2722:
usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). Edward Lipiński refers to
Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state", and a "pronominal state". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions.
1264:
argue that Chadic and
Egyptian are closely related, and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber. Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997). In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group. Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off. Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by Ehret and
1957:: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from a
1378:. On one hand, the "Hamitic" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic", and an unrelated non-Hamitic "Chadic" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender. On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa.
817:(often called "Ancient Egyptian"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. Coptic is the only stage written
1272:
currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup. Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with
Egyptian, presently with Omotic). Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincing
1488:
Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to
Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there. Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic
3737:'; the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and branches. Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions.
636:
190:
1347:
3567:, place nouns, and instrument nouns. In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender. Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA
825:, which only represent consonants. In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt, but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the
5025:
reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in
Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages. Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple
3361:); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments, as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses.
740:. Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct. Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists.
2266:) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait; the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well.
2324:
Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout
Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness. In addition to these uses, -t also functions as a
3837:" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic, taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to "nisba" adjective derivation.
792:
4393:, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way. Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two, and Semitic has four words for one. Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one", "two", and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand".
1897:. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. These rules also have a number of exceptions:
3936:
A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a
1589:
2110:
where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. For
Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template. In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well.
3944:(s, sh). Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate.
1591:
3047:) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic.
2080:
Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within
Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages. There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use of
5020:
Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. Writing in 2004, John
Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of
3935:
The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout
Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic), and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like.
2079:
At present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations. Moreover, all
1291:
to create a family tree. Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin. Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship. They note the method's inability to detect various
881:
Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. The classification within
877:
There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. Arabic, spoken in both Asia and
3029:
verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived
2845:
In those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying. However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as
1932:
There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA, and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality
862:
A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch; some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical
697:
The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance
3356:
Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective. In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same
3042:
Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic, where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual
1619:
argues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel, however in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from
374:
have not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns. Other widely shared features include a prefix m-
4384:
language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9. Thus, it is possible that the numerals in
2721:
A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state". Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". The construct state is a special,
2109:
A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. This structure is particularly visible in the verbs, and is particularly noticeable in Semitic. Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,
1496:
also argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. Ehret, in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of
1487:
An origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support, and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data. Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic center of its present distribution, "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa." The
1446:
BCE. An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family. Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to
1390:
in the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data. Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. In
1263:
Common trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic. In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to
2323:
The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family. This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns.
1407:
of demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family. An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967. As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly
1271:
Responding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families
754:
There are about 30 Cushitic languages, more if Omotic is included, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern
1320:
first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early
5024:
There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's
2849:
A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. A system K (masculine), T
2386:
Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity), while in others, plural forms are ungendered. In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely
1366:. This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for
1459:
Likewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated. Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa and West Asia. Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high
4400:. Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from
3913:
Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature". Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape
1395:
proposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent "Omotic" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted. These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family.
731:
Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages. The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Most Chadic languages are located in the
2306:(which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (
1623:
With the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both closed and open syllables; many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant. Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare.
10482:
at the Linguist List MultiTree Project: Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming
1438:, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary. The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000
359:, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in the
2117:(have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants). The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated. It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such as
5883:
Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is
878:
Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today, with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers.
1329:
first described them as a "Hamito-Semitic" language family. Müller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist
567:, and that "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and doesn't imply a duality of Semitic and "Hamitic" any more than
1829:
Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. The most widespread constraint is against two different
2525:, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object.
9584:
Ehret, Christopher; Vyas, Deven N.; Assefa, Shiferaw; Gaston, J. Lafayette; Gleason, Tiffany; Kitchen, Andrew (2023). "Ancient Egyptian's Place in the Afroasiatic Language Family". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
1385:
in 1924, with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s. However, Meinhof's "Hamitic" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven by
363:. The reconstructed timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Even the latest plausible dating makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists.
1334:
argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten,
531:
in 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back as
1590:
2508:
are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by
1524:(such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley.
10511:, by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139–145.
3043:
languages varies. There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. Prefixes of ʔ- (
882:
West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE.
698:
or Germanic languages. In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt; since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places.
379:. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes deriving
9119:
Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (2023). "Comparative Afroasiatic Linguistics and the Place of Ancient Egyptian Within the Phylum". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
375:
which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel "a" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence of
1849:, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant
5021:
years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages.
1533:
1860:
A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants"
1570:
1552:
2121:) were then added and lexicalized. Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways.
667:
to constitute a sixth branch. Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a "linguistic phylum" rather than a "language family".
5851:
As Egyptian is spelled without vowels, it is difficult to know whether it had internal change plurals. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. There is also some evidence from
2850:(feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA.
2399:
are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication.
1535:
495:. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as a
475:(Genesis 5:32). Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of the
1572:
1554:
366:
Comparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as the
898:
is a separate branch of Afroasiatic; however, this is only one of several competing theories. About half of current scholarly hypotheses on Ongota's origins align it with Afroasiatic in some way.
3357:
endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see
9367:
Bubenik, Vit (2023). "Reconstructing the Proto-Semitic Nominal and Verbal Systems in the Context of Afroasiatic Languages". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
588:, in 1914. The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia. Due to concerns that "Afroasiatic" could imply the inclusion of
1500:
A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic, most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguist
9348:
1924:
has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals.
543:
has largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German. Several issues with the label
3030:(marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb. Another common trait across the family is the use of a
915:
has been proposed to represent a branch of Afroasiatic. Although an Afroasiatic connection is sometimes viewed as refuted, it continues to be defended by scholars such as Edward Lipiński.
783:. The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770; written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century.
10292:
Souag, Lameen (2023). "Restructured or Archaic? The Hunt for Shared Morphological Innovation Involving Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
4385:
Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes
1464:) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-
13756:
10489:, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of
1615:
Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes).
1512:, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. Scholar
1497:
languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”.
1620:
beginning with a vowel. Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have consonant clusters within a syllable.
571:
implies a duality of Indic and "European". Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement of
1534:
1571:
1553:
1638:
Several Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic. All Afroasiatic languages contain
1325:
named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, "Hamitic," in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876
1300:
A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician
639:
A diagram of the six widely recognized branches of the Afroasiatic family, including some of the larger or more culturally significant languages in each branch.
10217:
Sanker, Chelsea (2023). "Data Limitations and Supplementary Methods in Placing Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
2838:
except for Chadic; some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality and
2096:
as a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology. Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below.
1408:
established. Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed its
10427:
Winand, Jean (2023). "Afroasiatic Lexical Comparison: An Egyptologist's Point of View". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
291:, if counted as a single language, is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in the
851:; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. The two Omotic languages with the most speakers are
10505:, by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129.
1941:). Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of
1838:) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical
327:, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size. There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have since
1363:
1260:(1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals, with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012.
775:. Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers. Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area,
9339:
2842:. In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun. In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun.
1492:, arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, and
717:
and went extinct in the 17th century CE. The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE.
10561:
10330:
Starostin, George (2017). "Macrofamilies and Agricultural Lexicon: Problems and Perspectives". In Robbeets, Martine; Savelyev, Alexander (eds.).
1279:
One way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such as
10311:
Stauder, Andréas (2023). "Egyptian Morphology in Afroasiatic Perspective". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
12954:
1916:
and a sibilant are uncommon. In all attested cases of a dental and a sibilant, the sibilant occurs in first position and the dental in second.
1693:) usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between and or and . In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language
2834:
There is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic. All branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category of
1431:
There is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant is
13089:
13806:
11056:
10494:
10486:
1354:
An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the "
922:
is usually considered part of the Chadic languages; however, Roger Blench has proposed that it may be a separate branch of Afroasiatic.
10153:
Peust, Carsten (2012). "On the Subgrouping of Afro-Asiatic, or: How to use an unrooted phylogenetic tree in historical linguistics".
13746:
1712:" consonants. The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others; they can be realized variously as
847:, spoken in Sudan. Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the
1845:, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or
245:. Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family after
2846:
nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking).
2521:. However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. Some languages in AA have a
2283:
2279:
843:
The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the
643:
Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon are
10375:
10356:
10253:
10056:
10028:
9980:
9961:
9904:
Huehnergard, John (2023). "Proto-Semitic and Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
9824:
Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.).
9712:
9677:
9650:
9631:
9328:
9167:
9148:
7428:
3717:
Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. Three
10519:
12469:
12050:
10417:
12579:
9660:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt (2012). "Typological outline of the Afroasiatic phylum". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
10554:
9177:
Bacovcin, Hezekiah Akiva; Wilson, David (2018). "A New Method for Computational Cladistics: An Afro-Asiatic Case Study".
536:
in the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages.
10038:
Meyer, Ronny; Wolff, H. Ekkehard (2019). "Afroasiatic Linguistic Features and Typologies". In Wolff, H. Ekkehard (ed.).
9198:
Bender, M. Lionel (1978). "Consonant Co-Occurrence Restrictions in Afroasiatic Verb Roots". In Fronzaroli, Pelio (ed.).
11551:
1920:
Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation.
1409:
908:
is not part of Cushitic, but a separate branch. The prevailing opinion, however, is that Beja is a branch of Cushitic.
12736:
10436:
10320:
10301:
10226:
10186:
10143:
10075:
10007:
9913:
9841:
9739:
9594:
9529:
9376:
9273:
9246:
9129:
9101:
9074:
9047:
671:
M. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic;
578:
While Greenberg ultimately popularized the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally by
370:, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries. While systematic
13976:
13966:
13829:
13082:
12712:
11951:
10839:
5945:
391:(m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic).
10514:
10263:
Solleveld, Floris (2020). "Lepsius as a linguist: fieldwork, philology, phonetics, and 'the Hamitic hypothesis'".
1508:
and subsequently spread to Africa. Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-
1460:
civilization". An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see
1256:
There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. Whereas
11870:
11806:
11049:
10844:
675:
lists 375 languages. Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of "
13671:
13659:
3559:
A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns, and is one of the features
1312:
noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by
13971:
13951:
12483:
11725:
10871:
10547:
10446:
Zaborski, Andrzej (1987). "Basic Numerals in Cushitic". In Jungraithmayr, Herrmann; Mueller, Walter W. (eds.).
3834:
2287:
1662:
12234:
10134:
Nichols, Johanna (2003). "Diversity and Stability in Language". In Joseph, Brian D; Janda, Richard D. (eds.).
1326:
438:
13886:
13876:
13871:
13736:
13564:
13348:
13343:
12949:
12596:
11731:
11556:
11342:
11336:
11260:
9604:
Fleming, Harold C. (1983). "Chadic External Relations". In Wolff, H. Ekkehard; Meyer-Bahlburg, Hilke (eds.).
5763:
1751:
is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization,
547:
have led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that the
455:
is mostly used in older Russian sources. The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons of
35:
1313:
516:
13956:
13891:
13861:
13716:
12959:
12944:
12643:
11944:
11931:
11702:
11663:
10717:
9256:
Blažek, Václav (2013). "Levant and North Africa: Afroasiatic linguistic history". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.).
1630:
plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word.
1937:. In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of
1690:
13839:
13741:
13180:
13075:
12939:
12933:
12718:
11991:
11909:
11882:
11586:
11576:
10970:
10859:
2522:
1666:
1476:
speakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 ago, as well as the speakers of the
1465:
9722:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2020). "Contact and Afroasiatic Languages". In Hickey, Raymond (ed.).
13961:
13508:
12505:
12166:
11963:
11761:
11621:
11591:
11581:
11571:
11277:
11042:
10712:
10585:
10479:
10166:
Porkhomovsky, Victor (2020). "Afro-Asiatic Overview". In Vossen, Rainer; Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (eds.).
1854:
1752:
1744:
1469:
356:
110:
13906:
13901:
13896:
13764:
13686:
13681:
13337:
13323:
13098:
12917:
12724:
12700:
12675:
12648:
12631:
11641:
11596:
11566:
11539:
11110:
11065:
10965:
10798:
10679:
10643:
10623:
9622:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2012). "Introduction". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
5941:
804:
520:
254:
9923:
Kaye, Alan S.; Daniels, Peter T. (1992). "Comparative Afroasiatic and General Genetic Linguistics".
9448:
Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2008). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent".
9200:
Atti del secondo Congresso internazionale di linguistica camito-semitica: Firenze, 16-19 aprile 1974
1520:
have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic
13731:
13676:
13447:
13277:
13166:
12964:
12771:
12408:
12396:
12228:
11290:
11283:
11099:
10890:
10657:
10618:
10121:
Militarev, Alexander (2009). "Proto-Afrasian Lexicon Confirming West Asian Homeland: Pastoralism".
3718:
856:
17:
10533:
2286:. Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order, but most Chadic languages have
311:
with 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the Semitic
13545:
13440:
13390:
13369:
13360:
13242:
13159:
13119:
11969:
11894:
11297:
11247:
10977:
10883:
1933:
of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is
246:
9641:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2012a). "Chadic". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
1685:, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. Additionally, the
13701:
13696:
13461:
13433:
13424:
13383:
12983:
12831:
12626:
12402:
12355:
11985:
11902:
11561:
11545:
11353:
11254:
11117:
11093:
10960:
10954:
10923:
10854:
10849:
10732:
10722:
10599:
4381:
1493:
826:
759:, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include
706:
352:
250:
12621:
10245:
890:
There are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:
709:, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. The second is the
13853:
13726:
13706:
13454:
13187:
13029:
12927:
12616:
12419:
12209:
12198:
12160:
11767:
11741:
11646:
11636:
11319:
10697:
10684:
10638:
10592:
10455:
Zaborski, Andrzej (2011). "Afro-Asiatic Languages". In Edzard, Lutz; Jong, Rudolf de (eds.).
10018:
9757:
Gragg, Gene (2019). "Semitic and Afro-Asiatic". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Na‘ama (eds.).
9498:
Edzard, Lutz E. (1992). "The Obligatory Contour Principle and Dissimilation in Afroasiatic".
12730:
12455:
10525:
9704:
6042:
6040:
13834:
13824:
13814:
13664:
13518:
13331:
13215:
13004:
12761:
12569:
12542:
12525:
12493:
12391:
12105:
12030:
11957:
11736:
11713:
11685:
11616:
11527:
11308:
9522:
Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary
9404:
9395:
Diamond, J; Bellwood, P (April 2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions".
5026:
1866:
1655:
1559:
1421:
1331:
376:
367:
12889:
8:
13881:
13654:
13639:
13574:
13376:
13298:
13208:
13201:
13152:
13110:
12781:
12685:
12585:
12574:
12536:
12515:
12413:
12372:
12147:
12129:
12123:
12098:
12091:
12084:
11997:
11980:
11719:
11385:
11372:
11266:
11216:
11073:
10490:
10464:
9158:
Appleyard, David (2012). "Semitic-Cushitic/Omotic Relations". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.).
6037:
5783:
5773:
3021:(TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between
1874:
1713:
1501:
1284:
464:
355:
as to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known as
340:
10689:
10047:
Mous, Maarten (2012). "Cushitic languages". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
9408:
4396:
Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of
1965:
Examples of tones marking lexical and morphological changes in some AA languages, after
1283:, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983. This is also the method used by
13615:
13569:
13484:
13479:
13474:
12695:
12690:
12680:
12663:
12658:
12653:
12637:
12606:
12601:
12554:
12548:
12499:
12444:
12367:
12251:
12215:
12176:
12118:
11925:
11920:
11631:
11390:
11359:
11325:
11313:
11272:
11147:
10821:
10280:
10103:"Once more about glottochronology and the comparative method: the Omotic-Afrasian case"
9847:
9812:
9783:
9745:
9683:
9572:
9556:
9436:
9107:
5925:
3941:
1886:
1709:
1581:
1451:, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples.
