a

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to be used for domestic and agricultural purposes, as well as to supply the palace gardens with water. Meanwhile, the influx of residents generated plenty of demand for food, goods, and services, stimulating the economy and resulting in intensified activity in Raqqa's rural hinterland. Rural towns

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The growth of the city led to the destruction or removal of much of the archaeological remains of the city's past. The palace area is now almost covered with settlements, as is the former area of the ancient al-Raqqa (today Mishlab) and the former Abbasid industrial district (today al-Mukhtalţa).

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East of the Qasr as-Salam is a series of three smaller palaces, each one featuring courtyards, triple audience halls, and small private mosques. These were probably the residences of Harun al-Rashid's family members or close associates. A fresco inscription found in the westernmost of these three

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The settlement of al-Muhtariqa probably began in 785, when the city's governor Ali ibn Sulayman transferred Raqqa's market from Raqqa/Kallinikos to somewhere between it and al-Rafiqah. Before then, this area had been used for agriculture. Later, al-Muhtariqa was expanded when Harun al-Rashid made

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The al-Rafiqah mosque represents an important step in the history of mosque architecture. Earlier mosques had mostly been repurposed from earlier pre-Muslim structures, like the Great Mosque of Damascus, or featured a very rudimentary design, such as the original mosque at Baghdad. The al-Rafiqah

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Although al-Rafiqah covered a much smaller area than the round city of Baghdad (less than half), it was much more heavily fortified because of its location close to the Byzantine frontier. The walls of al-Rafiqah were built a meter thicker than Baghdad's, and it had more (and larger) defensive

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At the end of October 2017, the government of Syria issued a statement that said: "Syria considers the claims of the United States and its so-called alliance about the liberation of Raqqa city from ISIS to be lies aiming to divert international public opinion from the crimes committed by this

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Uways has also been considered a mediator for Raqqawis, especially during unsolved cases of theft or valuable objects disappearing. In such cases, there would be ritual procession involving a large copper cup, called the "Uways Cup", covered by a green sheet and carried by a public crier (or

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viewed himself as the legitimate heir to his father's lands, including Raqqa. By 1056, he had become an adult and gained power as sole Numayrid amir. He sent a demand to Thimal requesting that Raqqa be handed over to him; Thimal refused, and in April 1056 war broke out between the two sides.

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Church of the Martyrs, which was then converted into an ISIL police headquarters and an Islamic centre, tasked to recruit new fighters. The Christian population of Raqqa, which had been estimated to be as much as 10% of the total population before the civil war began, largely fled the city.

1017:, the city's governor, moved the market from the old city of Raqqa to the agricultural land between the two cities. This probably marks the start of al-Muhtariqa, the industrial and commercial suburb located between the two (see below). (The old market, associated with the Umayyad caliph 1279:. The wall, as visible in old aerial photographs, did not cover the industrial sites north of Raqqa/Kallinikos, leaving them unprotected. Stefan Heidemann suggested that this may have been because those areas were exclusively used for industry, with no houses and no valuables to loot. 1412:

wrote that the Euphrates sometimes froze further north. Archaeologists have not found evidence of this port, but it may have been south of al-Muhtariqa on the bank of the Euphrates because this would have been a convenient location close to the city's main commercial center. Based on

1399:, which indicates that either the monastery was only partly burned down, or that it had already been rebuilt. This monastery was probably replaced later on by the "mosque suspended on columns", as al-Muqaddasi called it. This may have been the congregational mosque of al-Muhtariqa. 2202:

for subsequent studies in the Netherlands. As the original tablets were looted, those moulds became the only evidence of parts of the 12th century BC in Northern Syria. Having a lifespan of roughly thirty years, the moulds proved not be a durable solution, hence the need for

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holding an estimated 3,500 bodies was discovered below a plot of farmland in the Al-Fukheikha agricultural suburb. It was the largest mass grave discovered post-ISIL rule thus far. The bodies were reported to be the victims of executions when ISIL ruled the city.

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runs northeast toward the northwest corner of Raqqa/Kallinikos, where it probably converged with the 1st and 3rd streets. As for the 5th street, it goes southeast, cutting through the Siffin cemetery and passing by the southwest corner of Raqqa/Kallinikos.

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Raqqa appears to have remained an important regional center under Umayyad rule. The Umayyads invested in agriculture in the region, expanding the amount of irrigated farmland and setting the stage for an "economic blossoming" during and after their rule.

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Separate from this palace city and just outside the north gate of al-Rafiqah, there was a 160x130m rectangular building that also had a double enclosure. This may have actually been built earlier than the more monumental complexes further northeast.

1586:(military slave) governors. During this period of Bedouin rule, the area of settled agriculture shrank while the area allocated to Bedouin pastures grew, and trade routes linking various cities, towns, and villages were threatened by Bedouin raids. 852:

bishops from the 8th to the 12th centuries), and it had at least four monasteries, of which the Saint Zaccheus Monastery remained the most prominent one. The city's Jewish community also survived until at least the 12th century, when the traveller

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Abbasid Raqqa had an important river port, which played a vital role in trade and communications. Raqqa's location was ideal for a river port on the upper Euphrates – it was ice-free throughout the year, whereas the early 14th century author

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The 3rd street starts further south, from the unnamed Gate #2 on the east side of al-Rafiqah. It crosses the 2nd street and probably converged with the 1st street at the northwestern corner of Raqqa/Kallinikos, where there was likely a gate.

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Heidemann, Stefan (2002). "Die Renaissance der Städte in Nordsyrien und Nordmesopotamien. Städtische Entwicklung und wirtschaftliche Bedingungen in ar-Raqqa und Harran von der Zeit der beduinischen Vorherrschaft bis zu den Seldschuken".

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After capturing the largest, the Armenian Catholic Martyrs Church, ISIS removed its crosses, hung black flags from its façade and converted it into an Islamic center that screens videos of battles and suicide operations to recruit new

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from northern Syria was traded in Raqqa and then shipped downstream to Iraq and the Gulf. One passage written by al-Tanukhi recorded a merchant from Baghdad named al-Marwazi (d. 909 or 910) who speculated in olive oil prices at Raqqa.

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According to Julian Henderson, Raqqa is one of the earliest places where an important shift in glassmaking technology occurred at the turn of the 9th century (i.e. around 800). Before, glassmakers had been using mineral alkali as a

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calling out for anyone who knew anything about the theft or missing object was "called upon, by the Uways Cup, to inform me of it or to return it". During these processions, the entire city would be regarded as a sacred space.

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Further north of Tall Aswad was the Dayr al-Zakkā monastery, which was built on top of the ancient settlement mound now called Tall al-Bī'a. This was the most important monastery in the city and the symbol of Christian Raqqa.

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At least at the beginning of the construction work on al-Rafiqah, the indigenous residents of Raqqa were hostile to the military settlement – they expected a rise in their own cost of living. The newcomers were soldiers from

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turned out to be a good compromise between time-efficiency, accuracy and text recovery. Accurate digital 3D reconstructions of the original clay tablets were created using the CT data of the silicon moulds. Furthermore, the

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However, the Global Coalition's funding of the stabilization of the region has been limited, and the Coalition has stated that any large scale aid will be halted until a peace agreement for the future of Syria through the

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also recorded this shift over a century later. During Raqqa's rapid growth in the late 20th century, al-Rafiqah was almost completely built over with new construction, and today almost nothing remains of the Abbasid city.

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West of the Bab al-Hajarayn was the mosque called the Masjid al-Janā'iz, also called the Mashhad al-Janā'iz. This building is still unlocated. Its existence is known from the 10th until the 13th centuries. According to

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Bilad al-Sham During the 'Abbasid Period (132 AH/750 AD – 451 AH/1059 AD). Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference for the History of the Bilad al-Sham 7–11 Sha'ban 1410 AH/4–8 March 1990, English and French

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or purifying agent in the glassmaking process. Around 800, though, Raqqawi glassmakers switched to using plant ashes, which were readily available and much cheaper to obtain. On top of that, the plant ashes contained

2759:. Beginning in 1988 and completed in 2005, an Iranian project oversaw the construction of two new mosques to replace the tombs, making them the largest Shi'i mausoleums in Syria. The Uways mosque was blown up by the 1564:(d. 899), as quoted by Yaqut; he visited Raqqa in 884-5 and wrote that parts of its walls were in ruins at the time. However, the markets and presumably the industrial areas of al-Muhtariqa were still in use then. 4749: 4275:

Heidemann, Stefan (2011). "The Agricultural Hinterland of Baghdad, al-Raqqa and Samarra': Settlement Patterns in the Diyar Muḍar". In Borrut, A.; Debié, M.; Papaconstantinou, A.; Pieri, D.; Sodini, J.-P. (eds.).

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With one notable exception, the Numayrid rulers were essentially Bedouin nomads by lifestyle. They had no interest in cities except as sources of income to be exploited. They resided at nomadic camps (called a

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silver coins uninterrupted until at least 934–5. No coins from anywhere in the region have been found for the rest of the 10th century, but some sporadic, debased coins from 11th-century Raqqa have been found.

3626:"Périple de Marcien d'Héraclée, Épitome d'Artemidore, Isidore de Charax, etc., ou, Supplément aux dernières éditions des Petits géographes: d'après un manuscrit grec de la Bibliothèque Royale, avec une carte" 4572: 5869: 1351:, or "palace of peace", mentioned in historical sources. This building's original floorplan has been obscured by later construction, but some of its ornate decoration survived to indicate its importance. 1252:, or "the burning Raqqa", probably because of all the thick smoke coming from pottery kilns and glass furnaces. This smoke may have affected Raqqa/Kallinikos and influenced its decline. It appears that 790:

In the last years before it came under Muslim rule, Kallinikos was as important as any other urban center in the region, and based on the physical area that it covered it was only slightly smaller than

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The central palace of Harun al-Rashid is located about 1 km northeast of al-Rafiqah. Here, a large 340x270m building set in a double garden enclosure probably represents the remains of the

5476: 5001: 4724: 6400: 4175: 4161:"Settlement Patterns, Economic Development and Archaeological Coin Finds in Bilad al-Sham: the Case of the Diyar Mudar - The Process of Transformation from the 6th to the 10th Century A.D." 2707:

John George Chedid (1980.10.13 – 1994.02.19) as Auxiliary Bishop of Saint Maron of Brooklyn of the Maronites (USA) (1980.10.13 – 1994.02.19); laer first Eparch (Bishop) of its daughter see

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of potential customers. In the second half of the 10th century, Raqqa appears to have been eclipsed by Harran as the main city in the region based on mint activity and literary references.

844:. The treaty allowed them freedom of worship in their existing churches but forbade the construction of new ones. The city retained an active Christian community well into the Middle Ages ( 6348: 5809: 1129:

flourished and reached their peak size. The surrounding countryside at this time was "one of the richest agricultural areas of the empire, with an extensive system of irrigation canals".

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Uways al-Qarani is an important religious figure in Raqqa, and could be called the city's "patron saint". East of the main city, between the Bab Baghdad and the Siffin cemetery, a large

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Ababsa, Myriam (20 September 2010). "Chapitre 1. " Politique des chefs " en Jazîra et " politique des notables " à Raqqa : La naissance d'une ville de front pionnier (1865-1946)".

1813:, there were many families in Raqqa that still belonged to the Mîlan tribe such as Khalaf Al-Qasim, Al-Jado, Al-Hani and Al-Shawakh. They claimed the area west of the Ottoman garrison. 7183: 7059: 5065: 6711: 982:

Although al-Mansur had conceived the vision for al-Rafiqah in 770–1, it wasn't until the next year that construction actually started. The caliph sent his son and eventual successor

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The north gate of al-Rafiqah, excavated and partly rebuilt in the 1990s, is the earliest surviving city gate from the Abbasid period. Its name was probably the Bāb Ḥarrān, or the

1144:. It had "almost rectangular" walls, although their entire extent is not known. Where the gates were located is also unknown. This area had a predominantly indigenous population. 7111: 6269: 1896:

boom stimulated unprecedented growth in the city and the recultivation of this part of the middle Euphrates area. Cotton is still the main agricultural product of the region.

1602: 1479:, which lowered the melting temperature for the glass furnaces, reducing production costs even further. Henderson connects this technological change with the famous alchemist 5666: 535:

and then by the Islamic State. ISIS made the city its capital in 2014. As a result, the city was hit by airstrikes from the Syrian government, Russia, the United States, and

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inspiration from previous local styles. The resulting style of Abbasid Raqqa is a transition between pre-Islamic styles and later Abbasid ones, such as the architecture of

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Harun al-Rashid also invested in the water supply in Raqqa. Under his rule, canals were dug along the Euphrates and Balikh rivers; they brought water from the area around

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wrote to Theodosius, pointing out he was thereby "exposing the bishop to the danger of either acting against the truth or of death", and Theodosius rescinded his decree.