1404:
1350:
Distribution of ethnic groups in Africa (Afroasiatic/Hamito-Semitic-speaking in yellow)
749:
701:
There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. The first is the
652:
533:
496:
371:
266:
132:
12792:
12755:
9202:. Istituto di linguistica e di lingue orientale, Università di Firenze. pp. 9–19.
180:
13819:
13796:
13791:
13769:
13711:
13489:
13412:
13305:
12706:
12611:
12591:
12530:
12510:
12221:
12182:
12153:
12141:
12078:
12024:
12002:
11975:
11915:
11888:
11707:
11668:
11658:
11626:
11499:
11425:
11407:
11401:
11303:
11221:
11135:
10996:
10945:
10878:
10432:
10385:
Vernet, Eulàlia (2011). "Semitic Root Incompatibilities and Historical Linguistics".
10371:
10352:
10316:
10297:
10284:
10249:
10222:
10209:
10182:
10139:
10071:
10052:
10024:
10003:
9976:
9957:
9909:
9851:
9837:
9816:
9749:
9735:
9708:
9687:
9673:
9646:
9627:
9590:
9564:
9539:
Ehret, Christopher; Keita, O. Y.; Newman, Paul (2004). "The Origins of Afroasiatic".
9525:
9465:
9461:
9428:
9420:
9372:
9324:
9269:
9242:
9163:
9144:
9125:
9111:
9097:
9070:
9043:
7424:
5874:
Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here.
5778:
4405:
4401:
3018:
2310:), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed.
1921:
1862:
1839:
1748:
1717:
1694:
1682:
1651:
1600:
1392:
1301:
912:
872:
852:
848:
814:
776:
702:
660:
656:
579:
512:
472:
332:
324:
312:
274:
270:
142:
137:
12797:
12786:
12766:
11104:
9877:
Hodge, Carleton T. (1971). "Afroasiatic: An Overview". In Hodge, Carleton T. (ed.).
9766:
Greenberg, Joseph (1960). "An Afro-Asiatic Pattern of Gender and Number Agreement".
9440:
9265:
5911:
Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table.
5893:
The Egyptian passive suffix is solely morphological and does not form a unique stem.
13781:
13774:
13721:
13649:
13644:
13601:
13594:
13524:
13468:
13406:
13312:
13284:
13270:
13256:
13173:
13145:
13133:
13126:
13014:
12874:
12864:
12859:
12813:
12807:
12776:
12669:
12564:
12488:
12426:
12378:
12313:
12306:
12299:
12292:
12285:
12274:
12258:
12193:
12188:
12171:
12112:
12006:
11938:
11849:
11816:
11784:
11680:
11652:
11601:
11522:
11506:
11492:
11474:
11467:
11453:
11413:
11395:
11379:
11365:
11187:
11170:
10913:
10900:
10864:
10834:
10667:
10652:
10633:
10610:
10460:
10402:
10394:
10335:
10272:
10241:
10205:
9995:
9949:
9936:
9932:
9829:
9828:. The World of Linguistics, Volume 11. Berlin: De Mouton Gruyter. pp. 58–444.
9808:
9804:
9775:
9727:
9700:
9665:
9576:
9552:
9548:
9457:
9412:
9305:
9261:
9234:
9186:
9089:
9062:
9035:
5768:
3560:
2505:
1894:
1890:
1882:
1870:
1831:
1596:
1544:
1509:
1489:
1477:
1448:
1387:
1359:
1308:
had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and
1305:
1288:
1280:
919:
838:
772:
768:
726:
710:
692:
664:
648:
644:
593:
556:
504:
344:
328:
320:
304:
278:
262:
258:
147:
127:
122:
12854:
12802:
11794:
10276:
6336:
6334:
13608:
13559:
13513:
13396:
13291:
13263:
13222:
13139:
13009:
12884:
12869:
12838:
12559:
12520:
12385:
12331:
12203:
12065:
11831:
11826:
11691:
11606:
11487:
11480:
11460:
11442:
11347:
11330:
11129:
11009:
11002:
10933:
10928:
10908:
10775:
10702:
10628:
10176:
10087:"The Prehistory of a Dispersal: The Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) Farming Lexicon"
9859:
Hayward, Richard J. (2000). "Afroasiatic". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.).
9318:
7418:
6027:
6025:
6023:
6021:
3937:
2307:
2093:
1878:
1627:
1577:
1540:
1400:
1304:, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. The French orientalist
895:
818:
808:
760:
492:
480:
460:
336:
308:
222:
100:
94:
9971:
Kossmann, Maarten (2012). "Berber". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
7449:
1763:
harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word must match.
1736:
had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas
1504:, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the
30:"Afro-Asiatic" and "Afrasian" redirect here. For the ethnic classification, see
13786:
13554:
13067:
13019:
12879:
12848:
12819:
12450:
12336:
12319:
12269:
12264:
12135:
12072:
11842:
11836:
11756:
11751:
11697:
11674:
11419:
11241:
11198:
11181:
11175:
11153:
11141:
11025:
10829:
10793:
10769:
10764:
10759:
10744:
10707:
10236:
Shay, Erin (2014). "Afroasiatic". In Lieber, Rochelle; Štekauer, Pavol (eds.).
9731:
9669:
6331:
5821:
3730:
1954:
1846:
1639:
1616:
1517:
1473:
1340:
1317:
1265:
901:
844:
756:
737:
714:
635:
601:
300:
296:
234:
69:
10508:
9953:
9833:
6018:
281:. The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to the
13945:
12903:
12843:
12825:
12341:
12325:
12279:
12036:
11856:
11821:
11811:
11789:
11746:
11611:
11192:
11124:
10918:
10803:
10727:
10502:
10102:
10086:
9469:
9424:
9309:
9039:
5842:
Some scholars reconstruct "emphatic" consonants for Egyptian and some do not.
4377:
3734:
2839:
2396:
2299:
1942:
1850:
1756:
1721:
1513:
905:
796:
764:
488:
388:
316:
11034:
9416:
9190:
1607:
Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features.
1346:
13691:
13499:
13233:
11800:
11012:? (unclassified; possibly Nilo-Saharan, transitional or a language isolate)
10529:
9868:
Hetzron, Robert (2009). "Afroasiatic Languages". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.).
9568:
9513:
The Historical Reconstruction of Southern Cushitic Phonology and Vocabulary
9432:
5937:
3726:
3044:
3026:
2114:
2089:
1958:
1732:
consonants in the different branches. It is generally agreed that only the
1686:
1382:
1370:'s highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 book
1367:
1257:
552:
528:
415:. Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance include
380:
230:
189:
61:
10349:
Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian. Volume 1: A Phonological Introduction
9999:
9795:
Greenberg, Joseph (1950a). "The Patterning of Root Morphemes in Semitic".
9238:
9093:
9066:
5999:
5961:'to rend, tear', a root he reconstructs from the two words listed here in
5803:
In this display, the universally recognized primary branches of AA are in
799:(c. 2690 BCE), containing the first complete sentence in Ancient Egyptian.
166:
10398:
9139:
Amha, Azeb (2012). "Omotic". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
5985:
2854:
Masculine, Feminine, Plural agreement patterns in N T N, using data from
2333:
1563:
1521:
1322:
1309:
295:
and North Africa. Other major Afroasiatic languages include the Cushitic
292:
31:
10539:
10515:
A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions
10339:
2278:
Proto-Afroasiatic had. Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are
13866:
13585:
13535:
13401:
11447:
10692:? (unclassified; possibly Cushitic, transitional or a language isolate)
10407:
9944:
Kossmann, Maarten (2007). "Berber Morphology". In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.).
9560:
5929:
5902:
The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning.
3564:
3031:
3022:
2392:
2329:
2325:
2303:
2275:
1938:
1737:
1381:
The first scholar to question the existence of "Hamitic languages" was
822:
780:
733:
672:
623:—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, the
10068:
Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction
9787:
9477:
Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2021).
7398:
5833:
Fleming excludes South Cushitic, Yaaku, and Beja from Cushitic proper.
604:
in 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars.
9886:
Huehnergard, John (2004). "Afro-Asiatic". In Woodard, In R.D. (ed.).
5853:
3722:
2835:
1842:
1733:
1729:
1701:
1697:, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme at all.
1658:
1647:
1643:
384:
226:
174:
160:
156:
65:
7376:
7374:
821:
to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian
9779:
9547:(5702). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1680.
7927:
4397:
2388:
2387:
attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (
2263:
1905:
1760:
1725:
1674:
1670:
1273:
676:
500:
484:
348:
9341:
Links between Cushitic, Omotic, Chadic and the position of Kujarge
9118:
7455:
6340:
6031:
2074:
1772:
Examples of root consonant incompatibilities from Egyptian, after
13102:
9347:. 5th International Conference of Cushitic and Omotic languages.
7681:
7679:
7677:
7675:
7371:
4390:
4386:
3571:
that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages.
1661:
consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing
1481:
1355:
1336:
680:
624:
564:
399:
In current scholarship, the most common names for the family are
13543:
8887:
7322:
7320:
7318:
7017:
7015:
13194:
13043:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
13024:
12922:
10448:
Proceedings of the Fourth International Hamito-Semitic Congress
8875:
8785:
8532:
8416:
8365:
8281:
7951:
7868:
7554:
7485:
7110:
7108:
6363:
6361:
6291:
6289:
6287:
6228:
6144:
6142:
6140:
6138:
6125:
6123:
2529:
Subject-Object case marking in some AA branches, using data in
2081:
1705:
1505:
1292:
strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA.
360:
288:
282:
238:
10419:
A Concatenative Analysis of Diachronic Afro-Asiatic Morphology
9478:
8841:
8839:
8565:
8563:
8561:
8559:
8259:
8257:
8244:
8242:
8240:
8196:
8128:
8126:
8034:
8032:
7802:
7672:
7598:
7596:
7514:
7512:
7156:
7154:
7152:
7150:
6346:
6247:
6245:
6243:
6194:
6192:
6190:
6188:
6186:
1472:(5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates the
592:
languages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name "Afrasian" (
8995:
8797:
8394:
8392:
8159:
8157:
8155:
8153:
8113:
8111:
8109:
8107:
8105:
8065:
8063:
8061:
8059:
7893:
7891:
7889:
7887:
7885:
7883:
7756:
7754:
7619:
7617:
7615:
7613:
7611:
7544:
7542:
7361:
7359:
7315:
7078:
7012:
6811:
6809:
6716:
6714:
6385:
6274:
6272:
5933:
5921:
5807:. Individual languages designated as primary branches are in
2085:
1934:
1700:
Most, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish between
1678:
1480:
variety of the Berber languages with an expansion across the
242:
225:(or "phylum") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly in
77:
73:
8983:
8947:
8851:
8522:
8520:
8476:
8080:
8078:
7344:
7166:
7105:
7054:
6981:
6846:
6844:
6842:
6840:
6838:
6836:
6745:
6743:
6741:
6687:
6641:
6639:
6637:
6635:
6633:
6631:
6563:
6561:
6559:
6557:
6555:
6540:
6484:
6482:
6480:
6358:
6306:
6304:
6284:
6135:
6120:
4389:, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimes
3841:"Nisba" derivation in Semitic and Egyptian, using data from
1646:; some branches have additional types of consonants such as
791:
9888:
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages
8899:
8836:
8826:
8824:
8749:
8662:
8556:
8452:
8317:
8305:
8254:
8237:
8184:
8138:
8123:
8090:
8029:
7993:
7915:
7856:
7691:
7660:
7629:
7593:
7566:
7529:
7527:
7509:
7305:
7303:
7301:
7226:
7147:
6455:
6453:
6240:
6183:
6078:
6076:
705:, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the
476:
468:
456:
285:, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch.
8971:
8935:
8727:
8725:
8440:
8404:
8389:
8377:
8269:
8150:
8102:
8056:
7903:
7880:
7778:
7766:
7751:
7650:
7648:
7646:
7644:
7608:
7539:
7497:
7356:
7274:
6911:
6909:
6907:
6806:
6711:
6582:
6580:
6578:
6576:
6269:
5033:
Some widely recognized cognates in Afroasiatic, following
3721:
prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- '
2282:, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are
1901:
velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals;
1358:" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist
10503:
Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian
9007:
8698:
8616:
8614:
8544:
8517:
8464:
8428:
8293:
8075:
7727:
7583:
7581:
7386:
7332:
7095:
7093:
6868:
6833:
6760:
6758:
6738:
6699:
6628:
6552:
6477:
6421:
6321:
6319:
6301:
6216:
6204:
3741:
Common verbal extensions in Afroasiatic, using data from
2403:
Some examples of internal plurals in AA, using data from
10429:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
10313:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
10294:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
10219:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9906:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9587:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9369:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9323:. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
9122:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
8959:
8923:
8911:
8863:
8821:
8587:
8329:
8227:
8225:
8223:
8174:
8172:
7844:
7834:
7832:
7703:
7524:
7298:
7286:
7238:
7202:
7125:
7123:
7027:
7002:
7000:
6998:
6996:
6921:
6856:
6821:
6794:
6770:
6675:
6450:
6397:
6257:
6093:
6091:
6073:
5865:
Forms that do not follow the pattern are in parentheses.
1908:; However, there are no Proto-Semitic verbal roots with
555:"Hamitic" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition,
9726:(2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 571–591.
8722:
8686:
8599:
8495:
8493:
8491:
8208:
7983:
7981:
7968:
7966:
7819:
7817:
7715:
7641:
7190:
7178:
7135:
7044:
7042:
6971:
6969:
6904:
6573:
6161:
6159:
6157:
6006:
3575:
Examples of m-prefix noun derivations, using data from
10196:
Sands, Bonny (2009). "Africa's Linguistic Diversity".
9695:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt (2018). "Afroasiatic Languages".
8761:
8674:
8611:
8353:
8005:
7578:
7473:
7461:
7437:
7090:
6944:
6942:
6940:
6938:
6936:
6755:
6604:
6592:
6528:
6518:
6516:
6514:
6501:
6499:
6497:
6465:
6440:
6438:
6436:
6409:
6373:
6316:
6171:
6063:
6061:
6059:
6057:
6055:
4412:
Numerals from throughout Afroasiatic, using data from
2726:
Noun states in different AA branches, using data from
1343:" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites.
257:. Most linguists divide the family into six branches:
8737:
8220:
8169:
7829:
7739:
7120:
6993:
6954:
6110:
6108:
6106:
6088:
5932:^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a
9476:
8809:
8773:
8710:
8650:
8638:
8626:
8575:
8505:
8488:
8341:
8044:
8017:
7978:
7963:
7939:
7814:
7790:
7262:
7039:
6966:
6880:
6651:
6154:
6046:
3563:
used to diagnose membership in the family. It forms
3012:
2125:
Examples of verbal templates in AA languages, after
10094:
Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis
10020:
Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar
7250:
7214:
7066:
6933:
6782:
6726:
6511:
6494:
6433:
6052:
3365:The "suffix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following
3051:The "prefix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following
1339:" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "
894:Linguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-extinct
813:The Egyptian branch consists of a single language,
9207:Bender, M. Lionel (1997). "Upside-Down Afrasian".
6892:
6663:
6616:
6103:
5717:'to rend, to tear (of an animal tearing its prey)'
4404:, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from
10368:Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian. Volume 3: m-
10110:Orientalia et Classica VI: Aspekty Komparatistiki
10096:. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
9615:Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory
9032:The Ancient Egyptian Language: A Historical Study
3351:
3037:
13943:
13097:
10178:A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification
10092:. In Bellwood, Peter S.; Renfrew, Colin (eds.).
10051:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 342–422.
9664:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 505–624.
9645:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 236–341.
9640:
9538:
9160:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9143:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 423–504.
8893:
7404:
7380:
4425:
2318:
10457:Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics
10042:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 246–325.
9975:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–101.
9890:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–159.
9721:
9621:
9394:
8482:
7933:
7685:
7491:
7326:
7114:
6693:
6367:
6295:
6148:
5957:Ehret's dictionary lists "Proto-South-Cushitic
5375:Hausa halshe(háɽ.ʃè) 'tongue'; lashe 'to lick'
3828:
2293:
2075:Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology
1527:
331:, including Egyptian and the Semitic languages
10238:The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology
9222:Comparative Morphology of the Omotic Languages
9176:
7456:Almansa-Villatoro & Štubňová Nigrelli 2023
7084:
7021:
6341:Almansa-Villatoro & Štubňová Nigrelli 2023
6032:Almansa-Villatoro & Štubňová Nigrelli 2023
3948:Pronouns in the Afroasiatic family, following
3549:
2104:
13083:
11064:
11050:
10555:
10240:. Oxford University Press. pp. 573–590.
10066:Orel, Vladimir E.; Stolbova, Olga V. (1995).
10040:The Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics
9863:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–98.
9626:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–17.
9606:Studies in Chadic and Afroasiatic linguistics
5820:Old East Africa Cushitic =South Cushitic and
2262:As part of these templates, the alternation (
27:Large language family of Africa and West Asia
13927:Families with more than 30 languages are in
13053:Families with more than 30 languages are in
10170:. Oxford University Press. pp. 269–274.
10165:
10065:
9992:The Akkadian Verb and Its Semitic Background
9583:
9296:Blažek, Václav (2018). "Cushitic Numerals".
8989:
7350:
7232:
7160:
6251:
6234:
6198:
5080:
3940:(n, m), whereas the third person displays a
2340:Use of T on feminine nouns, using data from
1766:
1372:
630:
583:
507:being totally unrelated to Hebrew. The term
446:
10487:Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees
10459:(Managing Editors Online ed.). Brill.
9922:
9903:
9894:
9885:
9697:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
9694:
9659:
9320:Archaeology, Language, and the African Past
9059:Coptic: A Grammar of its Six Major Dialects
8905:
8881:
8845:
8791:
8755:
8668:
8569:
8538:
8458:
8422:
8371:
8323:
8311:
8287:
8263:
8248:
8190:
8144:
8132:
8096:
8038:
7999:
7957:
7921:
7909:
7874:
7862:
7697:
7666:
7635:
7602:
7572:
7560:
7518:
7420:Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE
7365:
7280:
6915:
6815:
6720:
6352:
6278:
5042:
3554:
2534:
2298:Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of
1966:
13090:
13076:
11057:
11043:
10562:
10548:
10495:short annotations of the talks given there
10037:
9989:
9872:(2 ed.). Routledge. pp. 545–550.
9794:
9447:
9283:Blažek, Václav (2017). "Omotic Numerals".
9258:The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration
9215:. Kölner Institut für Afrikanistik: 19–34.
8977:
8941:
8470:
8446:
8410:
8398:
8383:
8275:
8202:
8163:
8117:
8069:
7897:
7808:
7760:
7623:
7548:
7503:
7423:. Princeton University Press. p. 88.
6874:
6850:
6749:
6705:
6645:
6567:
6488:
6427:
6391:
6310:
6222:
6082:
3576:
2829:
2408:
885:
10569:
10406:
10329:
10262:
10120:
10100:
10084:
9823:
9765:
9385:
9157:
9013:
9001:
8803:
8526:
8434:
8299:
8084:
7533:
7479:
7467:
7392:
7309:
7292:
7208:
7184:
7172:
7060:
7033:
6987:
6862:
6827:
6800:
6681:
6586:
6546:
6459:
6403:
6263:
6129:
2855:
1669:. In all AA languages, consonants can be
1461:
1295:
957:
952:
194:Distribution of the Afroasiatic languages
10454:
10445:
10168:The Oxford Handbook of African Languages
10016:
9970:
9943:
9768:Journal of the American Oriental Society
9761:(2 ed.). Routledge. pp. 22–48.
9179:Transactions of the Philological Society
8965:
8953:
8929:
8917:
8869:
8857:
8830:
8593:
8335:
7099:
6764:
6610:
6534:
6471:
6415:
6210:
6165:
5115:(possibly) Hausa bùgaː 'to hit, strike
4421:
3925:
3750:
2739:
2731:
2500:
2368:yārinyà-r̃ 'the girl' (r̃ < final -t)
1587:
1568:
1550:
1531:
1345:
859:, with about 1.2 million speakers each.
790:
634:
299:with 45 million native speakers, Chadic
51:Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, Afrasian
10310:
10246:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199641642.013.0032
10133:
9867:
9858:
9826:The Languages and Linguistics of Africa
9612:
9603:
9500:Journal of Afroasiatic Languages (IAAL)
9366:
9228:
8731:
8704:
8680:
8359:
8011:
7654:
7587:
7244:
7129:
6788:
6776:
6325:
6177:
6097:
5034:
3846:
3746:
3580:
1276:on which to base genetic distinctions.
937:
932:Some proposed Afroasiatic subdivisions
926:
551:component inaccurately suggests that a
467:passage: "Semitic" from the first-born
14:
13944:
10426:
10415:
10384:
10365:
10346:
10216:
10174:
10136:The Handbook of Historical Linguistics
9497:
9337:
9316:
9295:
9282:
9255:
9219:
9206:
9197:
9083:
8767:
8743:
8656:
8620:
7850:
7838:
7823:
7796:
7784:
7772:
7721:
7443:
7338:
7268:
7196:
7141:
7072:
7006:
6975:
6960:
6898:
4417:
4413:
3842:
3742:
3584:
2538:
2118:
1773:
1399:Greenberg relied on his own method of
947:
755:Cushitic. Only one Cushitic language,
13071:
11038:
10543:
10422:(Thesis). University of Pennsylvania.
10291:
10195:
10152:
9876:
9756:
9705:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.15
9519:
9510:
9162:. de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 38–53.
9056:
9029:
8815:
8779:
8716:
8692:
8644:
8605:
8581:
8550:
8499:
8347:
8231:
8214:
8178:
8050:
7987:
7972:
7745:
7733:
7416:
7256:
7220:
7048:
6948:
6927:
6886:
6732:
6669:
6657:
6622:
6598:
6522:
6505:
6444:
6379:
6114:
6067:
6012:
5962:
5075:
5038:
3949:
3780:i-p-paris (> *i-n-paris) 'be cut'
3777:mi-t-gurum 'agree (with one another)'
3366:
3052:
2727:
2530:
2517:, and the accusative to be marked by
2404:
2341:
2126:
1610:
942:
519:, following an earlier suggestion by
471:, and "Hamitic" from the second-born
10465:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0008
10334:. John Benjamins. pp. 215–233.
10235:
10046:
9479:"Ethnologue: Languages of the World"
9138:
8632:
8511:
8023:
7945:
7709:
5739:'to snatch violently from, tear out'
3712:
2735:
1904:dental consonants can co-occur with
1633:
1403:of vocabulary items rather than the
10450:. John Benjamins. pp. 317–347.
9354:from the original on 9 October 2022
7417:Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023).
5986:"Statistical Summaries; Ethnologue"
2099:
863:aspects of Afroasiatic morphology.
713:, which was formerly spoken on the
515:had already been coined in 1781 by
24:
9861:African Languages: An Introduction
9524:. University of California Press.
9485:. Dallas, Texas: SIL International
6047:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2021
5992:
5978:
5936:of unknown quality. ʔ indicates a
3017:There is no agreement about which
1743:A form of long-distance consonant
1321:scholars of Afroasiatic. In 1855,
487:, while Ham was the father of the
307:with 25 million, and the Cushitic
303:with over 34 million, the Semitic
25:
13988:
10509:Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches
10473:
10332:Language Dispersal Beyond Farming
10296:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 303–318.
9948:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 429–446.
9908:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 139–160.
9589:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 255–277.
9371:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 223–254.
5856:transcriptions of Egyptian words.
3013:Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs)
1953:The majority of AA languages are
1759:. Several Omotic languages have "
795:Seal impression from the tomb of
615:("tongue") and the Egyptian word
10315:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 53–136.
10210:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00124.x
10198:Language and Linguistics Compass
10123:Journal of Language Relationship
9724:The Handbook of Language Contact
9462:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00085.x
9450:Language and Linguistics Compass
7410:
5951:
5924:ˇ over a vowel indicates rising
5914:
5905:
5896:
5887:
5877:
5868:
5859:
5845:
5836:
5615:'sour'; Hausa (t)sʼáː.mí 'sour'
3034:imperative for verbs of motion.
2397:"internal-a" or "broken" plurals
1927:
663:. Most specialists consider the
611:—based on the Afroasiastic root
448:Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft
188:
10431:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 35–50.
10221:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 19–34.
10138:. Blackwell. pp. 283–310.
9946:Morphologies of Asia and Africa
9608:. Helmut Baske. pp. 17–31.
9266:10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm815
5946:comparison of related languages
5827:
5814:
5797:
1912:and a sibilant, and roots with
647:(also called "Libyco-Berber"),
9937:10.1080/00437956.1992.12098319
9809:10.1080/00437956.1950.11659378
9553:10.1126/science.306.5702.1680c
9209:Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere
9124:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 3–18.
9088:. Cambridge University Press.
9034:. Cambridge University Press.
9022:
7405:Ehret, Keita & Newman 2004
7381:Ehret, Keita & Newman 2004
2288:subject-verb-object word order
445:to describe the family in his
351:. There is no consensus among
13:
1:
10277:10.1080/17597536.2020.1760066
10181:. Stanford University Press.
10101:Militarev, Alexander (2005).
10085:Militarev, Alexander (2002).
9990:Kouwenberg, N. J. C. (2010).
6049:, Summary by language family.
5764:Afroasiatic phonetic notation
4450:West Central Oromo (Cushitic)
3808:m-dabaal 'gather each other'
3791:i-ttə-ska 'it has been built'
3358:
3007:
2664:Accusative/absolutive/unbound
2319:Grammatical gender and number
2269:
1558:Speech sample in the Semitic
1432:
503:are ascribed to Shem despite
36:Afro-Asiatic (disambiguation)
8894:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012a
5972:
5752:PEC='Proto-Eastern Cushtic'.
4426:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012a
2294:Reduplication and gemination
1654:. AA languages tend to have
1528:Phonological characteristics
7:
9870:The World's Major Languages
9613:Fleming, Harold C. (2006).
9520:Ehret, Christopher (1995).
9511:Ehret, Christopher (1980).
9386:Diakonoff, Igor M. (1988).
9260:. Blackwell. pp. 1–8.
8483:Frajzyngier & Shay 2020
7934:Frajzyngier & Shay 2020
7686:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
7492:Diamond & Bellwood 2003
7327:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
7115:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6694:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6368:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6296:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6149:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
5756:
5015:
4371:
3930:
3550:Common derivational affixes
2879:Old South Arabian (Semitic)
2523:marked nominative alignment
2246:əkənnəf (neg. imperfective)
2105:Consonantal root structures
1466:Southern Cushitic languages
1454:
1447:rapidly restructure due to
1426:
786:
743:
99:One of the world's primary
10:
13993:
13747:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric
10387:Journal of Semitic Studies
9899:(3 ed.). Eisenbrauns.
9895:Huehnergard, John (2011).
9732:10.1002/9781119485094.ch29
9670:10.1002/9781119485094.ch29
9220:Bender, M. Lionel (2000).
9086:Ancient Egyptian Phonology
7085:Bacovcin & Wilson 2018
7022:Bacovcin & Wilson 2018
6000:"Afro-Asiatic; Ethnologue"
2336:marker in some languages.
1562:language, a descendant of
1470:Savanna Pastoral Neolithic
1419:
1314:August Ludwig von Schlözer
870:
866:
836:
802:
747:
724:
690:
627:—have also been proposed.
517:August Ludwig von Schlözer
29:
13915:
13852:
13805:
13755:
13635:
13628:
13583:
13534:
13498:
13423:
13359:
13322:
13232:
13109:
13038:
12997:
12974:
12913:
12902:
12746:
12479:
12468:
12436:
12363:
12354:
12243:
12060:
12049:
12016:
11878:
11869:
11777:
11535:
11521:
11435:
11230:
11212:
11163:
11081:
11072:
11066:Primary language families
11019:
10988:
10944:
10899:
10820:
10786:
10752:
10743:
10675:
10666:
10609:
10577:
10520:"Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?"
10049:The Afroasiatic Languages
10017:Lipiński, Edward (2001).
9973:The Afroasiatic Languages
9954:10.1515/9781575065663-022
9834:10.1515/9783110421668-002
9662:The Afroasiatic Languages
9643:The Afroasiatic Languages
9624:The Afroasiatic Languages
9141:The Afroasiatic Languages
9084:Allen, James P. (2020a).
5730:'to cut into long strips'
5069:
5066:
5063:
5060:
5057:
5054:
5051:
5048:
4988:
4985:
4982:
4979:
4958:
4933:
4930:
4927:
4924:
4903:
4878:
4875:
4872:
4869:
4848:
4823:
4820:
4817:
4814:
4793:
4768:
4765:
4762:
4759:
4738:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4683:
4658:
4655:
4652:
4649:
4628:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4573:
4548:
4545:
4542:
4539:
4518:
4493:
4490:
4487:
4484:
4463:
4431:
4342:
4322:
4319:
4316:
4255:
4156:
4154:'you' (masc. sing., dep.)
4104:
4098:
3880:
3794:mmu-bḍa 'divide oneself'
3534:
3531:
3522:
3509:
3506:
3497:
3489:
3480:
3477:
3458:
3443:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3415:
3398:
3395:
3327:
3324:
3321:
3303:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3266:
3260:
3234:
3231:
3203:
3179:
3145:
3142:
3130:
3104:
3101:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3019:tenses, aspects, or moods
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2235:
2187:
2063:
2048:
2039:
2030:
2012:
1980:
1975:
1767:Consonant incompatibility
1415:
832:
805:Ancient Egyptian language
720:
686:
631:Distribution and branches
521:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
187:
173:
155:
116:
106:
95:Linguistic classification
93:
83:
55:
50:
45:
11883:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
10175:Ruhlen, Merritt (1991).
9310:10.24425/for.2018.124678
9057:Allen, James P. (2020).
9040:10.1017/CBO9781139506090
9030:Allen, James P. (2013).
5790:
5263:'age group, generation';
5081:Orel & Stolbova 1995
4186:'you' (fem. sing., dep.)
4096:'you' (masc. sing. ind.)
3962:Beja Cushitic (Baniamer)
3555:M-prefix noun derivation
2313:
2274:It remains unclear what
1948:
982:Old East Africa Cushitic
736:, with the exception of
13977:Ethnic groups in Europe
13967:Ethnic groups in Africa
13924:have no living members.
13807:East and Southeast Asia
13050:have no living members.
9417:10.1126/science.1078208
9229:Beylage, Peter (2018).
9191:10.1111/1467-968X.12128
8906:Kaye & Daniels 1992
8882:Kaye & Daniels 1992
8846:Kaye & Daniels 1992
5628:'to begin to turn sour'
5286:'grandfather, ancestor'
4441:Akkadian (East Semitic)
4128:'you' (fem. sing. ind.)