840:, or "the morass", after its marshy surroundings at the time. At the surrender of the city, the Christian inhabitants concluded a treaty with Ibn Ghanm that is quoted by 8710: 7141: 7064: 4801: 6561: 4746: 2101: 2074: 1205:, to renovate the Bāb Qinnasrīn in his capital. It was then destroyed when the Mongols captured Aleppo in 1260, and its fragments were then taken by the Mamluk sultan 5117: 1267:

Eventually a wall was built on the north side of al-Muhtariqa, probably to protect the central commercial district from Bedouin raids. This is probably the wall that

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to enter the areas under its rule, including in the area of Raqqa as part of a deal to prevent Turkish troops from capturing any more territory in northern Syria.

1490:(shipment point) where food and goods from northern Syria and Mesopotamia were shipped to before then being exported to Baghdad and the rest of Iraq. For example, 1140:

The name "Raqqa" was used both for the entire urban sprawl, or more specifically for the old city of Raqqa aka Kallinikos. The old city was also known by the name

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several imaging technologies were explored to find the best solution to capture the precious texts hidden within the concavities of the moulds. In the end, the

1633:, who supported the Fatimids, had been driven out of Baghdad in December 1055 by the Seljuks and was now continuing anti-Seljuk operations from his new base at 7178: 6997: 6719: 906:) are in Raqqa and have become sites of pilgrimage. The city also contained a column with Ali's autograph, but it was removed in the 12th century and taken to 7372: 2771:

They would return four months later to recollect them. According to elderly Raqqawis, nobody dared take other people's belongings lest they anger the saint.

1614: 1590: 1421:'s visit to Raqqa under Harun al-Rashid, it seems that the port of Raqqa was separated from the city proper by a checkpoint and a "poor, simple guesthouse" ( 1228:, but an archaeological sounding revealed that this renovation did not change the basic structure, so its origins can be firmly dated to the Abbasid period. 744:

fought between the two empires. By treaty, the city was recognized as one of the few official cross-border trading posts between the two empires, along with

6886: 6374: 4939: 3510: 2811:

published a book about her move from Paris to the besieged city in 2015, where she was lured to perform hospital work, and her subsequent escape from ISIL.

1621:

Ultimately, though, it was diplomacy that ended up bringing Raqqa back under Mani's control. While this was all happening, conflict was brewing between the

1044:. The palace area of Raqqa covered an area of about 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) north of the twin cities. One of the founding fathers of the 759:

in 531 between Romans and Sasanians, when the latter tried to invade the Roman territories, surprisingly via arid regions in Syria, to turn the tide of the

7367: 7173: 7168: 1769:'Afadla tribal confederation and was little more than its extensive archeological remains. It was the establishment in 1864 by the Ottomans of the Karakul 6224: 2342:

was informed that a crowd of Christians, led by their bishop, had destroyed the synagogue. He ordered the synagogue rebuilt at the expense of the bishop.

7188: 7101: 7091: 5563: 5410: 2708: 990:

indicates that workmen were brought from all over Mesopotamia to work on the construction, hinting at the monumental scale of this project. According to

2135:

On 7 February 2019, the SDF media center announced the capture of 63 ISIL operatives in the city. According to the SDF, the operatives were a part of a

1483:, who is known to have had an interest in glassmaking at around the same time, indicating that he may have been a resident of Raqqa during this period. 7121: 7086: 6982: 4769: 4636: 1315:, the Masjid al-Jana'iz was founded by a descendant of Muhammad named Abu Abdallah, a Khorasani who lived by the Bab al-Hajarayn near the city's moat. 1014: 5472: 7081: 7027: 7007: 6992: 4993: 4831: 2100:

By June 2019, 300,000 residents had returned to the city, including 90,000 IDPs, and many shops in the city had reopened. Through the efforts of the

318: 313: 6129: 6105: 4720: 8705: 7247: 7022: 2583: 2224: 1817: 1193:'s newly built palace. This door then supposedly found its way to Raqqa sometime later during the 9th century, before then being removed in 964 by 6396: 5692: 5276: 4160: 7279: 7264: 7002: 5354: 3532: 3438: 2307:

bishops from the 8th to the 12th centuries—and had at least four monasteries, of which the Saint Zaccheus Monastery remained the most prominent.

2159: 6340: 5801: 2587: 8735: 6698: 6616: 6529: 6505: 6083: 5995: 5250: 7377: 7340: 7330: 7274: 4606: 2319: 2265: 1459: 7126: 7106: 7037: 6744: 5718: 4690: 1032:

chose Raqqa/al-Rafiqah as his imperial residence. For about 13 years, Raqqa was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, which stretched from

5172: 4366:"Numayrid ar-Raqqa: Archaeological and Historical Evidence for a 'Dimorphic State' in the Bedouin Dominated Fringes of the Fatimid Empire" 2792:

The Islamic State banned all media reporting outside its own efforts, kidnapping and killing journalists. However, a group calling itself

1954:

and declared it under their control, after they had taken the central square and pulled down the statue of the former president of Syria,

8700: 7392: 7131: 7017: 6977: 6967: 6918: 5771: 2557: 1613:

governor of Raqqa appointed by her brothers al-Muta'in and al-Qawam, who now shared power as Numayrid amirs. However, Shabib's young son

6053: 5589: 5302: 5224: 5146: 3898: 1303:, considered the "patron saint" of Raqqa; his tomb survived until the late 20th century when it was torn down and replaced with the new 143: 7259: 7096: 7012: 6583: 5198: 1843:

downstream. It included several Arab tribes of the Al-Bu Badran and Mawali tribes. They claimed the area east of the Ottoman garrison.

1220:, in contrast with the flat-roofed Baghdad mosque, showing an influence from earlier Umayyad mosque architecture in Syria, such as the 979:– the first in the world to be built from scratch on "a coherent, integrated plan" and a major influence on later mosque architecture. 7414: 7345: 7269: 7163: 7032: 2689: 1089: 776: 6266: 5894:

Scanning for Syria. Reconstruction and enhanced reality of Assyrian clay tablets (1200 BC) recently stolen from Raqqa Museum, Syria.

5532: 5380: 2252:

in Heidelberg dramatically decreased the time for decipherment of a tablet by automatically computing high quality images using the

7136: 7069: 6291: 5658: 3557: 2697: 2029: 1833: 1430: 544: 6513:

Meinecke, Michael (1991) . "Early Abbasid Stucco Decoration in Bilad al-Sham". In Muhammad Adnan al-Bakhit – Robert Schick (ed.).

1013:

By 785, the old market of Raqqa had probably become physically too small to serve the needs of both it and al-Rafiqah. That year,

6896: 5831: 5502: 5049: 4215: 2693: 2077:

led to the destruction of most of the city, including civilian infrastructure. Some 270,000 people were said to have fled Raqqa.

763:. The Persians won the battle, but the casualties on both sides were high. In 542, the city was destroyed by the Persian Emperor 6202: 6178: 1997:

and other inhabited places to the city occurred as a result of the ongoing civil war in the country, and Raqqa was known as the

8715: 6026: 2293:, the 'monastery of the column'. The city became one of the main cities of the historical Diyār Muḍar, the western part of the 5956: 5432: 4791: 212: 8354: 6541: 6477: 6157: 5328: 4439: 4287: 3667: 2104:

and the Raqqa Civil Council, several public hospitals and schools have been reopened, public buildings like the stadium, the

1642: 524:

from 2014 to 2017. With a population of 531,952 based on the 2021 official census, Raqqa is the sixth largest city in Syria.

4480:

Winter, Stefan (2006). "The Other Nahdah: The Bedirxans, the Millîs, and the Tribal Roots of Kurdish Nationalism in Syria".

3874: 3629: 6309: 6065: 5110: 3468: 2677: 2629: 2576: 1974: 1093: 4427: 2610: 2139:

and were all arrested within a 24-hour time span, ending the day-long curfew that was imposed on the city the day before.

1785:

feared attacks from other neighboring tribes on their herds. As a result, these families formed two alliances. One joined

1132:

After the return of the court to Baghdad in 809, Raqqa remained the capital of the western part of the Abbasid Caliphate.

8725: 6591:

Meinecke, Michael (1996). "Forced Labor in Early Islamic Architecture: The Case of ar-Raqqa/ar-Rafiqa on the Euphrates".

3410: 2793: 2618: 2539: 2498: 2472: 2461: 1821:

iskân policy in the region. The tribal chiefs had the power to impose taxes and control over other tribes in the region.

1754:

detachment; over the next decades the province of al-Raqqah became the centre of the Ottoman Empire's tribal settlement (

6428: 1738:, which is about 160 kilometres (99 mi) north of Raqqa. In the 17th century the famous Ottoman traveler and author 6468: 5934: 5740: 5612: 4962: 3472: 2502: 536: 4913: 4887: 1541:

in the 940s, the city declined rapidly. From the late 10th century to the early 12th century, Raqqa was controlled by

6600: 6555: 6492:

The Near East in Antiquity. German Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon and Egypt II

5066:

Raqqa: Isis 'capital' liberated by US-backed forces - but civilians face months of hardship with city left devastated

4857: 4531: 3868: 2553: 2524: 1645:

met with Mani' to secure his support for the Fatimids. In return, al-Basasiri handed over control of Raqqa to Mani'.

1593:

in 1039–40, Raqqa and its surrounding fertile pastures became the center of a conflict between the Numayrids and the

6643:

Ababsa, Myriam (2002). "Les mausolées invisibles: Raqqa, ville de pèlerinage ou pôle étatique en Jazîra syrienne?".

6490:(1991). "Raqqa on the Euphrates. Recent Excavations at the Residence of Harun er-Rashid". In Kerner, Susanne (ed.). 5025: 4537: 2595: 2438:

In 1962 it was suppressed, to establish immediately the Episcopal Titular bishopric of Callinicum of the Maronites (

1355:

palaces names the caliph al-Mu'tasim, who was one of Harun al-Rashid's sons; this may date from a later renovation.

7116: 4118: 2714:

Samir Mazloum (1996.11.11 – ...), as Bishop of Curia of the Maronites (2000 – retired 2011.08.13) and on emeritate.

566:(SDF, a coalition fighting the government) declared the liberation of Raqqa from the Islamic State to be complete. 6892:

al-Raqqa at the Euphrates: Urbanity, Economy and Settlement Pattern in the Middle Abbasid Period – Jena University

6891: 1066:). Only the small, restored so-called Eastern Palace at the fringes of the palace district gives an impression of 8720: 8690: 6911: 6370: 5891: 4935: 3500: 2513: 2506: 1561: 1520: 1332: 1021:, had been just north of the old city, outside the Bāb al-Ruhā' – near the later industrial site of Tall Aswad.) 176: 2796:

operated within the city and elsewhere during this period. In response, ISIL has killed members of the group. A

110: 7361: 6440: 6220: 2232: 2216: 2115: 1682: 1358:

Just south of the palace with al-Mu'tasim's name inscribed is a 150x150m square building that was probably the

1049: 653:, Nikephorion, alongside other cities like Anthemousias, was established by Macedonians and bore a Greek name. 521: 5555: 5402: 4293: 8169: 7407: 7043: 5458: 4373: 1525:

Raqqa's fortunes declined in the late 9th century because of continuous warfare between the Abbasids and the

865: 857:

visited it and attended its synagogue. At least during the Umayyad period, the city was also home to a small

4765: 4628: 898:

took place about 45 kilometres (28 mi) west of Raqqa. The tombs of several of Ali's followers (such as

768: 6624:

Meinecke, Michael (1996). "Ar-Raqqa am Euphrat: Imperiale und religiöse Strukturen der islamischen Stadt".

783:

scored a victory over the Persians near the city during his retreat from an abortive expedition to capture

417: 7422: 5899: 4827: 5090: 2801: 2253: 2045: 741: 6679:

Heidemann, Stefan (2005). "The Citadel of al-Raqqa and Fortifications in the Middle Euphrates Area". In

5966: 2779:) chosen by the wronged family. The procession would then go through all the streets of Raqqa, with the 2182:

and many other objects vanishing in the fog of war. A particular set of those tablets were excavated by

1750:

nomad tents in the vicinity of the ruins. The citadel was partially restored in 1683 and again housed a

1367:

circle. On the west side of the square was a building that included a small mosque facing the barracks.

7202: 6904: 6577: 6137: 5688: 5659:"Largest ISIS mass grave yet found outside Syria's Raqqa. 22 February 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2019" 5272: 4234: 2797: 1081: 994:, the plan of al-Rafiqah was basically the same as that of Baghdad: it was built with "the same gates, 501:, Syria's largest dam. The Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine city and bishopric Callinicum (formerly a 7208: 6126: 5862:"Scanning for Syria Project among the winners of 2020 European Heritage Awards / Europa Nostra Awards" 5350: 4083:"The History of the Industrial and Commercial Area of 'Abbāsid Al-Raqqa, Called Al-Raqqa Al-Muḥtariqa" 3430: 821: 8695: 6712:"The History of the Industrial and Commercial Area of 'Abbasid al-Raqqa Called al-Raqqa al-Muhtariqa" 2535: 1805:

families came from an area called ''Nahid Al-Jilab'', which is 20 kilometres (12 miles) northeast of

1606: 1024:

Raqqa and al-Rāfiqah merged into one urban complex, together larger than the former Umayyad capital,

41:"Nicephorium" and "Nikephorion" redirect here. For the town in ancient Osrhoene, now in Turkey, see 8685: 7400: 6078: 5987: 5246: 5088:

Foreign Ministry: Raqqa still occupied, can only be considered liberated when Syrian Army enters it

2261: 2095: 2066: 1816:

The Mîlan tribe had been in Raqqa since 1711. The Ottomans issued an order to deport them from the

1221: 1057: 1056:(judge) in Raqqa. The splendour of the court in Raqqa is documented in several poems, collected by 563: 435: 17: 6926: 6645: 4598: 2353:

in 451 and in 458 was a signatory of the letter that the bishops of the province wrote to Emperor

1657:

Raqqa experienced a second blossoming, based on agriculture and industrial production, during the

8559: 7430: 6826: 6821: 6808: 6790: 6772: 6593:

Patterns and Stylistic Changes in Islamic Architecture. Local Traditions Versus Migrating Artists

5097: 2494: 2358: 2326:

of the Ancient patriarchal see, which has several more rivals of Catholic and Orthodox churches.

2132:

IEDs. Some sporadic protests against the SDF have taken place in the city in the summer of 2018.

1758:) policy. Between 1800 and 1803, the province was governed by the famous Milli Timur Paşa of the 1466:

recorded glassmakers in Aleppo using minerals from Jabal Bishr as a colorant in the early 1200s.

1396: 1233: 1225: 682: 623: 5921:

Nieuwenhuyse, Olivier; Hiatlih, Khaled; al-Fakhri, Ayham; Haqi, Rasha; Ngan-Tillard, Dominique;

5714: 3860:

Patterns of Stylistic Changes in Islamic Architecture: Local Traditions versus Migrating Artists

2621:(Argentina) (1910.11.08 – 1923.06.11), again Bishop of Tucumán (1923.06.11 – retired 1928.12.17) 8219: 7710: 5168: 3526: 3405: 2824: 2304: 2294: 2070: 2059: 1951: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1850:

is housed in a building that was built in 1861 and served as an Ottoman governmental building.

1327:

Raqqa his capital, in order to serve the newly increased demand for luxury and everyday goods.

1304: 849: 657: 607: 559: 469: 373: 42: 6252: 5926: 5644: 1681:, who was killed in 1146, was initially buried in Raqqa, which was destroyed during the 1260s 1271:

built while he was governor, in the year following 1 October 815 according to the accounts of

8730: 7438: 6685:

Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria. From the Coming of Islam to the Ottoman Period

6047: 5585: 5298: 5220: 5142: 4209: 3662:. Hellenistic culture and society. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 85–86. 2552:(O.E.S.A.) (1883.03.15 – cardinalate 1891.12.14) as Roman Curia official : President of 2240: 2236: 2231:

technology to make high quality reproductions of the clay tablets. In collaboration with the

1790: 1685:. There is a report on the killing of the last inhabitants of the ruins of the city in 1288. 976: 551: 396: 262: 95: 5194: 2155:

in 1942. The National Hospital in Raqqa was reopened after rehabilitation work in May 2019.

2051:

Pro-government sources said that an anti-IS uprising took place between 5 and 7 March 2016.

1428:). Most of the boats used on this part of the Euphrates were probably light carriers called 8549: 3400: 2367: 2350: 2339: 2323: 2128: 1335:

in the 880s (see below), al-Muhtariqa was probably still active at least until that point.

1088:

Approximately 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) west of Raqqa lay the unfinished victory monument

1067: 962: 756: 406: 2668:

It has had the following incumbents, so far of the fitting Episcopal (lowest) rank :

2151:

over the Euphrates was finished. The bridge was originally built by British forces during

1248:

Between Raqqa and al-Rafiqah was a large commercial and industrial area, which was called

8: 8394: 7310: 7222: 5524: 5376: 4229: 3660:

The Hellenistic settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India

3387: 3381: 2692:(USA) (1966.01.27 – 1971.11.29); later promoted with that see as only Eparch (Bishop) of 2605:

Barnabé Piedrabuena (1928.12.17 – 1942.06.11) as emeritate; previously Titular Bishop of

2277: 2264:

to experience the ingenuity of Assyrian cuneiform writing. In 2020, the SfS received the

2119: 1825: 1798: 1747: 1554: 1268: 1237: 764: 630:, citing the advantageous location as the rationale behind its establishment. Similarly, 627: 7522: 6288: 4747:

As jihadist rebels burn two Catholic churches in al-Raqqah, Assad's enemies openly split

3549: 2743:

visitors, Raqqa has gained importance as a Shi'i pilgrimage destination (accessible via

2704:

of Saint Maron of Brooklyn of the Maronites (1982.12.10 – retired 1996.11.11); died 2010

2696:(USA) (1971.11.29 – 1977.06.27), restyled as that see moved to first Eparch (Bishop) of 1780:

The first families that settled in Raqqa were nicknamed ''The Ghul'' by the surrounding

1641:

and on the way captured Raqqa from Thimal's forces. At the same time, the Fatimid envoy

579:

The area of Raqqa has been inhabited since remote antiquity, as attested by the mounds (

8269: 8229: 7531: 6803: 6736: 6707: 6692: 6610: 6523: 6499: 5473:"Syria Crisis: Northeast Syria Situation Report No. 30 (1 November - 14 December 2018)" 4796: 4110: 4102: 3369: 3351: 2445:

It has had the following incumbents, all of the fitting episcopal (lowest) rank :

2362: 2354: 2300: 2073:

on 6 June 2017 and declared victory in the city on 17 October 2017. Bombardment by the

1630: 1516: 1272: 854: 845: 804: 646: 599: 580: 274: 5046: 2800:

made by RBSS was released internationally in 2017, premiering and winning an award at

693:

in the mid-first century BCE, Nikephorion was among the Greek poleis that backed him.

8569: 8489: 8429: 8334: 8009: 6934: 6864: 6859: 6740: 6596: 6551: 6473: 6463: 6436: 6240: 6199: 6170: 6153: 6061: 5632: 5452: 4527: 4435: 4283: 4114: 3864: 3663: 3287: 2728: 2701: 2453: 2424: 2412: 2311: 2212: 2199: 2033: 1874: 1774: 1678: 1622: 1471: 1454:

industry at Raqqa, which is connected to the glass industry because both make use of

1157: 1097: 986:

to personally supervise the construction of the new city that year. The chronicle of

958: 926: 922: 808: 780: 714: 686: 635: 631: 532: 513: 506: 291: 267: 6018: 2004: 1189:. This door was then installed at the Bāb al-'Āmma, the main entrance to the caliph 8514: 8214: 8044: 7700: 7635: 7630: 6728: 6658: 6537: 6487: 6310:"I went to join Isis in Syria, taking my four-year-old. It was a journey into hell" 5962: 4489: 4094: 2820: 2756: 2685: 2673: 2654: 2457: 2380: 2163: 1939: 1935: 1810: 1698: 1546: 1480: 1296: 1106: 1007: 987: 884: 733: 528: 5689:"International Organisations Rebuild Houses In Raqqa As Part Of 'Shelter Project'" 5324: 2020:

ISIL took complete control of Raqqa by 13 January 2014. ISIL proceeded to execute

2012: 1901: 1739: 1674: 1665:

dynasties during the 12th and the first half of the 13th century. The blue-glazed

1580:) in the pasture outside the cities and delegated administration of the cities to 1458:. Minerals used as colorants in glassmaking or glazing pottery may have come from 8519: 8509: 8359: 8204: 8049: 7999: 7765: 7755: 7750: 6876: 6680: 6295: 6273: 6206: 6133: 6109: 6100: 6087: 6057: 5094: 5072: 5053: 5033: 5029: 4753: 3907: 3858: 3625: 3375: 2752: 2748: 2658: 2650: 2628:(O.F.M.) (born Spain) (1942.11.21 – 1962.01.22) on emeritate as former Bishop of 2561: 2392: 2365:. Callinicum had a Bishop Ioannes in the mid-6th century. In the same century, a 2195: 2191: 2025: 1662: 1503: 1463: 1300: 1186: 1062: 1033: 1029: 903: 899: 737: 717: 690: 643: 619: 517: 490: 460: 364: 4660:"Under the black flag of al-Qaeda, the Syrian city ruled by gangs of extremists" 8680: 8284: 8144: 8139: 8124: 7994: 7939: 6947: 4279:

Le Proche-Orient de Justinien aux Abbasides: Peuplement et Dynamiques Spatiales

3505: 2545: 2404: 2183: 1955: 1947: 1715: 1658: 1212:

Al-Rafiqah itself was laid out on a north–south axis, roughly aligned with the

1190: 869: 833: 771:

its population to Persia, but it was subsequently rebuilt by Byzantine Emperor

725: 706: 279: 6816: 6798: 6780: 6762: 6732: 4493: 4098: 8674: 8649: 8639: 8599: 8529: 8474: 8399: 8329: 8314: 8249: 8189: 8159: 7954: 7924: 7859: 7809: 7054: 4428:"The Shi'i Mausoleums of Raqqa: Iranian prosetylism and local significations" 3169: 2808: 2767: 2760: 2089: 1959: 1943: 1863: 1677:(Castle of the Ladies) are notable buildings of the period. The famous ruler 1626: 1605:

was given Raqqa as an inheritance; through her marriage to the Mirdasid amir

1194: 227: 214: 91: 5475:. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 14 December 2018. 4879: 2471:

Anton Johann Wenzel Wokaun (1748.09.16 – 1757.02.07) as Auxiliary Bishop of

2423:

No later than the 18th century, the diocese was nominally restored as Latin

2310:

In the 9th century, when Raqqa served as capital of the western half of the

2048:

two days earlier, dropped about 20 bombs on multiple ISIL targets in Raqqa.

8644: 8544: 8484: 8479: 8439: 8369: 8364: 8319: 8254: 8119: 8099: 8079: 8024: 7914: 7899: 7894: 7869: 7829: 7665: 7640: 7610: 7590: 7545: 7291: 7285: 7242: 6767: 6341:"Les femmes djihadistes étrangères se comportent comme des colons en Syrie" 6276: 5586:"Despite ISIS' Destructive Legacy, Raqqa Experiences Peace Post-Liberation" 2625: 2549: 2520: 2204: 2152: 2136: 2105: 1950:, and other groups overran the government loyalists in the city during the 1847: 1707: 1276: 1253: 1118: 1037: 841: 826: 702: 32: 6763:"After the fall of ISIS caliphate, its capital remains a city of the dead" 5927:"Focus Raqqa: Schutz für das archäologische Erbe des Museums von ar-Raqqa" 4853: 4526:. Contemporain publications. Beyrouth: Presses de l’Ifpo. pp. 25–66. 2411: : first as Latin - (meanwhile suppressed) and currently as Maronite 1806: 1538: 1295:

Bāb al-Hajarayn. This gate led to a cemetery where people who died in the

8614: 8609: 8524: 8409: 8384: 8339: 8294: 8129: 8109: 8054: 7989: 7959: 7884: 7874: 7740: 7705: 7560: 7502: 7462: 7350: 7335: 5922: 5802:"New map of northern Syria after Turkish offensive and SDF-SAA agreement" 5022: 4721:"Syria, anti-Assad rebel infighting leaves 700 dead, including civilians" 4521: 2575:

Pasquale de Siena (1898.09.23 – death 1920.11.25) as Auxiliary Bishop of

2483: 2449:

Matthaeus de Robertis (1729.07.06 – death 1733) (born Italy) no prelature

2396: 2257: 2228: 2175: 1638: 1637:

nearby. In October 1057, al-Basasiri went north up the Euphrates towards

1550: 1491: 1414: 1409: 1391:

A second important monastery was the so-called Monastery of the Columns (

1312: 921:

The strategic importance of Raqqa grew during the wars at the end of the

895: 880: 772: 760: 678: 584: 509: 4466:

Stefan Winter, "The Province of Raqqa under Ottoman Rule, 1535–1800" in

4106: 4082: 2538:(C.O.) (1879.05.12 – death 1883.01.19) on emeritate as former Bishop of 1609:, the city and its territory came under Mirdasid control She ousted the 1487: 1331:

must have continued at least until that period. Based on the account of

8659: 8619: 8604: 8589: 8434: 8374: 8264: 8259: 8184: 8149: 8039: 7944: 7854: 7839: 7804: 7775: 7770: 7600: 7585: 7507: 7472: 7323: 7235: 7147: 6972: 6657: 3363: 2724: 2645:

In 1962 the simultaneously suppressed Latin Titular see of Callinicum (

2143: 2055: 1977:

said that it was open to receive complaints at its Raqqa headquarters.