3977:East Semitic (Akkadian)
2830:Modifiers and agreement
2249:-e:-dbil- (present pl)
2241:da:n-bi:l (present sg)
2238:əknəf (neg. perfective)
2113:Most Semitic verbs are
1881:), "front consonants" (
1807:h, ḥ, ẖ, q, k, g, ṯ, ḏ
1484:in the 5th century CE.
1374:Die Sprache der Hamiten
1219:African North Afrasian
886:Other proposed branches
394:
13030:Unclassified languages
12984:list of sign languages
11952:Northeastern Tasmanian
10779:(possibly independent)
10416:Wilson, David (2020).
10366:Takács, Gábor (2008).
10347:Takács, Gábor (1999).
10023:. Peeters Publishers.
9338:Blench, Roger (2008).
9317:Blench, Roger (2006).
8978:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8942:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8447:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8411:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8399:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8384:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8276:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8203:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8164:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8118:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8070:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7898:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7624:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7549:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7504:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6875:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6851:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6750:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6706:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6646:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6568:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6489:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6428:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6392:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6223:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6083:Meyer & Wolff 2019
4456:Gidar (Central Chadic)
3965:East Cushitic (Somali)
3577:Meyer & Wolff 2019
2409:Meyer & Wolff 2019
2280:verb-initial languages
2228:əkǎnnǎf (imperfective)
1604:
1585:
1566:
1548:
1373:
1351:
1296:Classification history
827:Coptic Orthodox Church
800:
707:Libyco-Berber alphabet
640:
597:
584:
447:
34:. For other uses, see
13972:Ethnic groups in Asia
13952:Afroasiatic languages
13005:Constructed languages
10571:Afroasiatic languages
10000:10.1515/9781575066240
9897:A Grammar of Akkadian
9879:Afroasiatic: A Survey
9759:The Semitic Languages
9239:10.1515/9781646022021
9094:10.1017/9781108751827
9067:10.1515/9781646020867
7407:, pp. 1680–1681.
5122:'kill (with a sword)'
5087:to strike, to squeeze
5027:sound correspondences
4459:Bench (North Omotic)
4447:Beja (North Cushitic)
4444:Arabic (West Semitic)
3980:West Semitic (Arabic)
3926:Vocabulary comparison
3819:pr-tj 'is sent forth'
3805:t-dabil 'be gathered'
3802:s-dabil 'make gather'
2501:Noun cases and states
2374:t-ʔo:r 'the daughter'
2372:ʔo:(r)-t 'a daughter'
2035:(passive imperative)
1594:
1575:
1557:
1538:
1468:and the East African
1349:
1164:North-South Afrasian
794:
638:
377:pharyngeal fricatives
203:Afroasiatic languages
11552:Binanderean–Goilalan
10526:Afro-Asiatic webpage
10522:by Rolf Theil (2006)
10265:Language and History
9617:. Otto Harrassowitz.
4215:'you' (plural, dep.)
3983:Berber (Tashelhiyt)
3959:North Omotic (Yemsa)
3906:upper, which is upon
3774:u-š-apris 'make cut'
3763:Reflexive/middle *t-
3352:"Suffix conjugation"
3038:"Prefix conjugation"
2391:) and/or insertion (
2284:verb-final languages
2256:-dabi:l- (negative)
2217:mwaát (imperfective)
1462:Further subdivisions
1422:Afroasiatic homeland
1332:Karl Richard Lepsius
1101:Central Afroasiatic
927:Further subdivisions
451:(1876). The variant
441:introduced the name
368:fourth millennium BC
353:historical linguists
329:died or gone extinct
13957:Afroasiatic peoples
13565:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
13349:Northwest Caucasian
13344:Northeast Caucasian
12834:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
12737:Tequiraca–Canichana
12580:Harákmbut–Katukinan
11343:Northwest Caucasian
11337:Northeast Caucasian
11261:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
10491:V.M. Illich-Svitych
10340:10.1075/z.215.09sta
9409:2003Sci...300..597D
8884:, pp. 440–441.
8860:, pp. 317–318.
8794:, pp. 523–524.
8553:, pp. 238–239.
8425:, pp. 539–540.
8374:, pp. 533–534.
8290:, pp. 535–536.
8205:, pp. 266–267.
7960:, pp. 529–530.
7877:, pp. 517–519.
7811:, pp. 167–168.
7787:, pp. 323–332.
7712:, pp. 439–440.
7341:, pp. 148–150.
7063:, pp. 398–399.
6990:, pp. 312–313.
6549:, pp. 342–343.
6237:, pp. 269–270.
6015:, pp. 559–580.
5942:reconstructed forms
5784:Nostratic languages
5774:Languages of Africa
5417:'to die, to be ill'
5136:'to strike, pound'
5113:'to strike, beat';
5045:
4428:
3968:West Chadic (Hausa)
3952:
3849:
3753:
3587:
3369:
3055:
2858:
2749:Free/absolute state
2742:
2541:
2443:Teshelhiyt (Berber)
2411:
2395:). These so-called
2344:
2129:
2028:(active imperative)
1969:
1887:alveolar consonants
1776:
1502:Alexander Militarev
1285:Alexander Militarev
1143:East–West Afrasian
933:
565:racial connotations
459:as attested in the
237:, and parts of the
13830:Austronesian–Ongan
13629:Proposed groupings
12456:Tarascan/Purépecha
11945:Northern Tasmanian
11703:South Bougainville
11664:North Bougainville
10399:10.1093/jss/fgq056
9515:. Dietrich Reimer.
9388:Afrasian Languages
9224:. Lincoln Europea.
9004:, p. 317-318.
8956:, p. 280-281.
8806:, p. 314-315.
8541:, p. 140-141.
7936:, p. 572-573.
7775:, p. 153-154.
7736:, p. 77, 488.
7563:, p. 511-512.
7175:, p. 204-205.
6930:, p. 225-227.
6394:, p. 252-253.
6355:, p. 138-139.
6132:, p. 315-316.
5129:'to squeeze, tear'
5032:
4453:Lele (East Chadic)
4411:
3971:East Chadic (Mubi)
3947:
3942:sibilant consonant
3859:Derived adjective
3840:
3829:"Nisba" derivation
3771:Akkadian (Semitic)
3740:
3574:
3382:Akkadian (Semitic)
3364:
3068:Akkadian (Semitic)
3050:
2957:relative verb form
2853:
2772:Emphatic: malkətā
2725:
2557:Wolaitta (Omotic)
2554:Akkadian (Semitic)
2528:
2402:
2339:
2220:kêt (qualitative)
2214:-i:-dbil- (aorist)
2211:əknǎf (perfective)
2208:iparras- (present)
2191:iprus- (preterite)
2148:Coptic (Egyptian)
2145:Ron/Daffo (Chadic)
2136:Akkadian (Semitic)
2124:
1964:
1783:cannot occur with
1771:
1652:lateral consonants
1611:Syllable structure
1605:
1586:
1567:
1549:
1516:and archaeologist
1405:comparative method
1352:
1316:in 1781. In 1844,
931:
801:
750:Cushitic languages
641:
600:) was proposed by
534:Isidore of Seville
527:was first used by
497:Canaanite language
13962:Language families
13939:
13938:
13848:
13847:
13840:Sino-Austronesian
13624:
13623:
13099:Language families
13065:
13064:
13015:Language isolates
12993:
12992:
12898:
12897:
12464:
12463:
12350:
12349:
12045:
12044:
11992:Western Tasmanian
11910:Eastern Tasmanian
11865:
11864:
11587:East Geelvink Bay
11517:
11516:
11208:
11207:
11032:
11031:
11026:extinct languages
10816:
10815:
10812:
10811:
10586:Proto-Afroasiatic
10377:978-90-47-42379-9
10358:978-90-04-11538-5
10255:978-0-19-964164-2
10070:. Leiden: Brill.
10058:978-0-521-86533-3
10030:978-90-429-0815-4
9982:978-0-521-86533-3
9963:978-1-57506-566-3
9714:978-0-19-938465-5
9679:978-0-521-86533-3
9652:978-0-521-86533-3
9633:978-0-521-86533-3
9403:(5619): 597–603.
9330:978-0-7591-0466-2
9169:978-3-11-018613-0
9150:978-0-521-86533-3
8990:Porkhomovsky 2020
8707:, pp. 88–90.
8695:, pp. 27–34.
8217:, pp. 40–41.
7430:978-0-691-24410-5
7351:Ehret et al. 2023
7247:, pp. 86–87.
7233:Porkhomovsky 2020
7199:, pp. 82–83.
7161:Porkhomovsky 2020
7144:, pp. 87–88.
6779:, pp. 78–80.
6601:, pp. 25–26.
6382:, pp. 23–24.
6252:Porkhomovsky 2020
6235:Porkhomovsky 2020
6213:, pp. 21–22.
6199:Porkhomovsky 2020
5779:Languages of Asia
5746:
5745:
5207:*kamaʔ- / *kamay-
5052:Proto-Afroasiatic
5013:
5012:
4406:Ethiopian Semitic
4402:Nilotic languages
4369:
4368:
3911:
3910:
3826:
3825:
3816:s-ꜥnḫ 'make live'
3788:ssu-fəɣ 'let out'
3713:Verbal extensions
3710:
3709:
3547:
3546:
3349:
3348:
3005:
3004:
2827:
2826:
2823:Annexed: wə-ryaz
2777:Coptic (Egyptian)
2760:Aramaic (Semitic)
2755:Additional state
2719:
2718:
2498:
2497:
2384:
2383:
2380:bin-t 'daughter'
2360:Arabic (Semitic)
2260:
2259:
2231:i:-dbil- (modal)
2225:iptaras (perfect)
2119:verbal extensions
2090:vowel lengthening
2072:
2071:
1995:, nominative case
1988:, absolutive case
1981:Somali (Cushitic)
1895:labial consonants
1891:liquid consonants
1832:labial consonants
1827:
1826:
1823:ꜥ, z, q, g, d, ḏ
1749:consonant harmony
1634:Consonant systems
1595:Speech sample in
1592:
1576:Speech sample in
1573:
1555:
1539:Speech sample in
1536:
1302:Judah ibn Quraysh
1254:
1253:
913:Meroitic language
873:Semitic languages
849:Nilotic languages
703:Numidian language
580:Maurice Delafosse
513:Semitic languages
357:Proto-Afroasiatic
325:Wolaitta language
323:, and the Omotic
283:African continent
213:), also known as
199:
198:
111:Proto-Afroasiatic
101:language families
16:(Redirected from
13984:
13907:Proto-Euphratean
13633:
13632:
13541:
13540:
13509:Great Andamanese
13092:
13085:
13078:
13069:
13068:
12911:
12910:
12865:Huaorani/Waorani
12749:(extant in 2000)
12713:Esmeralda–Yaruro
12484:Andoque–Urequena
12477:
12476:
12361:
12360:
12167:Plateau Penutian
12058:
12057:
12033:(Northern Daly?)
11876:
11875:
11762:Northwest Papuan
11726:Trans–New Guinea
11592:East New Britain
11567:Central Solomons
11533:
11532:
11278:Great Andamanese
11228:
11227:
11079:
11078:
11059:
11052:
11045:
11036:
11035:
10865:Somali languages
10750:
10749:
10673:
10672:
10564:
10557:
10550:
10541:
10540:
10499:
10493:, Moscow, 2004;
10468:
10451:
10442:
10423:
10412:
10410:
10381:
10362:
10343:
10326:
10307:
10288:
10259:
10232:
10213:
10192:
10171:
10162:
10149:
10130:
10117:
10107:
10097:
10091:
10081:
10062:
10043:
10034:
10013:
9986:
9967:
9940:
9919:
9900:
9891:
9882:
9873:
9864:
9855:
9820:
9791:
9762:
9753:
9718:
9691:
9656:
9637:
9618:
9609:
9600:
9580:
9535:
9516:
9507:
9494:
9492:
9490:
9473:
9444:
9391:
9382:
9363:
9361:
9359:
9353:
9346:
9334:
9313:
9298:Folia Orientalia
9292:
9285:Folia Orientalia
9279:
9252:
9225:
9216:
9203:
9194:
9173:
9154:
9135:
9115:
9080:
9053:
9017:
9011:
9005:
8999:
8993:
8987:
8981:
8975:
8969:
8963:
8957:
8951:
8945:
8939:
8933:
8927:
8921:
8915:
8909:
8903:
8897:
8891:
8885:
8879:
8873:
8867:
8861:
8855:
8849:
8843:
8834:
8828:
8819:
8813:
8807:
8801:
8795:
8792:Frajzyngier 2012
8789:
8783:
8777:
8771:
8765:
8759:
8756:Huehnergard 2004
8753:
8747:
8741:
8735:
8729:
8720:
8714:
8708:
8702:
8696:
8690:
8684:
8678:
8672:
8669:Frajzyngier 2012
8666:
8660:
8654:
8648:
8642:
8636:
8630:
8624:
8618:
8609:
8608:, p. 33-24.
8603:
8597:
8591:
8585:
8579:
8573:
8570:Huehnergard 2004
8567:
8554:
8548:
8542:
8539:Huehnergard 2004
8536:
8530:
8524:
8515:
8509:
8503:
8497:
8486:
8480:
8474:
8468:
8462:
8459:Frajzyngier 2012
8456:
8450:
8444:
8438:
8432:
8426:
8423:Frajzyngier 2012
8420:
8414:
8408:
8402:
8396:
8387:
8381:
8375:
8372:Frajzyngier 2012
8369:
8363:
8357:
8351:
8345:
8339:
8333:
8327:
8324:Frajzyngier 2012
8321:
8315:
8312:Frajzyngier 2012
8309:
8303:
8297:
8291:
8288:Frajzyngier 2012
8285:
8279:
8273:
8267:
8264:Frajzyngier 2012
8261:
8252:
8249:Frajzyngier 2012
8246:
8235:
8229:
8218:
8212:
8206:
8200:
8194:
8191:Frajzyngier 2012
8188:
8182:
8176:
8167:
8161:
8148:
8145:Frajzyngier 2012
8142:
8136:
8133:Frajzyngier 2012
8130:
8121:
8115:
8100:
8097:Frajzyngier 2012
8094:
8088:
8082:
8073:
8067:
8054:
8048:
8042:
8039:Frajzyngier 2012
8036:
8027:
8021:
8015:
8009:
8003:
8000:Frajzyngier 2012
7997:
7991:
7985:
7976:
7970:
7961:
7958:Frajzyngier 2012
7955:
7949:
7943:
7937:
7931:
7925:
7922:Frajzyngier 2012
7919:
7913:
7910:Frajzyngier 2012
7907:
7901:
7895:
7878:
7875:Frajzyngier 2012
7872:
7866:
7863:Frajzyngier 2012
7860:
7854:
7853:, p. 90-92.