1886: 1885:

in the 1920s. Armenians have since then formed the majority of Raqqa's

1840: 1666: 1534: 1451: 1423: 1122: 1101: 2512:

Godehard Braun (1849.04.02 – death 1861.05.22) as Auxiliary Bishop of

1926: 1703: 27:

This article is about the city in Syria. For the town in Tunisia, see

8654: 8634: 8404: 8349: 8299: 8224: 8174: 8164: 8154: 8074: 8029: 7984: 7979: 7969: 7904: 7834: 7760: 7730: 7720: 7715: 7625: 7605: 7595: 7540: 6987: 5351:"Irrigation Canals In Raqqa Provide Water To 10,000 Hectares Of Land" 5195:"Raqqa Civil Council Rehabilitates Schools For The New Academic Year" 4594: 2614: 2565: 2528: 2400: 2391:

No longer a residential bishopric, Callinicum has been listed by the

2372: 2315: 2285: 2179: 1870: 1770: 1751: 1726:(province) of Raqqa was created in 1586. However, the capital of the 1719: 1714:

In the 16th century, Raqqa again entered the historical record as an

1594: 1495: 1476: 1418: 1010:, in contrast to the Christians and Arabs who lived in the old city. 991: 968: 813: 784: 498: 387: 85: 2598:(Albania) (1928.06.13 – 1935.10.30), emeritate as Titular Bishop of 2361:. In 518 Paulus was deposed for having joined the anti-Chalcedonian 1765:

From the 1820s, Raqqa was a place of wintering for the semi-nomadic

8579: 8574: 8564: 8554: 8534: 8449: 8424: 8379: 8324: 8304: 8289: 8274: 8244: 8234: 8209: 8134: 8104: 8094: 8069: 8014: 7964: 7934: 7929: 7879: 7814: 7785: 7680: 7492: 7452: 7355: 7253: 6785: 4277: 2599: 2490: 1966: 1859: 1694: 1634: 1526: 1447: 1359: 1198: 1126: 1073: 1025: 983: 934: 873: 792: 749: 710: 660:(r. 246–225 BC), enlarged the city and renamed it after himself as 618:). There are two versions regarding the establishment of the city. 4365: 1866:

were granted lands west of the Abbasid enclosure by the Ottomans.

8539: 8504: 8499: 8459: 8444: 8414: 8309: 8279: 8194: 8064: 8034: 8004: 7974: 7949: 7909: 7889: 7844: 7795: 7780: 7735: 7695: 7685: 7675: 7670: 7660: 7655: 7580: 7575: 7487: 6267:

Airstrikes have become routine for people in Raqqa, says activist

5377:"Raqqa Stadium: From ISIS Prison To Centre Of Sports In The City" 4828:"Armenian Catholic Church of the Martyrs | WORLD News Group" 4599:"The Museum Of Raqqa Struggles To Recover Following ISIS Looting" 3894: 3892: 3863:. New York and London: New York University Press. pp. 1–22. 2763:

in May 2014 for being what they called a "pagan Iranian shrine".

2736: 2633: 2606: 2591: 2476: 2465: 2408: 2343: 2335: 2111: 2021: 1829: 1542: 1376: 1363:

enjoyed even by the lower-ranking members of the caliphal court.

1206: 1182: 1178: 1041: 938: 892: 858: 745: 650: 588: 445: 359: 286: 5920: 5715:"Syria: 200,000 People Are Using The Newly Rebuilt Raqqa Bridge" 4994:"Raqqa Offensive Against ISIS to Begin Within Weeks: Ash Carter" 2711:(East Coast of USA) (1994.02.19 – retired 2000.11.20), died 2012 2486:(O. Praem.) (born France) (1757.12.19 – death 1795) no prelature 1777:

enclosure, that led to the revival of the modern city of Raqqa.

1731: 1299:

were interred. The most important of the tombs here was that of

1092:

from the time of Harun al-Rashid. It is said to commemorate the

8629: 8584: 8494: 8469: 8464: 8454: 8419: 8389: 8239: 8199: 8179: 8089: 8059: 7824: 7745: 7725: 7690: 7650: 7645: 7620: 7570: 7555: 7550: 7512: 7447: 7075: 6846: 5866:

Leiden-Delft-Erasmus Centre for Global Heritage and Development

5299:"Local Authorities Rebuild Raqqa Bridge After ISIS Destruction" 4963:"Civilians rise up against ISIS rule in Raqqa City: government" 2744: 2681: 2376: 2221:

Leiden-Delft-Erasmus Centre for Global Heritage and Development

2187: 2041: 1986: 1970: 1893: 1882: 1794: 1723: 1598: 1582: 1577: 1455: 1202: 1173: 1045: 1018: 942: 907: 642:

includes Nikephorion in a list of settlements he attributes to

639: 592: 494: 413: 392: 28: 6472:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1094. 5247:"Civil Society In Raqqa, Syria, Tackles Extremism Among Youth" 5087: 3889: 832:

In the year 639 or 640, the city fell to the Muslim conqueror

8624: 8594: 8114: 8084: 8019: 7919: 7849: 7819: 7482: 7457: 7425: 6929: 6799:"Inside ISIS's Former Capital: The Forgotten People of Raqqa" 6687:. History of Warfare. Vol. 35. Leiden. pp. 122–150. 4523:

Raqqa, territoires et pratiques sociales d'une ville syrienne

3498: 2732: 2227:–KIEM Creatieve Industrie grant to use of 3D acquisition and 1994: 1802: 1786: 1781: 1759: 1560:

One of the earliest sources to comment on Raqqa's decline is

1443: 1217: 1213: 1113: 540: 502: 486: 255: 6548:

The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VIII: Ned–Sam

5958:

Scanning for Syria - digital book of cuneiform tablet T98-34

5556:"U.S.-backed forces announce three-day curfew in Raqqa city" 5143:"Hospital In Raqqa Treats Women And Children Free Of Charge" 31:. For the science fiction short film by Neill Blomkamp, see 8344: 7615: 7565: 7477: 7467: 6221:"Islamists bomb Shi'ite shrine in eastern Syria: activists" 5525:"One year after ISIS 'defeat', Syria's Raqqa still in fear" 5221:"Newly Rebuilt Hospital In Raqqa Is Now Welcoming Patients" 3347: 2740: 2032:

the city's Shia mosques and Christian churches such as the

1990: 1878: 1766: 1743: 1735: 1530: 1510: 1077: 1053: 946: 930: 548: 5169:"The First Functioning Hospital Opens In Raqqa After ISIS" 2090:

Control by Syrian Democratic Forces (October 2017–present)

7864: 6877:

Inscription of Raqqa on the World Heritage Tentative List

5554:

Al-Khalidi, Suleiman (24 June 2018). Chopra, Toby (ed.).

3589: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3366:, astronomer, astrologer and mathematician (c. 858 – 929) 2672:

Francis Mansour Zayek (1962.05.30 – 1971.11.29) as first

2523:(O.S.B. Silv.) (1863.09.22 – 1879.03.27) while Bishop of 2493:(O.S.M.) (born Italy) (1828.12.15 – death 1849.09.17) as 2169: 2001:

by some because of the number of people who moved there.

888: 574: 6339:

Saavedra, Laetitia; Duquesne, Margaux (8 January 2016).

5273:"Raqqa Municipality Begins Rebuilding Roads In The City" 3699: 3697: 2008:

capital of the Islamic State (January 2014–October 2017)

1958:. Raqqa was the first provincial capital to fall to the 1080:, late 12th–first half of the 13th century, from Raqqa. 638:, also credits its foundation to Alexander. Conversely, 6426: 5499:"100,000 Return to Raqqa as UN Aid Reaches Syrian City" 5111:"Ar-Raqqa Governorate Panoramic Report - December 2019" 5047:

Raqqa: US coalition 'wiped city off Earth', Russia says

1973:

court at the sports centre and in early June 2013, the

1307:. His name also became applied to the entire cemetery. 971:

made the decision to build a new garrison city, called

587:

and Tall al-Bi'a, the latter being identified with the

6720:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

6287:

British Broadcasting Corporation (28 December 2015) -

5433:"Progress in The City Of Raqqa, One Year On From ISIS" 5325:"Water crisis blights the lives of residents in Raqqa" 4792:"Life in a Jihadist Capital: Order With a Darker Side" 4087:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

3572: 3550:"Raqqa: IS 'capital' falls to US-backed Syrian forces" 728:Λεοντόπολις or "city of Leo") after him, but the name 4992:

NICHOLS, HANS; BRUTON, F. BRINLEY (26 October 2016).

3694: 2700:(USA) (1977.06.27 – 1982.12.10), personally promoted 2207:

to counter the loss of the originals. Therefore, the

554:, while others were converted into Sunni mosques. On 497:. It is located 40 kilometres (25 miles) east of the 6887:

Industrial Landscape Project – Nottingham University

6102:

Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus

2807:

In January 2016, a pseudonymous French author named

2617:) (1907.12.16 – 1910.11.08 - first time), Bishop of 2570:

Sacred Congregation of Indulgences and Sacred Relics

1256:

viewed this district as its own distinct city (i.e.

872:

in 1907, but has since vanished. Many companions of

732:

prevailed. The city played an important role in the

480: 474: 378: 6636:

Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts

5023:

The Islamic State Is Gone. But Raqqa Lies in Pieces

4912:. Syria Newsdesk. 26 September 2013. Archived from 4880:"Syrian activists flee abuse in al-Qaeda-run Raqqa" 2709:

Our Lady of Lebanon of Los Angeles of the Maronites

1839:The other alliance, Asharin, came from the town of 1824:Some of the Kurdish families were displaced to the 1629:(which Mani' was aligned with). The Turkic general 1224:. The al-Rafiqah mosque was renovated in 1165–6 by 864:Ibn Ghanm's successor as governor of Raqqa and the 836:. Since then, it has been known by the Arabic name 713:but had declined by the fourth century. Rebuilt by 8711:Populated places established in the 3rd century BC 6200:http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0378.htm 5980: 5116:. Assistance Coordination Unit. 24 December 2019. 4359: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4351: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4331: 4270: 4268: 4266: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4006: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3499:D. Remnick (22 November 2015) (22 November 2015). 2579:(Napels, southern Italy) (1898.09.23 – 1920.11.25) 2505:(Italy) (1829 – 1833), Apostolic Administrator of 2501:(Italy) (1829 – 1833), Apostolic Administrator of 2276:In the 6th century, Kallinikos became a center of 6218: 5967:10.4121/uuid:0bd4470b-a055-4ebd-b419-a900d3163c8a 5772:"Kurdish-Syrian Pact Scrambles Mideast Alliances" 4329: 4327: 4325: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3732: 2755:, two companions of Muhammad who died during the 2665:(Latin adjective) / Callinico (Curiate Italian). 2609:(1907.12.16 – 1910.11.08) as Auxiliary Bishop of 319:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria 8672: 6817:"Life Inside the ISIS Home Base of Raqqa, Syria" 6550:. Leiden and New York: BRILL. pp. 410–414. 6338: 6289:Anti-Islamic State journalist murdered in Turkey 5613:"Over 60 ISIS operatives captured in Raqqa city" 4854:"The Mysterious Fall of Raqqa, Syria's Kandahar" 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3712: 2334:Callinicum early became the seat of a Christian 1379:after it became the new Abbasid capital in 836. 929:. Raqqa lay on the crossroads between Syria and 6870: 5884: 5854: 5501:. Asharq Al-Awsat. 4 April 2018. Archived from 5439:. Archived from the original on 28 October 2018 4587: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4411: 2349:Bishop Damianus of Callinicum took part in the 2268:of the Europa Nostra in the category research. 2198:moulds of the tablets before the war to create 2160:2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria 1240:in Cairo also contain traces of its influence. 1040:, but the main administrative body remained in 767:(r. 531–579), who razed its fortifications and 6781:"An inside look at the former capital of ISIS" 6626:Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 4936:"France Drops 20 Bombs on IS Stronghold Raqqa" 4409: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4308: 4243: 4133: 3913: 2661:) as Titular bishopric of Callinicum (Latin), 2640: 562:that saw massive destruction to the city, the 7408: 6912: 6672:Raqqa III – Baudenkmäler und Paläste I, Mainz 6670:Daiber, Verena; Becker, Andrea, eds. (2004). 6023:NPNF2-10. Ambrose: Selected Works and Letters 5948: 4991: 4766:"Inside ISIS: 2 women go undercover in Raqqa" 3709: 3624:Heracleensis, Marcianus (15 September 1839). 2594:) (1921.08.28 – 1928.06.13), later Bishop of 1135: 914:until at least the 690s, if not even longer. 6669: 6435:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 6332: 6301: 5988:"Website of the Europa Nostra Award for the 5954: 5914: 5741:"Weteni Hospital of Raqqa goes into service" 4910:"Islamic State torches churches in Al-Raqqa" 4565:"لمحة عن تاريخ الرقة | موسوعة جياي كورمنج ™" 3623: 3614:Isidoros of Charax, Parthian Stations, § 1.2 2588:Territorial Abbacy of Shën Llezhri i Oroshit 2582:Joseph Gionali (1921.11.21 – 1928.06.13) as 2568:(1891.12.17 – death 1893.04.26), Prefect of 2456:(O.S.B.) (1733.09.02 – death 1745.07.24) as 2016:Destroyed neighborhood in Raqqa, August 2017 696: 60: 5824: 5403:"Rehabilitation of amusement park in Raqqa" 4388: 3531:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2558:Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars 2418: 1437: 665: 7415: 7401: 6919: 6905: 6840: 6697:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6615:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6528:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6504:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6462:Mango, Marlia M. (1991). "Kallinikos". In 6431:Raqqa revisited: ceramics of Ayyubid Syria 5769: 5553: 4872: 4629:"Syria rebels capture northern Raqqa city" 3544: 3542: 2266:European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage 2250:Forensic Computational Geometry Laboratory 1773:garrison, in the south-east corner of the 1450:production. Al-Muqaddasi also mentioned a 598:The modern city traces its history to the 493:, about 160 kilometres (99 miles) east of 6705: 6678: 6632: 5465: 4593: 4363: 4274: 4230:"Ewer, late 12th–first half 13th century" 4199: 4193: 4158: 4080: 3494: 3492: 3490: 2747:). The main attractions are the tombs of 2690:United States of America of the Maronites 2271: 2069:(SDF), supported by the US, launched the 2054:On 26 October 2016, US Defense Secretary 1832:tribe, after they began working with the 1442:Abbasid Raqqa was an important center of 1152:Somewhat to the west of Raqqa proper was 6882:The Citadel of Raqqa – article in German 6865:GCatholic - Maronite current titular see 6623: 6590: 6536: 6512: 6486: 6307: 4691:"Al-Qaeda sets up complaints department" 3856: 3593: 3501:"Telling the Truth About ISIS and Raqqa" 2731:made the important Shi'i holy cities of 2723:Raqqa has never been home to a sizeable 2698:Saint Maron of Brooklyn of the Maronites 2556:(1885.08.07 – 1886.06.28), Secretary of 2110: 2011: 1925: 1858:In the early 20th century, two waves of 1834:French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon 1702: 1669:dates from this time. The still-visible 1625:(which Thimal was aligned with) and the 1553:, and the Banu Uqay had their centre in 1511:Decline and period of Bedouin domination 1486:The port of Raqqa was probably the main 1417:'s account of the famous hadith scholar 1072: 941:and the temporary seat of the caliphate 820: 817:The remains of the historic Baghdad gate 812: 516:between 796 and 809, under the reign of 8706:Populated places on the Euphrates River 7309: 7221: 6080:Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae 6025:. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. 5955:Ngan-Tillard, Dominique (5 June 2018), 4688: 4657: 3539: 2718: 2694:Saint Maron of Detroit of the Maronites 2260:classes as well as for visitors of the 2118:(RISF) member inspecting vehicles at a 1209:to the citadels of Damascus and Cairo. 798: 531:, the city was captured in 2013 by the 14: 8673: 6829:from the original on 17 November 2021. 6811:from the original on 17 November 2021. 6793:from the original on 17 November 2021. 6775:from the original on 17 November 2021. 6642: 6582:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5902:from the original on 23 September 2023 5491: 4519: 4479: 4448:from the original on 23 September 2023 4425: 4296:from the original on 23 September 2023 3632:from the original on 23 September 2023 3487: 2509:(Italy) (1829 – 1833) and on emeritate 2170:Scanning for Syria project (2017–2018) 1877:were given safe haven in Raqqa by the 967:In 770-1 (155 AH), the Abbasid caliph 575:Hellenistic Nikephorion and Kallinikos 543:religious structures in the city were 8736:Cities founded by Alexander the Great 7396: 7308: 7220: 6945: 6900: 6461: 6449:from the original on 17 November 2015 6377:from the original on 17 November 2015 5669:from the original on 26 February 2019 5479:from the original on 19 December 2018 5123:from the original on 16 November 2020 4942:from the original on 16 November 2015 4890:from the original on 14 November 2013 4639:from the original on 6 September 2019 4559: 4557: 4555: 4515: 4513: 4511: 4509: 4507: 4505: 4503: 3703: 3657: 3513:from the original on 19 December 2015 3372:, novelist and politician (1918–2006) 2243:housed at the TU Delft laboratory of 1589:After the death of the Numayrid amir 720:(r. 457–474 AD) in 466, it was named 602:, with the foundation of the city of 89:Raqqa city walls • Baghdad gate 6860:GCatholic - Latin former titular see 6564:from the original on 4 December 2014 6351:from the original on 12 January 2016 6181:from the original on 11 October 2017 6112:, Paris 1740, Vol. II, coll. 969–972 6050:From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565 5812:from the original on 18 October 2019 5782:from the original on 14 October 2019 5770:Abdulrahim, Raja (14 October 2019). 5751:from the original on 25 January 2021 5610: 5592:from the original on 28 October 2018 5535:from the original on 20 October 2018 5413:from the original on 21 October 2018 5357:from the original on 21 October 2018 5331:from the original on 21 October 2018 5305:from the original on 21 October 2018 5279:from the original on 21 October 2018 5253:from the original on 21 October 2018 5227:from the original on 21 October 2018 5201:from the original on 21 October 2018 5175:from the original on 21 October 2018 5149:from the original on 21 October 2018 5004:from the original on 26 October 2016 4860:from the original on 19 October 2017 4772:from the original on 11 October 2017 4609:from the original on 31 October 2018 3653: 3651: 3649: 3647: 2649:) was in turn restored, now for the 2320:Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch 1975:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 1969:-affiliated Al-Nusra Front set up a 1652: 6595:. New York, London. pp. 5–30. 6320:from the original on 9 January 2016 6219:Reuters Editorial (26 March 2014). 6029:from the original on 26 August 2014 5763: 5103: 4834:from the original on 31 August 2015 4768:. The Foreign Desk. 14 March 2016. 4376:from the original on 15 August 2022 4214:: CS1 maint: untitled periodical ( 3411:Raqqa Is Being Slaughtered Silently 2794:Raqqa Is Being Slaughtered Silently 2560:(1886.06.28 – 1892.08.01), created 2516:(Germany) (1849.04.02 – 1861.05.22) 2211:(SfS) project was initiated by the 1907: 649:(reigned 301–281 BC). According to 464: 368: 61: 24: 8701:Populated places in Raqqa District 6946: 6849:Website for news relating to Raqqa 6469:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium 6419: 6371:"Climate statistics for Ar-Raqqah" 6227:from the original on 15 March 2022 6016: 5892:"NWO Website for the grant of the 5842:from the original on 22 April 2020 5566:from the original on 10 April 2019 4552: 4500: 4121:from the original on 15 March 2022 3877:from the original on 15 March 2022 3441:from the original on 19 March 2023 2802:that year's Sundance Film Festival 2684:) (1962.05.30 – 1966.01.27), then 2318:Monastery, became the seat of the 2314:, Dayra d'Mār Zakkā, or the Saint 1338: 555: 25: 8747: 6853: 6835: 6403:from the original on 4 March 2016 6152:(Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 5925:; Burch Joosten, Katrina (2019), 5836:project at the Leiden University" 5619:from the original on 3 April 2019 5383:from the original on 23 July 2018 4973:from the original on 7 March 2016 4960: 4727:from the original on 25 June 2019 4575:from the original on 2 April 2019 4181:from the original on 1 April 2022 3644: 3560:from the original on 27 July 2018 3357: 2814: 2554:Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy 2542:(Italy) (1873.03.20 – 1879.05.12) 2427:of Callinicum (Latin), adjective 1688: 952: 520:. It was also the capital of the 166:Show map of Eastern Mediterranean 7521: 7424: 7207: 7201: 6928: 6427:Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2006). 6308:Willsher, Kim (8 January 2016). 5998:from the original on 11 May 2020 5961:, Delft, Netherlands: TU Delft, 5872:from the original on 12 May 2020 4804:from the original on 4 July 2017 4701:from the original on 3 June 2013 4689:Spencer, Richard (2 June 2013). 4670:from the original on 7 June 2013 4658:Spencer, Richard (12 May 2013). 4540:from the original on 3 June 2018 4282:. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. 3390:, writer and dissident (b. 1961) 3378:, fifth Abbasid Caliph (786–809) 2403:of the Metropolitan of the Late 2322:, one of several rivals for the 755:The town was near the site of a 312: 248: 182: 175: 149: 142: 116: 109: 77: 6663:Raqqa II – Die islamische Stadt 6661:– Andrea Becker (edd.) (2003). 6389: 6363: 6281: 6265:K. Shaheen (2 December 2015) - 6259: 6212: 6193: 6163: 6143: 6115: 6093: 6071: 6041: 6010: 5794: 5733: 5721:from the original on 8 May 2019 5707: 5695:from the original on 8 May 2019 5681: 5651: 5604: 5578: 5547: 5517: 5425: 5395: 5369: 5343: 5317: 5291: 5265: 5239: 5213: 5187: 5161: 5135: 5081: 5059: 5040: 5016: 4985: 4954: 4928: 4902: 4846: 4820: 4784: 4758: 4739: 4713: 4682: 4651: 4621: 4571:(in Arabic). 14 November 2016. 4473: 4468:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4460: 4370:Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 4222: 3685: 3676: 2678:São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro 2602:(1935.10.30 – death 1952.12.20) 2386: 2060:offensive to take Raqqa from IS 1853: 1643:al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi 1562:Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsi 1333:Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsi 1243: 1187:captured and destroyed the city 333:35 km (14 sq mi) 6060:(Oxford University Press 2013 5611:Desk, News (8 February 2019). 