7848:
7842:
7836:
7827:
7821:
7812:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7788:
7782:
7776:
7770:
7764:
7758:
7749:
7743:
7737:
7731:
7725:
7719:
7713:
7707:
7701:
7698:Frajzyngier 2012
7695:
7689:
7683:
7670:
7667:Huehnergard 2023
7664:
7658:
7652:
7639:
7636:Frajzyngier 2012
7633:
7627:
7621:
7606:
7603:Frajzyngier 2012
7600:
7591:
7585:
7576:
7573:Frajzyngier 2012
7570:
7564:
7561:Frajzyngier 2012
7558:
7552:
7546:
7537:
7531:
7522:
7519:Frajzyngier 2012
7516:
7507:
7501:
7495:
7489:
7483:
7477:
7471:
7465:
7459:
7453:
7447:
7441:
7435:
7434:
7414:
7408:
7402:
7396:
7390:
7384:
7378:
7369:
7366:Frajzyngier 2012
7363:
7354:
7348:
7342:
7336:
7330:
7324:
7313:
7307:
7296:
7290:
7284:
7281:Huehnergard 2023
7278:
7272:
7266:
7260:
7254:
7248:
7242:
7236:
7230:
7224:
7218:
7212:
7206:
7200:
7194:
7188:
7182:
7176:
7170:
7164:
7158:
7145:
7139:
7133:
7127:
7118:
7112:
7103:
7097:
7088:
7082:
7076:
7070:
7064:
7058:
7052:
7046:
7037:
7031:
7025:
7019:
7010:
7004:
6991:
6985:
6979:
6973:
6964:
6958:
6952:
6946:
6931:
6925:
6919:
6916:Frajzyngier 2018
6913:
6902:
6896:
6890:
6884:
6878:
6872:
6866:
6860:
6854:
6848:
6831:
6825:
6819:
6816:Huehnergard 2004
6813:
6804:
6798:
6792:
6786:
6780:
6774:
6768:
6762:
6753:
6747:
6736:
6730:
6724:
6721:Huehnergard 2004
6718:
6709:
6703:
6697:
6691:
6685:
6679:
6673:
6667:
6661:
6655:
6649:
6643:
6626:
6620:
6614:
6608:
6602:
6596:
6590:
6584:
6571:
6565:
6550:
6544:
6538:
6532:
6526:
6520:
6509:
6503:
6492:
6486:
6475:
6469:
6463:
6457:
6448:
6442:
6431:
6425:
6419:
6413:
6407:
6401:
6395:
6389:
6383:
6377:
6371:
6365:
6356:
6353:Huehnergard 2004
6350:
6344:
6338:
6329:
6323:
6314:
6308:
6299:
6293:
6282:
6279:Huehnergard 2004
6276:
6267:
6261:
6255:
6249:
6238:
6232:
6226:
6220:
6214:
6208:
6202:
6196:
6181:
6175:
6169:
6163:
6152:
6146:
6133:
6127:
6118:
6112:
6101:
6095:
6086:
6080:
6071:
6065:
6050:
6044:
6035:
6029:
6016:
6010:
6004:
6003:
5996:
5990:
5989:
5982:
5966:
5955:
5949:
5918:
5912:
5909:
5903:
5900:
5894:
5891:
5885:
5881:
5875:
5872:
5866:
5863:
5857:
5849:
5843:
5840:
5834:
5831:
5825:
5818:
5812:
5801:
5769:Borean languages
5710:'to rend, split'
5347:*lis'- 'to lick'
5247:to be old, elder
5046:
5043:Huehnergard 2004
5031:
4429:
4410:
3953:
3946:
3918:in addition to -
3864:Hebrew (Semitic)
3856:Noun/preposition
3850:
3839:
3754:
3739:
3625:Arabic (Semitic)
3597:Agent/Instrument
3588:
3573:
3561:Joseph Greenberg
3391:Afar (Cushitic)
3370:
3363:
3074:Beja (Cushitic)
3056:
3049:
2859:
2852:
2811:Riffian (Berber)
2794:Iraqw (Cushitic)
2789:Pronominal: jô-
2743:
2724:
2588:Nominative/bound
2548:Oromo (Cushitic)
2542:
2535:Huehnergard 2011
2527:
2412:
2401:
2365:wəl-t 'daughter'
2345:
2338:
2203:kôt (infintive)
2200:mot (perfective)
2130:
2123:
2100:General features
2002:, genitive case
1970:
1967:Frajzyngier 2012
1963:
1879:velar consonants
1777:
1770:
1740:were voiceless.
1692:
1597:Classical Arabic
1593:
1574:
1556:
1537:
1510:Natufian Culture
1490:hunter-gatherers
1445:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1410:genetic validity
1388:Joseph Greenberg
1376:
1360:Christian Bunsen
1327:Friedrich Müller
1306:Guillaume Postel
1289:Sergei Starostin
1281:lexicostatistics
1159:(Berbero-Libyan)
1047:North Erythrean
934:
930:
920:Kujarge language
839:Omotic languages
727:Chadic languages
711:Guanche language
693:Berber languages
665:Omotic languages
587:
559:has argued that
557:Joseph Greenberg
465:Table of Nations
450:
439:Friedrich Müller
305:Amharic language
192:
183:
169:
43:
42:
21:
13992:
13991:
13987:
13986:
13985:
13983:
13982:
13981:
13942:
13941:
13940:
13935:
13934:
13911:
13902:Paleo-Laplandic
13897:Pre-Finno-Ugric
13844:
13801:
13765:Greater Siangic
13751:
13737:Uralic–Yukaghir
13687:Ibero-Caucasian
13682:Elamo-Dravidian
13620:
13579:
13530:
13494:
13419:
13355:
13338:North Caucasian
13318:
13228:
13167:Paleo-Sardinian
13105:
13096:
13066:
13061:
13060:
13034:
13020:Mixed languages
12989:
12970:
12905:
12894:
12748:
12742:
12597:Katembri–Taruma
12471:
12460:
12432:
12346:
12239:
12052:
12041:
12012:
11861:
11773:
11732:Turama–Kikorian
11642:Lower Mamberamo
11597:East Strickland
11525:
11513:
11431:
11219:
11214:
11204:
11159:
11068:
11063:
11033:
11028:
11015:
10984:
10940:
10895:
10808:
10782:
10739:
10662:
10605:
10573:
10568:
10497:
10476:
10471:
10439:
10378:
10359:
10323:
10304:
10256:
10229:
10189:
10155:Lingua Aegyptia
10146:
10105:
10089:
10078:
10059:
10031:
10010:
9994:. Eisenbrauns.
9983:
9964:
9916:
9844:
9742:
9715:
9680:
9653:
9634:
9597:
9532:
9488:
9486:
9379:
9357:
9355:
9351:
9344:
9331:
9276:
9249:
9233:. Eisenbrauns.
9231:Middle Egyptian
9170:
9151:
9132:
9104:
9077:
9061:. Eisenbrauns.
9050:
9025:
9020:
9012:
9008:
9000:
8996:
8988:
8984:
8976:
8972:
8964:
8960:
8952:
8948:
8940:
8936:
8928:
8924:
8916:
8912:
8904:
8900:
8892:
8888:
8880:
8876:
8868:
8864:
8856:
8852:
8844:
8837:
8829:
8822:
8814:
8810:
8802:
8798:
8790:
8786:
8778:
8774:
8766:
8762:
8754:
8750:
8742:
8738:
8730:
8723:
8715:
8711:
8703:
8699:
8691:
8687:
8679:
8675:
8667:
8663:
8655:
8651:
8643:
8639:
8631:
8627:
8619:
8612:
8604:
8600:
8592:
8588:
8580:
8576:
8568:
8557:
8549:
8545:
8537:
8533:
8525:
8518:
8510:
8506:
8498:
8489:
8481:
8477:
8471:Kouwenberg 2010
8469:
8465:
8457:
8453:
8445:
8441:
8433:
8429:
8421:
8417:
8409:
8405:
8397:
8390:
8382:
8378:
8370:
8366:
8358:
8354:
8346:
8342:
8334:
8330:
8322:
8318:
8310:
8306:
8298:
8294:
8286:
8282:
8274:
8270:
8262:
8255:
8247:
8238:
8230:
8221:
8213:
8209:
8201:
8197:
8189:
8185:
8177:
8170:
8162:
8151:
8143:
8139:
8131:
8124:
8116:
8103:
8095:
8091:
8083:
8076:
8068:
8057:
8049:
8045:
8037:
8030:
8022:
8018:
8010:
8006:
7998:
7994:
7986:
7979:
7971:
7964:
7956:
7952:
7944:
7940:
7932:
7928:
7920:
7916:
7908:
7904:
7896:
7881:
7873:
7869:
7861:
7857:
7849:
7845:
7837:
7830:
7822:
7815:
7809:Greenberg 1950a
7807:
7803:
7795:
7791:
7783:
7779:
7771:
7767:
7761:Greenberg 1950a
7759:
7752:
7744:
7740:
7732:
7728:
7724:, p. 9-10.
7720:
7716:
7708:
7704:
7696:
7692:
7684:
7673:
7665:
7661:
7653:
7642:
7634:
7630:
7622:
7609:
7601:
7594:
7586:
7579:
7571:
7567:
7559:
7555:
7547:
7540:
7532:
7525:
7517:
7510:
7502:
7498:
7490:
7486:
7478:
7474:
7466:
7462:
7454:
7450:
7442:
7438:
7431:
7415:
7411:
7403:
7399:
7391:
7387:
7383:, p. 1680.
7379:
7372:
7364:
7357:
7349:
7345:
7337:
7333:
7325:
7316:
7308:
7299:
7291:
7287:
7279:
7275:
7267:
7263:
7255:
7251:
7243:
7239:
7231:
7227:
7219:
7215:
7207:
7203:
7195:
7191:
7183:
7179:
7171:
7167:
7159:
7148:
7140:
7136:
7128:
7121:
7113:
7106:
7098:
7091:
7083:
7079:
7071:
7067:
7059:
7055:
7047:
7040:
7032:
7028:
7020:
7013:
7005:
6994:
6986:
6982:
6974:
6967:
6959:
6955:
6947:
6934:
6926:
6922:
6914:
6905:
6897:
6893:
6885:
6881:
6873:
6869:
6861:
6857:
6849:
6834:
6826:
6822:
6814:
6807:
6799:
6795:
6787:
6783:
6775:
6771:
6763:
6756:
6748:
6739:
6731:
6727:
6719:
6712:
6704:
6700:
6692:
6688:
6680:
6676:
6668:
6664:
6660:, pp. 4–5.
6656:
6652:
6644:
6629:
6621:
6617:
6609:
6605:
6597:
6593:
6585:
6574:
6566:
6553:
6545:
6541:
6533:
6529:
6521:
6512:
6504:
6495:
6487:
6478:
6470:
6466:
6458:
6451:
6443:
6434:
6426:
6422:
6414:
6410:
6402:
6398:
6390:
6386:
6378:
6374:
6366:
6359:
6351:
6347:
6339:
6332:
6324:
6317:
6311:Dimmendaal 2008
6309:
6302:
6294:
6285:
6277:
6270:
6262:
6258:
6250:
6241:
6233:
6229:
6221:
6217:
6209:
6205:
6197:
6184:
6176:
6172:
6164:
6155:
6147:
6136:
6128:
6121:
6113:
6104:
6096:
6089:
6081:
6074:
6066:
6053:
6045:
6038:
6030:
6019:
6011:
6007:
5998:
5997:
5993:
5984:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5970:
5969:
5956:
5952:
5919:
5915:
5910:
5906:
5901:
5897:
5892:
5888:
5882:
5878:
5873:
5869:
5864:
5860:
5850:
5846:
5841:
5837:
5832:
5828:
5819:
5815:
5802:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5759:
5718:
5684:
5659:
5653:
5566:
5560:
5523:
5515:'to soar, rise'
5511:
5504:'bird's flight'
5495:
5475:
5461:to fly, to soar
5444:
5425:
5368:
5308:
5264:
5225:
5157:
5145:
5018:
4438:Tuareg (Berber)
4374:
4358:
4333:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4078:
4070:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4024:
4020:'me, my' (dep.)
3938:nasal consonant
3933:
3928:
3922:in some cases.
3833:The so-called "
3831:
3799:Beja (Cushitic)
3785:Figuig (Berber)
3715:
3691:Tuareg (Berber)
3671:Beja (Cushitic)
3600:Place/Abstract
3557:
3552:
3354:
3040:
3015:
3010:
2983:possessive base
2954:Tuareg (Berber)
2928:Beja (Cushitic)
2832:
2752:Construct State
2503:
2457:Afar (Cushitic)
2429:Ge'ez (Semitic)
2377:zꜣ-t 'daughter'
2373:
2369:
2354:Beja (Cushitic)
2348:Kabyle (Berber)
2321:
2316:
2308:pluractionality
2296:
2272:
2142:Beja (Cushitic)
2107:
2102:
2077:
1955:tonal languages
1951:
1930:
1847:denominal verbs
1769:
1636:
1628:Syllable weight
1613:
1588:
1569:
1551:
1532:
1530:
1457:
1443:
1439:
1436: 4000 BCE
1435:
1429:
1424:
1418:
1401:mass comparison
1364:Christian Bleek
1362:, and linguist
1298:
1250:
1211:North Afrasian
1188:
1135:
1083:
1026:
929:
896:Ongota language
888:
875:
869:
857:Gamo-Gofa-Dawro
841:
835:
811:
809:Coptic language
803:Main articles:
789:
752:
746:
729:
723:
695:
689:
633:
619:("person")—and
461:Book of Genesis
397:
337:Biblical Hebrew
319:, the Cushitic
309:Somali language
223:language family
195:
179:
165:
86:
85:Native speakers
57:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
13990:
13980:
13979:
13974:
13969:
13964:
13959:
13954:
13937:
13936:
13933:
13932:
13925:
13917:
13916:
13913:
13912:
13910:
13909:
13904:
13899:
13894:
13889:
13884:
13879:
13874:
13869:
13864:
13858:
13856:
13850:
13849:
13846:
13845:
13843:
13842:
13837:
13832:
13827:
13822:
13817:
13811:
13809:
13803:
13802:
13800:
13799:
13794:
13789:
13784:
13779:
13778:
13777:
13772:
13761:
13759:
13753:
13752:
13750:
13749:
13744:
13739:
13734:
13732:Uralo-Siberian
13729:
13724:
13719:
13717:Serbi–Mongolic
13714:
13709:
13704:
13699:
13694:
13689:
13684:
13679:
13677:Dravido-Korean
13674:
13672:Dené–Yeniseian
13669:
13668:
13667:
13662:
13660:Dené–Caucasian
13657:
13647:
13642:
13636:
13630:
13626:
13625:
13622:
13621:
13619:
13618:
13613:
13605:
13598:
13590:
13588:
13581:
13580:
13578:
13577:
13572:
13567:
13562:
13557:
13551:
13549:
13538:
13532:
13531:
13529:
13528:
13521:
13516:
13511:
13505:
13503:
13496:
13495:
13493:
13492:
13487:
13482:
13477:
13472:
13465:
13458:
13451:
13444:
13437:
13429:
13427:
13421:
13420:
13418:
13417:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13394:
13387:
13380:
13373:
13365:
13363:
13357:
13356:
13354:
13353:
13352:
13351:
13346:
13334:
13328:
13326:
13320:
13319:
13317:
13316:
13309:
13302:
13295:
13288:
13281:
13278:Hurro-Urartian
13274:
13267:
13260:
13253:
13246:
13238:
13236:
13230:
13229:
13227:
13226:
13219:
13212:
13205:
13198:
13191:
13184:
13177:
13170:
13163:
13160:Paleo-Corsican
13156:
13149:
13142:
13137:
13130:
13123:
13115:
13113:
13107:
13106:
13095:
13094:
13087:
13080:
13072:
13063:
13062:
13059:
13058:
13051:
13044:
13040:
13039:
13036:
13035:
13033:
13032:
13027:
13022:
13017:
13012:
13007:
13001:
12999:
12995:
12994:
12991:
12990:
12988:
12987:
12978:
12976:
12972:
12971:
12969:
12968:
12962:
12957:
12952:
12947:
12945:Indo-Pakistani
12942:
12937:
12930:
12925:
12920:
12914:
12908:
12900:
12899:
12896:
12895:
12893:
12892:
12887:
12882:
12877:
12872:
12867:
12862:
12857:
12852:
12846:
12841:
12836:
12828:
12823:
12816:
12811:
12805:
12800:
12795:
12790:
12784:
12779:
12774:
12769:
12764:
12759:
12752:
12750:
12744:
12743:
12741:
12740:
12734:
12728:
12722:
12716:
12710:
12704:
12698:
12693:
12688:
12683:
12678:
12673:
12666:
12661:
12656:
12651:
12646:
12644:Piaroa–Saliban
12641:
12634:
12629:
12624:
12619:
12614:
12609:
12604:
12599:
12594:
12589:
12582:
12577:
12572:
12567:
12562:
12557:
12552:
12545:
12540:
12533:
12528:
12523:
12518:
12513:
12508:
12503:
12496:
12491:
12486:
12480:
12474:
12466:
12465:
12462:
12461:
12459:
12458:
12453:
12448:
12440:
12438:
12434:
12433:
12431:
12430:
12423:
12416:
12411:
12409:Tequistlatecan
12406:
12399:
12394:
12389:
12382:
12375:
12370:
12364:
12358:
12352:
12351:
12348:
12347:
12345:
12344:
12339:
12334:
12329:
12322:
12317:
12310:
12303:
12296:
12289:
12282:
12277:
12272:
12267:
12262:
12255:
12247:
12245:
12241:
12240:
12238:
12237:
12232:
12225:
12218:
12213:
12206:
12201:
12196:
12191:
12186:
12179:
12174:
12169:
12164:
12157:
12150:
12145:
12138:
12133:
12126:
12121:
12116:
12109:
12102:
12095:
12088:
12081:
12076:
12069:
12061:
12055:
12047:
12046:
12043:
12042:
12040:
12039:
12034:
12028:
12020:
12018:
12014:
12013:
12011:
12010:
12000:
11995:
11988:
11983:
11978:
11973:
11967:
11960:
11955:
11948:
11941:
11936:
11932:Marrku–Wurrugu
11928:
11923:
11918:
11913:
11906:
11899:
11891:
11886:
11879:
11873:
11867:
11866:
11863:
11862:
11860:
11859:
11854:
11846:
11840:
11834:
11829:
11824:
11819:
11814:
11809:
11804:
11798:
11792:
11787:
11781:
11779:
11775:
11774:
11772:
11771:
11765:
11759:
11754:
11749:
11744:
11739:
11734:
11729:
11722:
11717:
11710:
11705:
11700:
11695:
11688:
11683:
11678:
11671:
11666:
11661:
11656:
11649:
11644:
11639:
11634:
11629:
11624:
11619:
11614:
11609:
11604:
11599:
11594:
11589:
11584:
11579:
11574:
11569:
11564:
11559:
11554:
11549:
11542:
11536:
11530:
11519:
11518:
11515:
11514:
11512:
11511:
11503:
11496:
11490:
11485:
11477:
11472:
11464:
11457:
11450:
11445:
11439:
11437:
11433:
11432:
11430:
11429:
11423:
11417:
11411:
11405:
11399:
11393:
11388:
11383:
11376:
11369:
11362:
11357:
11350:
11345:
11340:
11333:
11328:
11323:
11316:
11311:
11306:
11301:
11294:
11291:Hurro-Urartian
11287:
11280:
11275:
11270:
11263:
11258:
11251:
11244:
11239:
11231:
11225:
11210:
11209:
11206:
11205:
11203:
11202:
11196:
11190:
11185:
11178:
11173:
11167:
11165:
11161:
11160:
11158:
11157:
11151:
11145:
11139:
11133:
11127:
11122:
11114:
11107:
11102:
11097:
11090:
11082:
11076:
11070:
11069:
11062:
11061:
11054:
11047:
11039:
11030:
11029:
11020:
11017:
11016:
11014:
11013:
11007:
11006:
11005:
10992:
10990:
10986:
10985:
10983:
10982:
10981:
10980:
10975:
10974:
10973:
10958:
10950:
10948:
10942:
10941:
10939:
10938:
10937:
10936:
10931:
10921:
10916:
10911:
10905:
10903:
10897:
10896:
10894:
10893:
10888:
10887:
10886:
10881:
10876:
10875:
10874:
10869:
10868:
10867:
10862:
10842:
10837:
10832:
10826:
10824:
10818:
10817:
10814:
10813:
10810:
10809:
10807:
10806:
10801:
10796:
10790:
10788:
10784:
10783:
10781:
10780:
10772:
10767:
10762:
10756:
10754:
10747:
10741:
10740:
10738:
10737:
10736:
10735:
10730:
10725:
10720:
10718:Hausa–Gwandara
10715:
10710:
10705:
10695:
10694:
10693:
10682:
10676:
10670:
10664:
10663:
10661:
10660:
10655:
10650:
10649:
10648:
10647:
10646:
10641:
10631:
10621:
10615:
10613:
10607:
10606:
10604:
10603:
10596:
10589:
10581:
10579:
10575:
10574:
10567:
10566:
10559:
10552:
10544:
10538:
10537:
10523:
10517:
10512:
10506:
10500:
10484:
10475:
10474:External links
10472:
10470:
10469:
10452:
10443:
10437:
10424:
10413:
10382:
10376:
10363:
10357:
10344:
10327:
10321:
10308:
10302:
10289:
10271:(3): 193–213.
10260:
10254:
10233:
10227:
10214:
10204:(2): 559–580.
10193:
10187:
10172:
10163:
10150:
10144:
10131:
10118:
10098:
10082:
10076:
10063:
10057:
10044:
10035:
10029:
10014:
10008:
9987:
9981:
9968:
9962:
9941:
9931:(3): 429–458.
9920:
9914:
9901:
9892:
9883:
9874:
9865:
9856:
9842:
9821:
9803:(2): 162–181.
9792:
9780:10.2307/595879
9774:(4): 317–321.
9763:
9754:
9740:
9719:
9713:
9692:
9678:
9657:
9651:
9638:
9632:
9619:
9610:
9601:
9595:
9581:
9536:
9530:
9517:
9508:
9495:
9474:
9456:(5): 840–858.
9445:
9392:
9383:
9377:
9364:
9335:
9329:
9314:
9293:
9280:
9274:
9253:
9247:
9226:
9217:
9204:
9195:
9185:(3): 410–434.
9174:
9168:
9155:
9149:
9136:
9130:
9116:
9102:
9081:
9075:
9054:
9048:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9018:
9016:, p. 318.
9014:Güldemann 2018
9006:
9002:Güldemann 2018
8994:
8992:, p. 273.
8982:
8980:, p. 248.
8970:
8968:, p. 325.
8958:
8946:
8944:, p. 295.
8934:
8932:, p. 281.
8922:
8920:, p. 284.
8910:
8908:, p. 440.
8898:
8896:, p. 273.
8886:
8874:
8872:, p. 280.
8862:
8850:
8848:, p. 439.
8835:
8833:, p. 317.
8820:
8808:
8804:Güldemann 2018
8796:
8784:
8772:
8770:, p. 168.
8760:
8758:, p. 148.
8748:
8736:
8734:, p. 115.
8721:
8709:
8697:
8685:
8673:
8671:, p. 525.
8661:
8649:
8637:
8635:, p. 577.
8625:
8623:, p. 123.
8610:
8598:
8596:, p. 360.
8586:
8574:
8572:, p. 141.
8555:
8543:
8531:
8529:, p. 315.
8527:Güldemann 2018
8516:
8514:, p. 391.
8504:
8487:
8475:
8463:
8461:, p. 592.
8451:
8449:, p. 267.
8439:
8437:, p. 316.
8435:Güldemann 2018
8427:
8415:
8413:, p. 298.
8403:
8401:, p. 279.
8388:
8386:, p. 312.
8376:
8364:
8352:
8340:
8338:, p. 265.
8328:
8326:, p. 533.
8316:
8314:, p. 535.
8304:
8302:, p. 317.
8300:Güldemann 2018
8292:
8280:
8278:, p. 319.
8268:
8266:, p. 534.
8253:
8251:, p. 538.
8236:
8234:, p. 243.
8219:
8207:
8195:
8193:, p. 253.
8183:
8181:, p. 308.
8168:
8166:, p. 266.
8149:
8147:, p. 523.
8137:
8135:, p. 522.
8122:
8120:, p. 268.
8101:
8099:, p. 531.
8089:
8087:, p. 319.
8085:Güldemann 2018
8074:
8072:, p. 269.
8055:
8043:
8041:, p. 593.
8028:
8026:, p. 576.
8016:
8004:
8002:, p. 622.
7992:
7977:
7962:
7950:
7948:, p. 574.
7938:
7926:
7924:, p. 513.
7914:
7902:
7900:, p. 265.
7879:
7867:
7865:, p. 621.
7855:
7843:
7828:
7813:
7801:
7789:
7777:
7765:
7763:, p. 178.
7750:
7748:, p. 395.
7738:
7726:
7714:
7702:
7700:, p. 517.
7690:
7671:
7669:, p. 142.
7659:
7657:, p. 548.
7640:
7638:, p. 509.
7628:
7626:, p. 264.
7607:
7605:, p. 508.
7592:
7577:
7575:, p. 512.
7565:
7553:
7551:, p. 304.
7538:
7534:Diakonoff 1988
7523:
7521:, p. 511.
7508:
7506:, p. 263.
7496:
7494:, p. 601.
7484:
7480:Militarev 2009
7472:
7468:Militarev 2002
7460:
7448:
7446:, p. 150.
7436:
7429:
7409:
7397:
7395:, p. 226.
7393:Starostin 2017
7385:
7370:
7355:
7353:, p. 270.
7343:
7331:
7314:
7312:, p. 311.
7310:Güldemann 2018
7297:
7295:, p. 347.
7293:Güldemann 2018
7285:
7283:, p. 140.
7273:
7261:
7249:
7237:
7235:, p. 272.
7225:
7213:
7211:, p. 309.
7209:Güldemann 2018
7201:
7189:
7185:Güldemann 2018
7177:
7173:Solleveld 2020
7165:
7163:, p. 271.
7146:
7134:
7119:
7104:
7089:
7087:, p. 427.
7077:
7065:
7061:Militarev 2005
7053:
7051:, p. 227.
7038:
7036:, p. 310.
7034:Güldemann 2018
7026:
7024:, p. 422.
7011:
7009:, p. 144.
6992:
6988:Güldemann 2018
6980:
6965:
6963:, p. 145.
6953:
6932:
6920:
6903:
6891:
6889:, p. 231.
6879:
6877:, p. 258.
6867:
6865:, p. 282.
6863:Güldemann 2018
6855:
6853:, p. 251.
6832:
6830:, p. 327.
6828:Güldemann 2018
6820:
6818:, p. 140.
6805:
6803:, p. 342.
6801:Güldemann 2018
6793:
6781:
6769:
6754:
6752:, p. 262.
6737:
6725:
6723:, p. 139.
6710:
6708:, p. 261.
6698:
6686:
6684:, p. 322.
6682:Güldemann 2018
6674:
6662:
6650:
6648:, p. 252.
6627:
6615:
6603:
6591:
6587:Appleyard 2012
6572:
6570:, p. 259.
6551:
6547:Güldemann 2018
6539:
6527:
6510:
6493:
6491:, p. 254.
6476:
6464:
6462:, p. 325.
6460:Güldemann 2018
6449:
6432:
6430:, p. 253.
6420:
6408:
6406:, p. 324.
6404:Güldemann 2018
6396:
6384:
6372:
6357:
6345:
6330:
6328:, p. 545.
6315:
6313:, p. 840.
6300:
6283:
6281:, p. 138.
6268:
6266:, p. 204.
6264:Solleveld 2020
6256:
6254:, p. 269.
6239:
6227:
6225:, p. 250.
6215:
6203:
6201:, p. 270.
6182:
6180:, p. 454.
6170:
6153:
6134:
6130:Güldemann 2018
6119:
6102:
6100:, p. 300.
6087:
6085:, p. 249.
6072:
6070:, p. 565.
6051:
6036:
6017:
6005:
5991:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5968:
5967:
5950:
5940:. * indicates
5913:
5904:
5895:
5886:
5876:
5867:
5858:
5844:
5835:
5826:
5813:
5795:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5754:
5753:
5750:Abbreviations:
5744:
5743:
5740:
5733:
5731:
5724:
5711:
5704:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5693:
5690:
5677:
5671:
5669:u:fa 'to spit'
5665:
5646:
5643:
5640:
5637:
5633:
5632:
5629:
5622:
5616:
5610:
5603:
5602:'to be bitter'
5596:
5593:
5590:
5586:
5585:
5582:
5575:
5572:
5553:
5550:
5547:
5544:
5541:
5537:
5536:
5529:
5516:
5505:
5488:
5481:
5468:
5465:
5462:
5458:
5457:
5450:
5437:
5431:
5418:
5411:
5408:
5405:
5402:
5398:
5397:
5390:
5383:
5377:
5361:
5358:
5351:
5350:*les- 'tongue'
5348:
5345:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5330:
5329:'to call, say'
5324:
5317:
5314:
5301:
5298:
5295:
5291:
5290:
5287:
5280:
5277:
5270:
5257:
5254:
5251:
5248:
5244:
5243:
5240:
5237:
5231:
5218:
5211:
5208:
5205:
5202:
5198:
5197:
5190:
5183:
5176:
5170:
5163:
5150:
5147:
5142:
5138:
5137:
5130:
5123:
5117:
5107:
5101:
5094:
5091:
5088:
5084:
5083:
5078:
5072:
5071:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5059:
5056:
5053:
5050:
5017:
5014:
5011:
5010:
5007:
5004:
5001:
4998:
4995:
4991:
4990:
4987:
4984:
4981:
4978:
4975:
4972:
4969:
4966:
4963:
4960:
4956:
4955:
4952:
4949:
4946:
4943:
4940:
4936:
4935:
4932:
4929:
4926:
4923:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4905:
4901:
4900:
4897:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4885:
4881:
4880:
4877:
4874:
4871:
4868:
4865:
4862:
4859:
4856:
4853:
4850:
4846:
4845:
4842:
4839:
4836:
4833:
4830:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4819:
4816:
4813:
4810:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4791:
4790:
4787:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4770:
4767:
4764:
4761:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4736:
4735:
4732:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4720:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4706:
4703:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4691:
4688:
4685:
4681:
4680:
4677:
4674:
4671:
4668:
4665:
4661:
4660:
4657:
4654:
4651:
4648:
4645:
4642:
4639:
4636:
4633:
4630:
4626:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4616:
4613:
4610:
4606:
4605:
4602:
4599:
4596:
4593:
4590:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4578:
4575:
4571:
4570:
4567:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4551:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4541:
4538:
4535:
4532:
4529:
4526:
4523:
4520:
4516:
4515:
4512:
4509:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4496:
4495:
4492:
4489:
4486:
4483:
4480:
4477:
4474:
4473:yiwən, yan, iğ
4471:
4468:
4465:
4461:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4451:
4448:
4445:
4442:
4439:
4436:
4433:
4376:Unlike in the
4373:
4370:
4367:
4366:
4363:
4360:
4355:
4352:
4349:
4345:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4335:
4330:
4327:
4324:
4321:
4318:
4315:
4311:
4310:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4298:
4295:
4292:
4289:
4286:
4282:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4272:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4260:
4257:
4254:
4250:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4219:
4216:
4212:
4211:
4208:
4205:
4202:
4199:
4196:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4183:
4182:
4179:
4176:
4173:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4151:
4150:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4138:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4125:
4124:
4121:
4118:
4115:
4112:
4109:
4106:
4103:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4086:
4083:
4080:
4075:
4072:
4067:
4064:
4061:
4057:
4056:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4035:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4021:
4017:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3969:
3966:
3963:
3960:
3957:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3909:
3908:
3902:
3895:
3894:
3888:
3882:
3878:
3877:
3871:
3865:
3861:
3860:
3857:
3854:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3822:n-hp 'escape'
3820:
3817:
3814:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3803:
3800:
3796:
3795:
3792:
3789:
3786:
3782:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3768:
3767:
3764:
3761:
3758:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3704:
3698:
3692:
3688:
3687:
3681:
3678:
3672:
3668:
3667:
3661:
3655:
3649:
3648:Hausa (Chadic)
3645:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3622:
3621:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3602:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3592:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3475:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3460:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3440:
3437:
3433:
3432:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3413:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3374:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3300:
3299:t-əkănnăf-măt
3297:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3258:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3157:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3128:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3097:"New Present"
3095:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3076:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3039:
3036:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2984:
2981:
2980:Hausa (Chadic)
2977:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2958:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2932:
2929:
2925:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2901:
2895:
2889:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2856:Greenberg 1960
2831:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2757:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2717:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2697:
2690:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2661:
2660:
2651:
2642:
2632:
2622:
2616:
2607:
2598:
2589:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2559:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2471:Hausa (Chadic)
2468:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2440:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2351:Hausa (Chadic)
2349:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2295:
2292:
2271:
2268:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2194:ǎknəf (aorist)
2192:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2062:
2054:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2040:Hausa (Chadic)
2037:
2036:
2029:
2022:
2021:Bench (Omotic)
2018:
2017:
2011:
2004:
2003:
1996:
1989:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1974:
1950:
1947:
1929:
1926:
1922:James P. Allen
1918:
1917:
1902:
1825:
1824:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1768:
1765:
1753:palatalization
1718:pharyngealized
1635:
1632:
1617:Igor Diakonoff
1612:
1609:
1529:
1526:
1518:Peter Bellwood
1474:Proto-Cushitic
1456:
1453:
1428:
1425:
1420:Main article:
1417:
1414:
1393:Harold Fleming
1356:Hamitic theory
1318:Theodor Benfey
1297:
1294:
1266:Igor Diakonoff
1252:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1227:
1217:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1162:
1161:
1160:
1154:
1149:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1111:Macro-Cushtic
1109:
1099:
1094:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1053:
1045:
1037:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1005:Berber-Chadic
1003:
996:
991:
983:
980:
972:
964:
961:
960:
958:Militarev 2005
955:
953:Diakonoff 1988
950:
945:
940:
928:
925:
924:
923:
916:
909:
904:proposed that
902:Robert Hetzron
899:
887:
884:
871:Main article:
868:
865:
845:Ganza language
837:Main article:
834:
831:
819:alphabetically
788:
785:
748:Main article:
745:
742:
725:Main article:
722:
719:
715:Canary Islands
691:Main article:
688:
685:
632:
629:
602:Igor Diakonoff
575:is difficult.