4938:. Sky News. 15 November 2015. 4856:. Al-Akhbar. 8 November 2013. 4745:Asia News. 27 September 2013, 3617: 3608: 3599: 3453: 3423: 2727:community. However, since the 2482:Nicolas de La Pinte de Livry, 2233:Catholic University of Louvain 2217:Delft University of Technology 2174:The Raqqa Museum had numerous 2116:Raqqa Internal Security Forces 1683:Mongol invasions of the Levant 1382: 130:Location of Raqqa within Syria 13: 1: 8716:3rd-century BC establishments 4723:. AsiaNews. 13 January 2014. 3416: 1980: 1881:Ujayli family. Many moved to 1826:northern countryside of Raqqa 1147: 887:, the decisive clash between 775:(r. 527–565). In 580, during 626:, attributes its founding to 183: 163:Raqqa (Eastern Mediterranean) 150: 117: 6871:Historical and archeological 6665:. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. 4430:. In Lawson, Fred H. (ed.). 3469:Central Bureau of Statistics 2338:. In 388, Byzantine Emperor 2329: 2080: 2024:and suspected supporters of 1892:In the 1950s, the worldwide 1181:before being carried off to 7: 6171:"Titular See of Callinicum" 6090:, Leipzig 1931, p. 437 3394: 3384:, poet and writer (b. 1969) 3242:Average precipitation days 3028:Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2958:Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 2663:Callinicen(sis) Maronitarum 2641:Callinicum of the Maronites 2636:) (1931.06.08 – 1942.11.21) 2531:) (1863.09.17 – 1879.03.27) 2479:) (1748.09.16 – 1757.02.07) 2468:) (1733.09.02 – 1745.07.24) 2254:GigaMesh Software Framework 2194:. The excavation team cast 1521:Abbasid civil war (865–866) 481: 475: 379: 10: 8752: 8726:Hellenistic sites in Syria 6518:. Amman. pp. 226–237. 4364:Heidemann, Stefan (2005). 4235:Metropolitan Museum of Art 4200:Henderson, Julian (2005). 4159:Heidemann, Stefan (2009). 4081:Heidemann, Stefan (2006). 3900:Revue de l'Orient chrétien 3857:Meinecke, Michael (1996). 3338: 3333: 2838: 2830: 2305:Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) 2245:Geoscience and Engineering 2219:under the auspices of the 2093: 2062:would begin within weeks. 1934:In March 2013, during the 1911: 1692: 1514: 1185:in 838 after the Abbasids 1136:Geography of Abbasid Raqqa 1082:Metropolitan Museum of Art 956: 850:Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) 802: 705:times, it was part of the 611: 569: 40: 26: 7794: 7530: 7519: 7437: 7431:Cities and towns of Syria 7317: 7304: 7229: 7216: 7199: 7065:al-Khayyalah al-Sharqiyah 6954: 6941: 6733:10.1017/s0041977x06000024 6132:24 September 2015 at the 5457:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4494:10.1163/22138617-08603003 4099:10.1017/S0041977X06000024 3658:Cohen, Getzel M. (2013). 3640:– via Google Books. 3628:. A L'Imprimerie Royale. 3285: 3241: 3167: 3097: 3027: 2957: 2887: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2572:(1892.08.01 – 1893.04.26) 2536:Oratorians of Philip Neri 2223:. The project received a 1603:as-Sayyidah al-'Alawiyyah 1549:had their pasture in the 1096:of the Byzantine city of 925:and the beginning of the 697:Roman and Byzantine times 666: 512:) was the capital of the 444: 434: 424: 403: 386: 358: 350: 345: 337: 329: 324: 305: 297: 285: 273: 261: 243: 208: 103: 84:Raqqa skyline • The 76: 69: 55: 6494:. Amman. pp. 17–32. 6397:"Averages for Ar-Raqqah" 6373:. World Weather Online. 6272:25 February 2017 at the 6150:Annuario Pontificio 2013 5574:– via reuters.com. 2787: 2419:Callinicum of the Romans 2262:Rijksmuseum van Oudheden 2162:, the SDF called on the 2158:As a consequence of the 2142:In mid-February 2019, a 2096:Eastern Syria Insurgency 2067:Syrian Democratic Forces 1438:Economy of Abbasid Raqqa 1222:Great Mosque of Damascus 1060:in his "Book of Songs" ( 1058:Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahāni 685:'s preparations for his 564:Syrian Democratic Forces 489:on the left bank of the 341:245 m (804 ft) 7159:al-Salhabiyah Gharbiyah 6841:Current news and events 6822:The Wall Street Journal 6294:12 October 2018 at the 6205:18 October 2016 at the 5093:29 October 2017 at the 5071:9 November 2017 at the 5028:4 December 2017 at the 4752:2 November 2019 at the 4426:Ababsa, Myriam (2009). 3435:World Population Review 2839:Climate data for Raqqa 2823:the city was served by 2495:Apostolic Administrator 2371:lists the diocese as a 2359:Proterius of Alexandria 1999:hotel of the revolution 1673:(Baghdad Gate) and the 1402: 1250:"al-Raqqa al-Muḥtariqa" 1234:Great Mosque of Samarra 1226:Nur ad-Din Mahmud Zengi 777:another war with Persia 656:Seleucus I' successor, 537:several other countries 8721:240s BC establishments 8691:Capitals of caliphates 8220:Khirbet al-Tin Mahmoud 7666:al-Mukharram al-Foqani 7050:Kasrat Shaykh al-Jumaa 6108:3 January 2016 at the 6077:Pius Bonifacius Gams, 5935:wbg Philipp von Zabern 5487:– via ReliefWeb. 4434:. London: Saqi Books. 3605:Natural History, 6.119 3461:"2004 Census Data for 3406:Raqqa offensive (2016) 3346:Raqqa is featuring an 2825:Chemins de Fer Syriens 2272:Ecclesiastical history 2241:X-ray micro-CT scanner 2123: 2071:Second Battle of Raqqa 2017: 1952:Battle of Raqqa (2013) 1931: 1922:Battle of Raqqa (2017) 1918:Raqqa offensive (2016) 1914:Battle of Raqqa (2013) 1711: 1710:(pre-Syrian Civil War) 1305:Uways al-Qarani mosque 1085: 829: 818: 658:Seleucus II Callinicus 43:Nicephorium (Osrhoene) 6825:. 15 September 2014. 6674:. Philipp von Zabern. 6646:Annales de Géographie 6056:26 April 2016 at the 5056:BBC, 22 October 2017. 2237:Heidelberg University 2114: 2040:On 15 November 2015, 2015: 1929: 1801:as well. Most of the 1706: 1076: 1050:Muḥammad ash-Shaibānī 1028:. In 796, the caliph 977:congregational mosque 933:and the road between 825:The Baghdad Gate, by 824: 816: 779:, the future Emperor 552:Uwais al-Qarni Mosque 405: • Summer ( 96:Uwais al-Qarni Mosque 8550:al-Surah al-Saghirah 7179:Tell al-Samen Dahham 6638:(40). Leiden: Brill. 6540:(1995). "al-Raḳḳa". 6086:26 June 2015 at the 5665:. 22 February 2019. 4886:. 13 November 2013. 4597:(6 September 2018). 4569:موسوعة جياي كورمنج ™ 3910:, VI (1901), p. 197. 3906:19 June 2013 at the 3467:(in Arabic). Syrian 3401:Battle of Callinicum 2888:Record high °C (°F) 2719:Religion and culture 2489:Luigi Pietro Grati, 2368:Notitia Episcopatuum 2351:Council of Chalcedon 2340:Theodosius the Great 2324:apostolic succession 2278:Assyrian monasticism 1797:tribe, and possibly 1718:customs post on the 1529:, and then with the 1462:to the south, since 1068:Abbasid architecture 963:Abbasid architecture 799:Early Islamic period 92:Qasr al-Banat Castle 8395:Rasm Harmil al-Imam 7311:Al-Thawrah District 7223:Tell Abyad District 6789:. 6 November 2017. 6706:Heidemann, Stefan ( 5808:. 18 October 2019. 5776:Wall Street Journal 5531:. 18 October 2018. 5052:5 July 2018 at the 3556:. 17 October 2017. 3475:on 18 November 2015 3388:Yassin al-Haj Saleh 3382:Khalaf Ali Alkhalaf 3098:Record low °C (°F) 2798:film about the city 2435:(Curiate Italian). 2357:after the death of 1591:Shabib ibn Waththab 1269:Tahir ibn al-Husayn 1238:Mosque of Ibn Tulun 1142:al-Raqqah al-Bayḍā' 879:In 656, during the 628:Alexander the Great 547:, most notably the 224: / 7174:Suwaydiyah Kabirah 6804:The New York Times 6708:University of Jena 6464:Kazhdan, Alexander 6251:has generic name ( 5990:Scanning for Syria 5834:Scanning for Syria 5643:has generic name ( 5505:on 20 October 2018 5100:, 29 October 2017. 5078:, 17 October 2017. 4797:The New York Times 4470:68 (2009), 253–67. 4432:Demystifying Syria 4168:Orient-Archäologie 3431:"Raqqa Population" 3370:Abdul-Salam Ojeili 3352:hot desert climate 2534:Aniceto Ferrante, 2379:, the capital and 2363:Severus of Antioch 2355:Leo I the Thracian 2301:Michael the Syrian 2209:Scanning for Syria 2124: 2018: 1938:, rebels from the 1932: 1862:refugees from the 1734:was not Raqqa but 1712: 1679:'Imād ad-Dīn Zangī 1631:Arslan al-Basasiri 1601:. Shabib's sister 1517:Anarchy at Samarra 1273:Michael the Syrian 1086: 910:'s Ghawth Mosque. 855:Benjamin of Tudela 846:Michael the Syrian 830: 819: 805:Rashidun Caliphate 736:'s relations with 647:Seleucus I Nicator 600:Hellenistic period 8668: 8667: 8010:al-Hajar al-Aswad 7390: 7389: 7386: 7385: 7300: 7299: 7197: 7196: 7102:Matab al-Burashid 6935:Raqqa Governorate 6578:cite encyclopedia 6538:Meinecke, Michael 6488:Meinecke, Michael 6479:978-0-19-504652-6 6158:978-88-209-9070-1 6121:Siméon Vailhé in 5663:The Straits Times 4603:Al Shahid Witness 4441:978-0-86356-818-3 4289:978-2-503-53572-2 3669:978-0-520-27382-5 3463:ar-Raqqah nahiyah 3343: 3342: 3288:relative humidity 2702:Archbishop-Bishop 2519:Hilarion Silani, 2454:Benedictine Order 2425:Titular bishopric 2413:titular bishopric 2312:Abbasid Caliphate 2282:Dayra d'Mār Zakkā 2213:Leiden University 2180:cuneiform writing 2044:, in response to 2034:Armenian Catholic 1875:Armenian genocide 1653:Second blossoming 1623:Fatimid Caliphate 1502:Raqqa also had a 959:Abbasid Caliphate 927:Abbasid Caliphate 923:Umayyad Caliphate 861:pagan community. 809:Umayyad Caliphate 715:Byzantine Emperor 636:Parthian Stations 632:Isidore of Charax 545:destroyed by ISIS 533:Syrian opposition 514:Abbasid Caliphate 507:Maronite Catholic 473: 454: 453: 377: 351: • City 330: • City 133:Show map of Syria 16:(Redirected from 8743: 8696:Capitals in Asia 8515:al-Shaykh Maskin 8215:Khirbet Ghazaleh 8045:Harran al-Awamid 7636:Maarat al-Numaan 7631:Jisr ash-Shughur 7525: 7429: 7428: 7417: 7410: 7403: 7394: 7393: 7306: 7305: 7218: 7217: 7211: 7205: 7087:Maghlah Saghirah 6943: 6942: 6933: 6932: 6921: 6914: 6907: 6898: 6897: 6830: 6812: 6807:. 1 April 2019. 6794: 6776: 6771:. 4 April 2019. 6751: 6749: 6743:. Archived from 6716: 6702: 6696: 6688: 6675: 6666: 6659:Stefan Heidemann 6654: 6639: 6629: 6620: 6614: 6606: 6587: 6581: 6573: 6571: 6569: 6533: 6527: 6519: 6509: 6503: 6495: 6483: 6458: 6456: 6454: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6399:. Weather Base. 6393: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6367: 6361: 6360: 6358: 6356: 6336: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6325: 6305: 6299: 6285: 6279: 6263: 6257: 6256: 6250: 6246: 6244: 6236: 6234: 6232: 6216: 6210: 6197: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6186: 6167: 6161: 6147: 6141: 6119: 6113: 6099:Michel Lequien, 6097: 6091: 6075: 6069: 6066:978-0-74866835-9 6045: 6039: 6038: 6036: 6034: 6017:Schaff, Philip. 6014: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6003: 5984: 5978: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5937:, pp. 76–83 5918: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5907: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5879: 5877: 5858: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5847: 5832:"Website of the 5828: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5817: 5798: 5792: 5791: 5789: 5787: 5767: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5728: 5726: 5711: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5700: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5642: 5638: 5636: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5608: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5582: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5571: 5551: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5540: 5521: 5515: 5514: 5512: 5510: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5484: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5456: 5448: 5446: 5444: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5399: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5362: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5321: 5315: 5314: 5312: 5310: 5295: 5289: 5288: 5286: 5284: 5269: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5258: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5217: 5211: 5210: 5208: 5206: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5180: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5128: 5122: 5115: 5107: 5101: 5085: 5079: 5063: 5057: 5044: 5038: 5020: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5009: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4978: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4921: 4906: 4900: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4841: 4839: 4824: 4818: 4817: 4811: 4809: 4800:. 23 July 2014. 4788: 4782: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4762: 4756: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4675: 4655: 4649: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4635:. 5 March 2013. 4625: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4561: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4517: 4498: 4497: 4477: 4471: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4423: 4386: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4361: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4272: 4241: 4240: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4213: 4205: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4180: 4165: 4156: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4078: 3911: 3896: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3854: 3707: 3701: 3692: 3689: 3683: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3655: 3642: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3621: 3615: 3612: 3606: 3603: 3597: 3591: 3570: 3569: 3567: 3565: 3546: 3537: 3536: 3530: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3496: 3485: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3471:. Archived from 3457: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3427: 2836: 2835: 2821:Syrian Civil War 2757:Battle of Siffin 2739:inaccessible to 2686:Apostolic Exarch 2674:Auxiliary Bishop 2655:Eastern Catholic 2514:Diocese of Trier 2458:Auxiliary Bishop 2381:metropolitan see 2164:Syrian Arab Army 2122:, 18 August 2018 2102:Global Coalition 2075:US-led coalition 2046:attacks in Paris 2028:in the city and 1940:Free Syrian Army 1936:Syrian civil war 1908:Syrian civil war 1811:Syrian Civil War 1730:and seat of the 1699:Mamluk Sultanate 1607:Thimal ibn Salih 1578:the city in Iraq 1533:movement of the 1481:Jabir ibn Hayyan 1297:Battle of Siffin 1107:Greater Khorasan 1015:Ali ibn Sulayman 988:Pseudo-Dionysius 885:Battle of Siffin 876:lived in Raqqa. 734:Byzantine Empire 669: 668: 613: 557: 529:Syrian Civil War 484: 478: 468: 466: 410: 382: 372: 370: 317: 316: 254: 252: 251: 239: 238: 236: 235: 234: 229: 225: 222: 221: 220: 217: 200: 199:Show map of Asia 186: 185: 179: 167: 153: 152: 146: 134: 120: 119: 113: 81: 64: 63: 53: 52: 21: 8751: 8750: 8746: 8745: 8744: 8742: 8741: 8740: 8686:Cities in Syria 8671: 8670: 8669: 8664: 8520:Shayukh Tahtani 8510:Shaykh al-Hadid 8360:Qalaat al-Madiq 8230:Ma'arrat Misrin 8205:Kuwayris Sharqi 7790: 7756:al-Suqaylabiyah 7751:ash-Shaykh Badr 7526: 7517: 7433: 7423: 7421: 7391: 7382: 7313: 7296: 7225: 7212: 7206: 7193: 7082:Maghlah Kabirah 7028:Judaydat Khabur 7008:Huwayjat Shinan 6950: 6937: 6927: 6925: 6873: 6856: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6815: 6797: 6779: 6761: 6747: 6714: 6690: 6689: 6628:(128): 157–172. 6608: 6607: 6603: 6575: 6574: 6567: 6565: 6558: 6521: 6520: 6497: 6496: 6480: 6452: 6450: 6443: 6422: 6420:Further reading 6417: 6416: 6406: 6404: 6395: 6394: 6390: 6380: 6378: 6369: 6368: 6364: 6354: 6352: 6337: 6333: 6323: 6321: 6306: 6302: 6296:Wayback Machine 6286: 6282: 6274:Wayback Machine 6264: 6260: 6248: 6247: 6238: 6237: 6230: 6228: 6217: 6213: 6207:Wayback Machine 6198: 6194: 6184: 6182: 6169: 6168: 6164: 6148: 6144: 6134:Wayback Machine 6120: 6116: 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2303:records twenty 2284:, or the Saint 2274: 2196:silicone rubber 2192:Tell Sabi Abyad 2172: 2098: 2092: 2083: 2026:Bashar al-Assad 2010: 1985:Migration from 1983: 1924: 1912:Main articles: 1910: 1856: 1809:. Prior to the 1793:, Arabs of the 1701: 1691: 1655: 1545:dynasties. The 1523: 1513: 1464:Yaqut al-Hamawi 1440: 1405: 1385: 1341: 1339:The palace city 1301:Uways al-Qarani 1246: 1150: 1138: 1063:Kitāb al-Aghāni 1048:school of law, 1034:Northern Africa 1030:Harun al-Rashid 965: 955: 904:Uwais al-Qarani 900:Ammar ibn Yasir 811: 801: 738:Sassanid Persia 699: 670:, Latinized as 624:Natural History 614:, Latinized as 577: 572: 556:17 October 2017 518:Harun al-Rashid 491:Euphrates River 485:) is a city in 430: 404: 311: 249: 247: 232: 230: 228:35.95°N 39.01°E 226: 223: 218: 215: 213: 211: 210: 204: 203: 202: 201: 198: 197: 194: 193: 192: 191: 187: 170: 169: 168: 165: 164: 161: 160: 159: 158: 154: 137: 136: 135: 132: 131: 128: 127: 126: 125: 121: 99: 98: 90: 88: 72: 65: 58: 51: 46: 39: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8749: 8739: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8666: 8665: 8663: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8437: 8432: 8430:al-Sabe' Biyar 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8287: 8285:Mashta al-Helu 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8125:Jubb al-Jarrah 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7997: 7995:al-Ghizlaniyah 7992: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7801: 7799: 7792: 7791: 7789: 7788: 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6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6948:Raqqa District 6939: 6938: 6924: 6923: 6916: 6909: 6901: 6895: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6872: 6869: 6868: 6867: 6862: 6855: 6854:Ecclesiastical 6852: 6851: 6850: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6836:External links 6834: 6832: 6831: 6813: 6795: 6777: 6758: 6757: 6753: 6752: 6750:on 9 May 2012. 6703: 6676: 6667: 6655: 6640: 6630: 6621: 6601: 6588: 6556: 6534: 6510: 6484: 6478: 6459: 6441: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6415: 6414: 6388: 6362: 6331: 6300: 6280: 6258: 6211: 6192: 6162: 6142: 6123:Échos d'Orient 6114: 6092: 6070: 6040: 6009: 5979: 5947: 5913: 5883: 5868:. 7 May 2020. 5853: 5823: 5806:Al-Masdar News 5793: 5762: 5732: 5706: 5680: 5650: 5603: 5577: 5546: 5516: 5490: 5464: 5424: 5394: 5368: 5342: 5316: 5290: 5264: 5238: 5212: 5186: 5160: 5134: 5102: 5080: 5058: 5039: 5015: 4984: 4967:Al-Masdar News 4961:Fadel, Leith. 4953: 4927: 4901: 4871: 4845: 4819: 4783: 4757: 4738: 4712: 4681: 4650: 4620: 4586: 4551: 4532: 4499: 4488:(3): 470–471. 4472: 4459: 4440: 4387: 4307: 4288: 4242: 4221: 4192: 4132: 3912: 3888: 3869: 3708: 3693: 3684: 3675: 3668: 3643: 3616: 3607: 3598: 3596:, p. 410. 3571: 3538: 3506:The New Yorker 3486: 3452: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3415: 3414: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3396: 3393: 3392: 3391: 3385: 3379: 3373: 3367: 3359: 3358:Notable locals 3356: 3341: 3340: 3336: 3335: 3331: 3330: 3327: 3324: 3321: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3300: 3297: 3294: 3291: 3283: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3258: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3165: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3025: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2885: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2872: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2841: 2840: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2816: 2815:Transportation 2813: 2789: 2786: 2720: 2717: 2716: 2715: 2712: 2705: 2642: 2639: 2638: 2637: 2622: 2603: 2584:Abbot Ordinary 2580: 2573: 2546:Luigi Sepiacci 2543: 2532: 2517: 2510: 2487: 2480: 2469: 2450: 2420: 2417: 2405:Roman province 2388: 2385: 2331: 2328: 2291:Dairā d-Esţunā 2273: 2270: 2184:archaeologists 2171: 2168: 2129:Geneva process 2091: 2088: 2082: 2079: 2009: 2003: 1982: 1979: 1956:Hafez al-Assad 1948:Al-Nusra Front 1930:Raqqa city map 1909: 1906: 1855: 1852: 1818:Nahid Al-Jilab 1690: 1689:Ottoman period 1687: 1654: 1651: 1512: 1509: 1439: 1436: 1404: 1401: 1384: 1381: 1340: 1337: 1245: 1242: 1158:Ibn al-Sam'ani 1149: 1146: 1137: 1134: 954: 953:Abbasid period 951: 870:Ernst Herzfeld 834:Iyad ibn Ghanm 800: 797: 707:Roman province 698: 695: 576: 573: 571: 568: 560:lengthy battle 558:, following a 452: 451: 448: 442: 441: 438: 432: 431: 428: 426: 422: 421: 411: 401: 400: 390: 384: 383: 362: 356: 355: 352: 348: 347: 343: 342: 339: 335: 334: 331: 327: 326: 322: 321: 307: 303: 302: 299: 295: 294: 289: 283: 282: 277: 271: 270: 265: 259: 258: 245: 241: 240: 206: 205: 195: 189: 188: 181: 180: 174: 173: 172: 171: 162: 156: 155: 148: 147: 141: 140: 139: 138: 129: 123: 122: 115: 114: 108: 107: 106: 105: 104: 101: 100: 83: 82: 74: 73: 70: 67: 66: 59: 56: 49: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8748: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8678: 8676: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8650:al-Yaarubiyah 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8640:Urum al-Kubra 8638: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8600:Tell al-Daman 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8355:al-Qahtaniyah 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8330:al-Nashabiyah 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8315:al-Musayfirah 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8190:Khan Shaykhun 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8160:Kafr Takharim 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7955:al-Darbasiyah 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7860:Assal al-Ward 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7810:Abu al-Thuhur 7808: 7806: 7803: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7793: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 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7266: 7265:Hawaij Saghir 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7255: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7238: 7237: 7232: 7231: 7228: 7224: 7219: 7215: 7210: 7204: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7184:al-Yaarubiyah 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7149: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7122:Rabi'a, Raqqa 7120: 7118: 7117:al-Qahtaniyah 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7077: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7060:al-Khatuniyah 7058: 7056: 7055:al-Khamisiyah 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7045: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6998:al-Hamdaniyah 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6963: 6962: 6957: 6956: 6953: 6949: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6931: 6922: 6917: 6915: 6910: 6908: 6903: 6902: 6899: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6874: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6828: 6824: 6823: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6805: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6769: 6764: 6760: 6759: 6755: 6754: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6721: 6713: 6709: 6704: 6700: 6694: 6686: 6682: 6677: 6673: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6647: 6641: 6637: 6631: 6627: 6622: 6618: 6612: 6604: 6602:0-8147-5492-9 6598: 6594: 6589: 6585: 6579: 6563: 6559: 6557:90-04-09834-8 6553: 6549: 6545: 6544: 6543:Archived copy 6539: 6535: 6531: 6525: 6517: 6511: 6507: 6501: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6475: 6471: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6448: 6444: 6438: 6434: 6433: 6430: 6425: 6424: 6402: 6398: 6392: 6376: 6372: 6366: 6350: 6347:(in French). 6346: 6342: 6335: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6304: 6297: 6293: 6290: 6284: 6278: 6275: 6271: 6268: 6262: 6254: 6249:|author= 6242: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6208: 6204: 6201: 6196: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6166: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6146: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6128: 6124: 6118: 6111: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6096: 6089: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6074: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6052: 6051: 6044: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6013: 5997: 5993: 5991: 5983: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5959: 5951: 5936: 5933:(in German), 5932: 5928: 5924: 5917: 5901: 5897: 5895: 5887: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5857: 5841: 5837: 5835: 5827: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5766: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5736: 5720: 5716: 5710: 5694: 5690: 5684: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5646: 5634: 5618: 5614: 5607: 5591: 5587: 5581: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5550: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5520: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5478: 5474: 5468: 5460: 5454: 5438: 5434: 5428: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5398: 5382: 5378: 5372: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5330: 5326: 5320: 5304: 5300: 5294: 5278: 5274: 5268: 5252: 5248: 5242: 5226: 5222: 5216: 5200: 5196: 5190: 5174: 5170: 5164: 5148: 5144: 5138: 5119: 5112: 5106: 5099: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5084: 5077: 5074: 5070: 5067: 5062: 5055: 5051: 5048: 5043: 5036: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5019: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4988: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4957: 4941: 4937: 4931: 4915: 4911: 4905: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4875: 4859: 4855: 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2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2956: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2842: 2837: 2828: 2826: 2822: 2819:Prior to the 2812: 2810: 2809:Sophie Kasiki 2805: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2785: 2782: 2778: 2772: 2769: 2768:mulberry tree 2764: 2762: 2761:Islamic State 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2729:Iran–Iraq War 2726: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2670: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2578: 2574: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2515: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2448: 2447: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2436: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2416: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2384: 2383:of Osrhoene. 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2369: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2327: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2289:monastery or 2287: 2283: 2279: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2167: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2148: 2145: 2140: 2138: 2133: 2130: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2097: 2087: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2061: 2058:said that an 2057: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2014: 2007: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1961: 1960:Syrian rebels 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944:Ahrar al-Sham 1941: 1937: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1905: 1903: 1902:Qasr al-Banāt 1897: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1865: 1864:Caucasian War 1861: 1851: 1849: 1844: 1842: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1819: 1814: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1762:Milli tribe. 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1742:only noticed 1741: 1740:Evliya Çelebi 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1675:Qasr al-Banāt 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1650: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1627:Seljuk Empire 1624: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1587: 1585: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1569: 1565: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1555:Qal'at Ja'bar 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1522: 1518: 1508: 1505: 1500: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1393:dērā d-esṭūnā 1389: 1380: 1378: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1361: 1356: 1352: 1350: 1349:Qaṣr as-Salām 1345: 1336: 1334: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1265: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1195:Sayf al-Dawla 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1155: 1145: 1143: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1009: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 980: 978: 974: 970: 964: 960: 950: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 919: 915: 911: 909: 905: 901: 897: 894: 890: 886: 882: 877: 875: 871: 867: 862: 860: 856: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 828: 823: 815: 810: 806: 796: 794: 788: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 716: 712: 708: 704: 694: 692: 688: 684: 680: 677:According to 675: 673: 663: 659: 654: 652: 648: 645: 644:Seleucid King 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 609: 608:Ancient Greek 605: 601: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 567: 565: 561: 553: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 525: 523: 522:Islamic State 519: 515: 511: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 483: 477: 471: 462: 458: 449: 447: 443: 439: 437: 433: 427: 423: 419: 415: 412: 408: 402: 398: 394: 391: 389: 385: 381: 375: 366: 363: 361: 357: 353: 349: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 323: 320: 315: 310: 308: 304: 300: 296: 293: 290: 288: 284: 281: 278: 276: 272: 269: 266: 264: 260: 257: 246: 242: 237: 209:Coordinates: 207: 178: 145: 112: 102: 97: 93: 87: 80: 75: 68: 54: 50:City in Syria 48: 44: 37: 35: 30: 19: 8731:Razed cities 8645:Wadi al-Oyun 8485:al-Shaddadah 8370:al-Qaryatayn 8320:al-Mushannaf 8120:al-Jawadiyah 8100:al-Janudiyah 8080:Ibbin Samaan 8025:al-Hamidiyah 7915:Bir al-Helou 7900:Barri Sharqi 7870:Ayn al-Fijah 7796:Sub-district 7711:Ra's al-'Ayn 7641:al-Malikiyah 7497: 7373:Shams al-Din 7360: 7322: 7321: 7284: 7252: 7243:Ain al-Arous 7234: 7233: 7146: 7074: 7042: 6960: 6959: 6958: 6820: 6802: 6784: 6768:PBS Newshour 6766: 6745:the original 6727:(1): 32–52. 6724: 6718: 6684: 6681:Hugh Kennedy 6671: 6662: 6650: 6644: 6635: 6625: 6592: 6566:. Retrieved 6547: 6542: 6514: 6491: 6467: 6451:. Retrieved 6432: 6429: 6407:16 September 6405:. Retrieved 6391: 6381:16 September 6379:. Retrieved 6365: 6353:. Retrieved 6344: 6334: 6322:. Retrieved 6314:The Guardian 6313: 6303: 6283: 6277:The Guardian 6261: 6231:19 September 6229:. Retrieved 6214: 6195: 6183:. Retrieved 6174: 6165: 6149: 6145: 6122: 6117: 6101: 6095: 6079: 6073: 6049: 6043: 6031:. Retrieved 6022: 6012: 6000:. Retrieved 5989: 5982: 5970:, retrieved 5957: 5950: 5939:, retrieved 5930: 5923:Mara, Hubert 5916: 5904:. Retrieved 5893: 5886: 5874:. Retrieved 5865: 5856: 5844:. Retrieved 5833: 5826: 5814:. Retrieved 5805: 5796: 5784:. Retrieved 5775: 5765: 5755:15 September 5753:. Retrieved 5744: 5735: 5723:. Retrieved 5709: 5697:. Retrieved 5683: 5671:. Retrieved 5662: 5653: 5621:. Retrieved 5606: 5594:. Retrieved 5580: 5570:15 September 5568:. Retrieved 5559: 5549: 5537:. Retrieved 5528: 5519: 5507:. Retrieved 5503:the original 5493: 5481:. Retrieved 5467: 5441:. 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Retrieved 4093:(1): 33–52. 4090: 4086: 3899: 3879:. Retrieved 3859: 3687: 3678: 3659: 3634:. Retrieved 3619: 3610: 3601: 3562:. Retrieved 3553: 3515:. Retrieved 3504: 3477:. Retrieved 3473:the original 3462: 3455: 3443:. Retrieved 3434: 3425: 3345: 3172:mm (inches) 2818: 2806: 2791: 2780: 2776: 2773: 2765: 2722: 2667: 2662: 2646: 2644: 2626:Friars Minor 2624:Tomás Aspe, 2550:Augustinians 2521:Sylvestrines 2444: 2439: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2390: 2387:Titular sees 2366: 2348: 2333: 2309: 2299: 2290: 2281: 2275: 2249: 2244: 2220: 2208: 2205:digitization 2176:clay tablets 2173: 2157: 2153:World War II 2149: 2141: 2137:sleeper cell 2134: 2125: 2106:Raqqa Museum 2099: 2084: 2064: 2053: 2050: 2039: 2019: 2005: 1998: 1984: 1964: 1933: 1898: 1891: 1873:fleeing the 1868: 1857: 1854:20th century 1848:Raqqa Museum 1845: 1838: 1828:by the Arab 1823: 1815: 1779: 1764: 1755: 1727: 1713: 1708:Raqqa Museum 1670: 1656: 1647: 1620: 1610: 1588: 1581: 1573: 1570: 1566: 1559: 1537:. Under the 1524: 1501: 1485: 1468: 1441: 1429: 1422: 1406: 1392: 1390: 1386: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1309: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277:Bar Hebraeus 1266: 1261: 1257: 1254:al-Muqaddasi 1249: 1247: 1244:Al-Muhtariqa 1230: 1211: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1153: 1151: 1141: 1139: 1131: 1119:Hisn Maslama 1111: 1087: 1061: 1052:, was chief 1038:Central Asia 1023: 1012: 1004: 999: 995: 981: 972: 966: 920: 916: 912: 878: 863: 842:al-Baladhuri 837: 831: 827:Ziad Zukkari 789: 754: 729: 721: 700: 689:against the 676: 671: 661: 655: 615: 603: 597: 578: 526: 456: 455: 309: 233:35.95; 39.01 196:Raqqa (Asia) 47: 33: 8615:Tell Salhab 8610:Tell Rifaat 8410:al-Ruhaybah 8295:al-Masmiyah 8270:al-Mansurah 8130:Jubb Ramlah 8110:al-Jarniyah 7990:al-Ghariyah 7960:Deir Atiyah 7885:Ayn al-Nasr 7875:Ayn Halaqim 7741:al-Sanamayn 7706:al-Qutayfah 7561:Ayn al-Arab 7503:Rif Dimashq 7463:Deir ez-Zor 7439:Governorate 7378:Tell Othman 7368:al-Safsafah 7362:al-Mansurah 7351:al-Jarniyah 7341:Fallah Rabu 7336:Dibsi Faraj 7331:Dibsi Afnan 7275:Tell Hammam 7169:al-Suwaydah 6568:27 November 6345:FranceInter 6223:. Reuters. 6019:"Letter XL" 5931:Antike Welt 5673:26 February 5641:|last= 4946:16 November 4920:14 November 4894:14 November 4864:14 November 4174:: 493–516. 3517:30 December 3339:Source 2: 3334:Source 1: 2484:Norbertines 2397:titular see 2395:twice as a 2258:Assyriology 2229:3D printing 2200:cast copies 1889:community. 1791:Mîlan tribe 1671:Bāb Baghdād 1551:Diyār Muḍar 1547:Banu Numayr 1494:noted that 1492:Ibn al-Adim 1460:Jabal Bishr 1410:al-Dimashqi 1397:Dionysios I 1383:Monasteries 1313:al-Qushayri 1191:al-Mu'tasim 996:intervallum 881:First Fitna 848:records 20 773:Justinian I 761:Iberian War 722:Leontopolis 679:Cassius Dio 616:Nicephorium 604:Nikephorion 585:Tall Zaydan 539:. Most non- 527:During the 510:titular see 287:Subdistrict 263:Governorate 231: / 8675:Categories 8660:az-Ziyarah 8620:Tell Tamer 8605:Tell Hamis 8590:al-Tamanah 8570:al-Sukhnah 8490:al-Shajara 8435:al-Sabkhah 8375:al-Qurayya 8335:al-Nasirah 8265:al-Malihah 8185:al-Khafsah 8170:al-Karamah 8150:Kafr Batna 8040:Harbnafsah 7945:Darat Izza 7855:al-Asharah 7840:al-Arishah 7805:Abu Qilqil 7776:al-Thawrah 7771:Tell Abyad 7586:Dayr Hafir 7508:as-Suwayda 7473:al-Hasakah 7324:Al-Thawrah 7236:Tell Abyad 7189:al-Yarmouk 7148:al-Sabkhah 7127:al-Rabiyah 7112:al-Nasirah 7107:al-Namisah 7092:al-Manamah 7044:al-Karamah 7038:al-Kalitah 6973:al-Akirshi 6710:) (2006). 6653:: 647–664. 6453:31 January 6442:1588391841 6185:8 February 6048:A.D. Lee, 5816:30 October 5786:14 October 5623:8 February 5596:28 October 5539:20 October 5509:20 October 5443:28 October 5417:20 October 5387:20 October 5361:20 October 5335:20 October 5309:20 October 5283:20 October 5257:20 October 5231:20 October 5205:20 October 5179:20 October 5153:20 October 5008:26 October 4731:13 January 4633:Al Jazeera 4372:: 85–110. 3704:Mango 1991 3479:15 October 3417:References 3364:Al-Battani 2630:Cochabamba 2431:(Latin) / 2144:mass grave 2120:checkpoint 2094:See also: 2056:Ash Carter 1981:Migrations 1841:Al-Asharah 1693:See also: 1667:Raqqa ware 1535:Qarmatians 1515:See also: 1452:soapmaking 1154:al-Rāfiqah 1148:Al-Rafiqah 1123:Tall Mahra 1102:Asia Minor 973:al-Rāfiqah 957:See also: 803:See also: 730:Kallinikos 672:Callinicum 667:Καλλίνικος 662:Kallinikos 612:Νικηφόριον 589:Babylonian 505:and now a 360:Demonym(s) 346:Population 301:244–242 BC 8655:al-Zirbah 8635:Uqayribat 8405:al-Riqama 8350:al-Qadmus 8300:al-Mazraa 8225:al-Kiswah 8175:al-Kasrah 8165:Kafr Zita 8155:Kafr Nabl 8075:al-Huwash 8030:al-Hamraa 7985:Ghandoura 7980:Ghabaghib 7970:al-Dumayr 7905:Beit Jinn 7835:al-Ariqah 7761:Talkalakh 7731:Salamiyah 7721:as-Safira 7716:al-Rastan 7701:al-Qusayr 7626:Jarabulus 7606:al-Haffah 7596:Duraykish 7541:Abu Kamal 7292:al-Zaazu' 7132:al-Rahibi 7018:al-Jabali 6988:al-Ghutah 6983:Ghirnatah 6978:al-Fariaa 6968:Abu Susah 6741:162831514 6693:cite book 6611:cite book 6524:cite book 6500:cite book 6355:8 January 6324:9 January 6209:GCatholic 6175:GCatholic 6160:), p. 856 6033:25 August 5437:Al Shahid 5407:SDF Press 4838:15 August 4815:fighters. 4595:Ronahi TV 4202:Antiquity 4115:162831514 2647:see above 2619:Catamarca 2615:Argentina 2566:S. Prisca 2540:Gallipoli 2529:Sri Lanka 2499:Terracina 2475:(Prague, 2462:Paderborn 2440:see below 2433:Callinico 2401:suffragan 2373:suffragan 2330:Bishopric 2316:Zacchaeus 2286:Zacchaeus 2081:Aftermath 2030:destroyed 1887:Christian 1871:Armenians 1869:In 1915, 1807:Şanliurfa 1799:Turkomans 1771:Janissary 1752:Janissary 1720:Euphrates 1595:Mirdasids 1539:Hamdānids 1496:olive oil 1477:potassium 1419:al-Waqidi 1291:complex. 1201:ruler of 1098:Herakleia 992:al-Tabari 969:al-Mansur 838:al-Raqqah 785:Ctesiphon 765:Khusrau I 691:Parthians 681:, during 634:, in the 622:, in his 499:Tabqa Dam 476:ar-Raqqah 470:romanized 465:ٱلرَّقَّة 436:Area code 388:Time zone 374:romanized 338:Elevation 86:Euphrates 62:ٱلرَّقَّة 8580:Talbiseh 8575:al-Tabni 8565:al-Susah 8555:al-Suwar 8535:Sirghaya 8450:Saidnaya 8425:Sabburah 8380:Qurqania 8325:Muzayrib 8305:Muhambal 8290:Maskanah 8245:Maaloula 8235:Maabatli 8210:Khanaser 8135:Jindires 8105:Jaramana 8095:al-Jalaa 8070:Huraytan 8050:al-Hirak 8015:al-Hajib 8000:al-Hader 7965:al-Dimas 7930:Busayrah 7880:Ayn Issa 7815:Akhtarin 7786:Zabadani 7681:Qamishli 7532:District 7493:Quneitra 7453:Damascus 7356:Mahmudli 7260:Bir Issa 7254:Ayn Issa 7154:al-Sahel 7097:Masaadah 7013:Huzaymah 6993:al-Hamah 6827:Archived 6809:Archived 6791:Archived 6786:CBC News 6773:Archived 6562:Archived 6447:Archived 6401:Archived 6375:Archived 6349:Archived 6318:Archived 6292:Archived 6270:Archived 6241:cite web 6225:Archived 6203:Archived 6179:Archived 6130:Archived 6106:Archived 6084:Archived 6054:Archived 6027:Archived 5996:Archived 5992:project" 5900:Archived 5896:project" 5870:Archived 5840:Archived 5810:Archived 5780:Archived 5749:Archived 5745:ANF News 5719:Archived 5693:Archived 5667:Archived 5633:cite web 5617:Archived 5590:Archived 5564:Archived 5533:Archived 5483:15 March 5477:Archived 5453:cite web 5411:Archived 5381:Archived 5355:Archived 5329:Archived 5303:Archived 5277:Archived 5251:Archived 5225:Archived 5199:Archived 5173:Archived 5147:Archived 5127:10 March 5118:Archived 5091:Archived 5069:Archived 5050:Archived 5026:Archived 5002:Archived 4998:NBC News 4971:Archived 4940:Archived 4888:Archived 4884:BBC News 4858:Archived 4832:Archived 4802:Archived 4770:Archived 4750:Archived 4725:Archived 4699:Archived 4668:Archived 4637:Archived 4607:Archived 4573:Archived 4544:12 March 4538:Archived 4452:11 March 4446:Archived 4380:20 March 4374:Archived 4300:20 March 4294:Archived 4185:11 March 4176:Archived 4119:Archived 4107:20181988 3904:Archived 3881:11 March 3875:Archived 3691:Ann 6.41 3630:Archived 3558:Archived 3554:BBC News 3511:Archived 3445:19 March 3439:Archived 3395:See also 3286:Average 3168:Average 2600:Rhesaina 2503:Priverno 2491:Servites 2235:and the 2022:Alawites 2006:De facto 1967:Al Qaeda 1860:Cherkess 1830:'Annazah 1748:Turkoman 1736:Al-Ruha' 1695:Ayyubids 1635:al-Rahba 1527:Tulunids 1488:entrepôt 1448:ceramics 1415:Ibn Sa'd 1360:barracks 1236:and the 1199:Hamdanid 1169:towers. 1127:al-Jarud 1117:such as 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