573:Hamito-Semitic
545:Hamito-Semitic
541:Hamito-Semitic
505:their language
453:Semito-Hamitic
443:Hamito-Semitic
413:Semito-Hamitic
409:Hamito-Semitic
396:
393:
301:Hausa language
297:Oromo language
235:Horn of Africa
219:Semito-Hamitic
215:Hamito-Semitic
197:
196:
193:
185:
184:
177:
171:
170:
163:
153:
152:
151:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
118:
114:
113:
108:
107:Proto-language
104:
103:
97:
91:
90:
87:
84:
81:
80:
70:Horn of Africa
59:
53:
52:
48:
47:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13989:
13978:
13975:
13973:
13970:
13968:
13965:
13963:
13960:
13958:
13955:
13953:
13950:
13949:
13947:
13930:
13926:
13923:
13919:
13918:
13914:
13908:
13905:
13903:
13900:
13898:
13895:
13893:
13890:
13888:
13885:
13883:
13880:
13878:
13875:
13873:
13870:
13868:
13865:
13863:
13860:
13859:
13857:
13855:
13851:
13841:
13838:
13836:
13833:
13831:
13828:
13826:
13823:
13821:
13818:
13816:
13813:
13812:
13810:
13808:
13804:
13798:
13795:
13793:
13790:
13788:
13785:
13783:
13780:
13776:
13773:
13771:
13768:
13767:
13766:
13763:
13762:
13760:
13758:
13754:
13748:
13745:
13743:
13742:Eskimo–Uralic
13740:
13738:
13735:
13733:
13730:
13728:
13725:
13723:
13720:
13718:
13715:
13713:
13710:
13708:
13705:
13703:
13700:
13698:
13695:
13693:
13690:
13688:
13685:
13683:
13680:
13678:
13675:
13673:
13670:
13666:
13663:
13661:
13658:
13656:
13653:
13652:
13651:
13648:
13646:
13643:
13641:
13638:
13637:
13634:
13631:
13627:
13617:
13614:
13611:
13610:
13606:
13604:
13603:
13599:
13597:
13596:
13592:
13591:
13589:
13587:
13582:
13576:
13573:
13571:
13568:
13566:
13563:
13561:
13558:
13556:
13553:
13552:
13550:
13547:
13546:Paleosiberian
13542:
13539:
13537:
13533:
13527:
13526:
13522:
13520:
13517:
13515:
13512:
13510:
13507:
13506:
13504:
13501:
13497:
13491:
13488:
13486:
13483:
13481:
13478:
13476:
13473:
13471:
13470:
13466:
13464:
13463:
13459:
13457:
13456:
13452:
13450:
13449:
13445:
13443:
13442:
13441:Austroasiatic
13438:
13436:
13435:
13431:
13430:
13428:
13426:
13422:
13415:
13414:
13410:
13408:
13405:
13403:
13400:
13398:
13395:
13393:
13392:
13391:Austroasiatic
13388:
13386:
13385:
13381:
13379:
13378:
13374:
13372:
13371:
13370:Indo-European
13367:
13366:
13364:
13362:
13358:
13350:
13347:
13345:
13342:
13341:
13340:
13339:
13335:
13333:
13330:
13329:
13327:
13325:
13321:
13315:
13314:
13310:
13308:
13307:
13303:
13301:
13300:
13296:
13294:
13293:
13289:
13287:
13286:
13282:
13280:
13279:
13275:
13273:
13272:
13268:
13266:
13265:
13261:
13259:
13258:
13254:
13252:
13251:
13247:
13245:
13244:
13243:Indo-European
13240:
13239:
13237:
13235:
13231:
13225:
13224:
13220:
13218:
13217:
13213:
13211:
13210:
13206:
13204:
13203:
13199:
13197:
13196:
13192:
13190:
13189:
13185:
13183:
13182:
13178:
13176:
13175:
13171:
13169:
13168:
13164:
13162:
13161:
13157:
13155:
13154:
13150:
13148:
13147:
13143:
13141:
13138:
13136:
13135:
13131:
13129:
13128:
13124:
13122:
13121:
13120:Indo-European
13117:
13116:
13114:
13112:
13108:
13104:
13100:
13093:
13088:
13086:
13081:
13079:
13074:
13073:
13070:
13056:
13052:
13049:
13045:
13042:
13041:
13037:
13031:
13028:
13026:
13023:
13021:
13018:
13016:
13013:
13011:
13008:
13006:
13003:
13002:
13000:
12996:
12986:
12985:
12980:
12979:
12977:
12973:
12966:
12963:
12961:
12958:
12956:
12955:Original Thai
12953:
12951:
12948:
12946:
12943:
12941:
12938:
12936:
12935:
12931:
12929:
12926:
12924:
12921:
12919:
12916:
12915:
12912:
12909:
12907:
12901:
12891:
12888:
12886:
12883:
12881:
12878:
12876:
12873:
12871:
12868:
12866:
12863:
12861:
12858:
12856:
12853:
12850:
12847:
12845:
12842:
12840:
12837:
12835:
12833:
12829:
12827:
12824:
12822:
12821:
12817:
12815:
12812:
12809:
12806:
12804:
12801:
12799:
12796:
12794:
12791:
12788:
12785:
12783:
12780:
12778:
12775:
12773:
12770:
12768:
12765:
12763:
12760:
12757:
12754:
12753:
12751:
12745:
12738:
12735:
12732:
12729:
12726:
12723:
12720:
12719:Hibito–Cholón
12717:
12714:
12711:
12708:
12705:
12702:
12699:
12697:
12694:
12692:
12689:
12687:
12684:
12682:
12679:
12677:
12674:
12672:
12671:
12667:
12665:
12662:
12660:
12657:
12655:
12652:
12650:
12647:
12645:
12642:
12640:
12639:
12635:
12633:
12630:
12628:
12625:
12623:
12620:
12618:
12615:
12613:
12610:
12608:
12605:
12603:
12600:
12598:
12595:
12593:
12590:
12588:
12587:
12583:
12581:
12578:
12576:
12573:
12571:
12568:
12566:
12563:
12561:
12558:
12556:
12553:
12551:
12550:
12546:
12544:
12541:
12539:
12538:
12534:
12532:
12529:
12527:
12524:
12522:
12519:
12517:
12514:
12512:
12509:
12507:
12504:
12502:
12501:
12497:
12495:
12492:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12482:
12481:
12478:
12475:
12473:
12467:
12457:
12454:
12452:
12449:
12447:
12446:
12442:
12441:
12439:
12435:
12429:
12428:
12424:
12422:
12421:
12417:
12415:
12412:
12410:
12407:
12405:
12404:
12400:
12398:
12395:
12393:
12390:
12388:
12387:
12383:
12381:
12380:
12376:
12374:
12371:
12369:
12366:
12365:
12362:
12359:
12357:
12353:
12343:
12340:
12338:
12335:
12333:
12330:
12328:
12327:
12323:
12321:
12318:
12316:
12315:
12311:
12309:
12308:
12304:
12302:
12301:
12297:
12295:
12294:
12290:
12288:
12287:
12283:
12281:
12278:
12276:
12273:
12271:
12268:
12266:
12263:
12261:
12260:
12256:
12254:
12253:
12249:
12248:
12246:
12242:
12236:
12235:Yuman–Cochimí
12233:
12231:
12230:
12226:
12224:
12223:
12219:
12217:
12214:
12212:
12211:
12207:
12205:
12202:
12200:
12197:
12195:
12192:
12190:
12187:
12185:
12184:
12180:
12178:
12175:
12173:
12170:
12168:
12165:
12163:
12162:
12158:
12156:
12155:
12151:
12149:
12146:
12144:
12143:
12139:
12137:
12134:
12132:
12131:
12127:
12125:
12122:
12120:
12117:
12115:
12114:
12110:
12108:
12107:
12103:
12101:
12100:
12096:
12094:
12093:
12089:
12087:
12086:
12082:
12080:
12077:
12075:
12074:
12070:
12068:
12067:
12063:
12062:
12059:
12056:
12054:
12048:
12038:
12035:
12032:
12029:
12027:
12026:
12022:
12021:
12019:
12015:
12008:
12004:
12001:
11999:
11996:
11994:
11993:
11989:
11987:
11984:
11982:
11979:
11977:
11974:
11971:
11970:Southern Daly
11968:
11966:
11965:
11961:
11959:
11956:
11954:
11953:
11949:
11947:
11946:
11942:
11940:
11937:
11934:
11933:
11929:
11927:
11924:
11922:
11919:
11917:
11914:
11912:
11911:
11907:
11905:
11904:
11900:
11897:
11896:
11895:Darwin Region
11892:
11890:
11887:
11884:
11881:
11880:
11877:
11874:
11872:
11868:
11858:
11855:
11853:
11851:
11847:
11844:
11841:
11838:
11835:
11833:
11830:
11828:
11825:
11823:
11820:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11810:
11808:
11805:
11802:
11799:
11796:
11793:
11791:
11788:
11786:
11783:
11782:
11780:
11776:
11769:
11766:
11763:
11760:
11758:
11755:
11753:
11750:
11748:
11745:
11743:
11740:
11738:
11735:
11733:
11730:
11728:
11727:
11723:
11721:
11718:
11716:
11715:
11711:
11709:
11706:
11704:
11701:
11699:
11696:
11694:
11693:
11689:
11687:
11684:
11682:
11679:
11677:
11676:
11672:
11670:
11667:
11665:
11662:
11660:
11657:
11655:
11654:
11650:
11648:
11645:
11643:
11640:
11638:
11635:
11633:
11630:
11628:
11625:
11623:
11620:
11618:
11615:
11613:
11610:
11608:
11605:
11603:
11600:
11598:
11595:
11593:
11590:
11588:
11585:
11583:
11580:
11578:
11577:Demta–Sentani
11575:
11573:
11570:
11568:
11565:
11563:
11560:
11558:
11555:
11553:
11550:
11548:
11547:
11543:
11541:
11538:
11537:
11534:
11531:
11529:
11524:
11520:
11510:
11508:
11504:
11502:
11501:
11497:
11494:
11491:
11489:
11486:
11484:
11482:
11478:
11476:
11473:
11471:
11469:
11465:
11463:
11462:
11458:
11456:
11455:
11451:
11449:
11446:
11444:
11441:
11440:
11438:
11434:
11427:
11424:
11421:
11418:
11415:
11412:
11409:
11406:
11403:
11400:
11397:
11394:
11392:
11389:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11381:
11377:
11375:
11374:
11370:
11368:
11367:
11363:
11361:
11358:
11356:
11355:
11351:
11349:
11346:
11344:
11341:
11339:
11338:
11334:
11332:
11329:
11327:
11324:
11322:
11321:
11317:
11315:
11312:
11310:
11307:
11305:
11302:
11300:
11299:
11298:Indo-European
11295:
11293:
11292:
11288:
11286:
11285:
11281:
11279:
11276:
11274:
11271:
11269:
11268:
11264:
11262:
11259:
11257:
11256:
11252:
11250:
11249:
11248:Austroasiatic
11245:
11243:
11240:
11238:
11237:
11233:
11232:
11229:
11226:
11223:
11218:
11211:
11200:
11197:
11194:
11191:
11189:
11186:
11184:
11183:
11179:
11177:
11174:
11172:
11169:
11168:
11166:
11162:
11155:
11152:
11149:
11146:
11143:
11140:
11137:
11134:
11131:
11128:
11126:
11123:
11120:
11119:
11115:
11113:
11112:
11108:
11106:
11103:
11101:
11098:
11096:
11095:
11091:
11089:
11088:
11084:
11083:
11080:
11077:
11075:
11071:
11067:
11060:
11055:
11053:
11048:
11046:
11041:
11040:
11037:
11027:
11023:
11018:
11011:
11008:
11004:
11001:
11000:
10999:
10998:
10994:
10993:
10991:
10987:
10979:
10976:
10972:
10969:
10968:
10967:
10964:
10963:
10962:
10959:
10957:
10956:
10952:
10951:
10949:
10947:
10943:
10935:
10932:
10930:
10927:
10926:
10925:
10922:
10920:
10917:
10915:
10912:
10910:
10907:
10906:
10904:
10902:
10898:
10892:
10889:
10885:
10882:
10880:
10877:
10873:
10870:
10866:
10863:
10861:
10860:Rendille–Boni
10858:
10857:
10856:
10853:
10852:
10851:
10848:
10847:
10846:
10843:
10841:
10840:Highland East
10838:
10836:
10833:
10831:
10828:
10827:
10825:
10823:
10819:
10805:
10802:
10800:
10797:
10795:
10792:
10791:
10789:
10785:
10778:
10777:
10773:
10771:
10768:
10766:
10763:
10761:
10758:
10757:
10755:
10751:
10748:
10746:
10742:
10734:
10731:
10729:
10726:
10724:
10721:
10719:
10716:
10714:
10711:
10709:
10706:
10704:
10701:
10700:
10699:
10696:
10691:
10688:
10687:
10686:
10683:
10681:
10678:
10677:
10674:
10671:
10669:
10665:
10659:
10656:
10654:
10651:
10645:
10642:
10640:
10637:
10636:
10635:
10632:
10630:
10627:
10626:
10625:
10622:
10620:
10617:
10616:
10614:
10612:
10608:
10602:
10601:
10600:Proto-Semitic
10597:
10595:
10594:
10590:
10588:
10587:
10583:
10582:
10580:
10578:Reconstructed
10576:
10572:
10565:
10560:
10558:
10553:
10551:
10546:
10545:
10542:
10535:
10531:
10527:
10524:
10521:
10518:
10516:
10513:
10510:
10507:
10504:
10501:
10496:
10492:
10488:
10485:
10481:
10478:
10477:
10466:
10462:
10458:
10453:
10449:
10444:
10440:
10438:9781646022120
10434:
10430:
10425:
10421:
10420:
10414:
10409:
10404:
10400:
10396:
10392:
10388:
10383:
10379:
10373:
10369:
10364:
10360:
10354:
10350:
10345:
10341:
10337:
10333:
10328:
10324:
10322:9781646022120
10318:
10314:
10309:
10305:
10303:9781646022120
10299:
10295:
10290:
10286:
10282:
10278:
10274:
10270:
10266:
10261:
10257:
10251:
10247:
10243:
10239:
10234:
10230:
10228:9781646022120
10224:
10220:
10215:
10211:
10207:
10203:
10199:
10194:
10190:
10188:9780804718943
10184:
10180:
10179:
10173:
10169:
10164:
10160:
10156:
10151:
10147:
10145:0-631-19571-8
10141:
10137:
10132:
10128:
10124:
10119:
10115:
10111:
10104:
10099:
10095:
10088:
10083:
10079:
10077:90-04-10051-2
10073:
10069:
10064:
10060:
10054:
10050:
10045:
10041:
10036:
10032:
10026:
10022:
10021:
10015:
10011:
10009:9781575066240
10005:
10001:
9997:
9993:
9988:
9984:
9978:
9974:
9969:
9965:
9959:
9955:
9951:
9947:
9942:
9938:
9934:
9930:
9926:
9921:
9917:
9915:9781646022120
9911:
9907:
9902:
9898:
9893:
9889:
9884:
9880:
9875:
9871:
9866:
9862:
9857:
9853:
9849:
9845:
9843:9783110421668
9839:
9835:
9831:
9827:
9822:
9818:
9814:
9810:
9806:
9802:
9798:
9793:
9789:
9785:
9781:
9777:
9773:
9769:
9764:
9760:
9755:
9751:
9747:
9743:
9741:9781119485094
9737:
9733:
9729:
9725:
9720:
9716:
9710:
9706:
9702:
9698:
9693:
9689:
9685:
9681:
9675:
9671:
9667:
9663:
9658:
9654:
9648:
9644:
9639:
9635:
9629:
9625:
9620:
9616:
9611:
9607:
9602:
9598:
9596:9781646022120
9592:
9588:
9582:
9578:
9574:
9570:
9566:
9562:
9558:
9554:
9550:
9546:
9542:
9537:
9533:
9531:0-520-09799-8
9527:
9523:
9518:
9514:
9509:
9505:
9501:
9496:
9484:
9480:
9475:
9471:
9467:
9463:
9459:
9455:
9451:
9446:
9442:
9438:
9434:
9430:
9426:
9422:
9418:
9414:
9410:
9406:
9402:
9398:
9393:
9389:
9384:
9380:
9378:9781646022120
9374:
9370:
9365:
9350:
9343:
9342:
9336:
9332:
9326:
9322:
9321:
9315:
9311:
9307:
9303:
9299:
9294:
9290:
9286:
9281:
9277:
9275:9781444334890
9271:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9254:
9250:
9248:9781646022021
9244:
9240:
9236:
9232:
9227:
9223:
9218:
9214:
9210:
9205:
9201:
9196:
9192:
9188:
9184:
9180:
9175:
9171:
9165:
9161:
9156:
9152:
9146:
9142:
9137:
9133:
9131:9781646022120
9127:
9123:
9117:
9113:
9109:
9105:
9103:9781108751827
9099:
9095:
9091:
9087:
9082:
9078:
9076:9781646020867
9072:
9068:
9064:
9060:
9055:
9051:
9049:9781139506090
9045:
9041:
9037:
9033:
9028:
9027:
9015:
9010:
9003:
8998:
8991:
8986:
8979:
8974:
8967:
8966:Zaborski 1987
8962:
8955:
8954:Lipiński 2001
8950:
8943:
8938:
8931:
8930:Lipiński 2001
8926:
8919:
8918:Lipiński 2001
8914:
8907:
8902:
8895:
8890:
8883:
8878:
8871:
8870:Lipiński 2001
8866:
8859:
8858:Zaborski 1987
8854:
8847:
8842:
8840:
8832:
8831:Zaborski 1987
8827:
8825:
8818:, p. 32.
8817:
8812:
8805:
8800:
8793:
8788:
8782:, p. 16.
8781:
8776:
8769:
8764:
8757:
8752:
8746:, p. 47.
8745:
8740:
8733:
8728:
8726:
8719:, p. 94.
8718:
8713:
8706:
8701:
8694:
8689:
8683:, p. 87.
8682:
8677:
8670:
8665:
8658:
8653:
8647:, p. 52.
8646:
8641:
8634:
8629:
8622:
8617:
8615:
8607:
8602:
8595:
8594:Lipiński 2001
8590:
8584:, p. 33.
8583:
8578:
8571:
8566:
8564:
8562:
8560:
8552:
8547:
8540:
8535:
8528:
8523:
8521:
8513:
8508:
8502:, p. 34.
8501:
8496:
8494:
8492:
8484:
8479:
8473:, p. 90.
8472:
8467:
8460:
8455:
8448:
8443:
8436:
8431:
8424:
8419:
8412:
8407:
8400:
8395:
8393:
8385:
8380:
8373:
8368:
8362:, p. 59.
8361:
8356:
8350:, p. 13.
8349:
8344:
8337:
8336:Lipiński 2001
8332:
8325:
8320:
8313:
8308:
8301:
8296:
8289:
8284:
8277:
8272:
8265:
8260:
8258:
8250:
8245:
8243:
8241:
8233:
8228:
8226:
8224:
8216:
8211:
8204:
8199:
8192:
8187:
8180:
8175:
8173:
8165:
8160:
8158:
8156:
8154:
8146:
8141:
8134:
8129:
8127:
8119:
8114:
8112:
8110:
8108:
8106:
8098:
8093:
8086:
8081:
8079:
8071:
8066:
8064:
8062:
8060:
8053:, p. 38.
8052:
8047:
8040:
8035:
8033:
8025:
8020:
8014:, p. 93.
8013:
8008:
8001:
7996:
7990:, p. 37.
7989:
7984:
7982:
7975:, p. 36.
7974:
7969:
7967:
7959:
7954:
7947:
7942:
7935:
7930:
7923:
7918:
7912:, p. 12.
7911:
7906:
7899:
7894:
7892:
7890:
7888:
7886:
7884:
7876:
7871:
7864:
7859:
7852:
7847:
7841:, p. 10.
7840:
7835:
7833:
7825:
7820:
7818:
7810:
7805:
7798:
7793:
7786:
7781:
7774:
7769:
7762:
7757:
7755:
7747:
7742:
7735:
7730:
7723:
7718:
7711:
7706:
7699:
7694:
7688:, p. 10.
7687:
7682:
7680:
7678:
7676:
7668:
7663:
7656:
7651:
7649:
7647:
7645:
7637:
7632:
7625:
7620:
7618:
7616:
7614:
7612:
7604:
7599:
7597:
7590:, p. 94.
7589:
7584:
7582:
7574:
7569:
7562:
7557:
7550:
7545:
7543:
7536:, p. 42.
7535:
7530:
7528:
7520:
7515:
7513:
7505:
7500:
7493:
7488:
7481:
7476:
7469:
7464:
7457:
7452:
7445:
7440:
7432:
7426:
7422:
7421:
7413:
7406:
7401:
7394:
7389:
7382:
7377:
7375:
7368:, p. 13.
7367:
7362:
7360:
7352:
7347:
7340:
7335:
7329:, p. 13.
7328:
7323:
7321:
7319:
7311:
7306:
7304:
7302:
7294:
7289:
7282:
7277:
7271:, p. 40.
7270:
7265:
7259:, p. 11.
7258:
7253:
7246:
7241:
7234:
7229:
7223:, p. 22.
7222:
7217:
7210:
7205:
7198:
7193:
7187:, p. 61.
7186:
7181:
7174:
7169:
7162:
7157:
7155:
7153:
7151:
7143:
7138:
7132:, p. 84.
7131:
7126:
7124:
7116:
7111:
7109:
7102:, p. 21.
7101:
7100:Lipiński 2001
7096:
7094:
7086:
7081:
7074:
7069:
7062:
7057:
7050:
7045:
7043:
7035:
7030:
7023:
7018:
7016:
7008:
7003:
7001:
6999:
6997:
6989:
6984:
6978:, p. 29.
6977:
6972:
6970:
6962:
6957:
6951:, p. 43.
6950:
6945:
6943:
6941:
6939:
6937:
6929:
6924:
6917:
6912:
6910:
6908:
6900:
6895:
6888:
6883:
6876:
6871:
6864:
6859:
6852:
6847:
6845:
6843:
6841:
6839:
6837:
6829:
6824:
6817:
6812:
6810:
6802:
6797:
6790:
6785:
6778:
6773:
6767:, p. 24.
6766:
6765:Lipiński 2001
6761:
6759:
6751:
6746:
6744:
6742:
6735:, p. 26.
6734:
6729:
6722:
6717:
6715:
6707:
6702:
6695:
6690:
6683:
6678:
6671:
6666:
6659:
6654:
6647:
6642:
6640:
6638:
6636:
6634:
6632:
6624:
6619:
6613:, p. 30.
6612:
6611:Lipiński 2001
6607:
6600:
6595:
6589:, p. 39.
6588:
6583:
6581:
6579:
6577:
6569:
6564:
6562:
6560:
6558:
6556:
6548:
6543:
6537:, p. 39.
6536:
6535:Lipiński 2001
6531:
6525:, p. 27.
6524:
6519:
6517:
6515:
6508:, p. 29.
6507:
6502:
6500:
6498:
6490:
6485:
6483:
6481:
6474:, p. 37.
6473:
6472:Lipiński 2001
6468:
6461:
6456:
6454:
6447:, p. 24.
6446:
6441:
6439:
6437:
6429:
6424:
6418:, p. 34.
6417:
6416:Lipiński 2001
6412:
6405:
6400:
6393:
6388:
6381:
6376:
6369:
6364:
6362:
6354:
6349:
6342:
6337:
6335:
6327:
6322:
6320:
6312:
6307:
6305:
6297:
6292:
6290:
6288:
6280:
6275:
6273:
6265:
6260:
6253:
6248:
6246:
6244:
6236:
6231:
6224:
6219:
6212:
6211:Lipiński 2001
6207:
6200:
6195:
6193:
6191:
6189:
6187:
6179:
6174:
6167:
6166:Zaborski 2011
6162:
6160:
6158:
6150:
6145:
6143:
6141:
6139:
6131:
6126:
6124:
6117:, p. 41.
6116:
6111:
6109:
6107:
6099:
6094:
6092:
6084:
6079:
6077:
6069:
6064:
6062:
6060:
6058:
6056:
6048:
6043:
6041:
6033:
6028:
6026:
6024:
6022:
6014:
6009:
6001:
5995:
5987:
5981:
5977:
5964:
5960:
5954:
5947:
5943:
5939:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5923:
5917:
5908:
5899:
5890:
5880:
5871:
5862:
5855:
5848:
5839:
5830:
5823:
5817:
5810:
5806:
5800:
5796:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5761:
5751:
5748:
5747:
5741:
5738:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5725:
5722:
5716:
5712:
5709:
5705:
5702:
5699:
5697:to rend, tear
5696:
5695:
5691:
5688:
5682:
5678:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5666:
5663:
5657:
5651:
5647:
5644:
5641:
5638:
5635:
5634:
5630:
5627:
5623:
5620:
5617:
5614:
5611:
5608:
5604:
5601:
5597:
5594:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5583:
5580:
5576:
5573:
5570:
5564:
5558:
5554:
5551:
5548:
5545:
5542:
5539:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5527:
5521:
5517:
5514:
5509:
5506:
5503:
5499:
5493:
5489:
5486:
5482:
5479:
5473:
5469:
5466:
5463:
5460:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5448:
5442:
5438:
5435:
5432:
5429:
5423:
5419:
5416:
5412:
5409:
5406:
5403:
5400:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5388:
5384:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5372:
5366:
5362:
5359:
5356:
5352:
5349:
5346:
5343:
5342:
5338:
5335:
5331:
5328:
5325:
5322:
5318:
5315:
5312:
5306:
5302:
5299:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5281:
5278:
5275:
5271:
5268:
5262:
5258:
5255:
5252:
5249:
5246:
5245:
5241:
5238:
5235:
5232:
5229:
5223:
5219:
5216:
5212:
5209:
5206:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5188:
5184:
5181:
5177:
5175:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5161:
5155:
5151:
5148:
5143:
5140:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5128:
5124:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5106:
5102:
5099:
5095:
5092:
5089:
5086:
5085:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5073:
5047:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5030:
5028:
5022:
5008:
5005:
5002:
4999:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4976:
4973:
4970:
4967:
4964:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4950:
4947:
4944:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4921:
4918:
4915:
4912:
4909:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4895:
4892:
4889:
4886:
4883:
4882:
4866:
4863:
4860:
4857:
4854:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4840:
4837:
4834:
4831:
4828:
4827:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4802:
4799:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4785:
4782:
4779:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4727:
4724:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4692:
4689:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4675:
4672:
4669:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4637:
4634:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4620:
4617:
4614:
4611:
4608:
4607:
4591:
4588:
4585:
4582:
4579:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4565:
4562:
4559:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4536:
4533:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4507:
4504:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4481:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4455:
4452:
4449:
4446:
4443:
4440:
4437:
4434:
4430:
4427:
4423:
4422:Lipiński 2001
4419:
4415:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4383:
4379:
4378:Indo-European
4364:
4361:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4339:
4336:
4331:
4328:
4325:
4313:
4312:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4290:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4261:
4258:
4252:
4251:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4226:
4223:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4200:
4197:
4194:
4191:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4162:
4159:
4153:
4152:
4148:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4136:
4133:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4116:
4113:
4110:
4107:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4081:
4076:
4073:
4068:
4065:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4036:
4033:
4030:
4027:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4008:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3979:
3976:
3973:
3970:
3967:
3964:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3954:
3951:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3923:
3921:
3917:
3907:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3893:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3870:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3858:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3848:
3844:
3838:
3836:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3807:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3787:
3784:
3783:
3779:
3776:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3762:
3760:Causative *s-
3759:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3751:Kossmann 2007
3748:
3744:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3705:
3703:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3686:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3676:to give birth
3673:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3662:
3660:
3656:
3654:
3653:to give birth
3650:
3647:
3646:
3643:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3619:
3617:
3616:drinking bowl
3613:
3611:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3596:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3572:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3528:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3510:miʕ-ito:nu-h
3503:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3486:
3483:
3476:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3371:
3368:
3362:
3360:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3328:ʔ-e:-dbíl-na
3318:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3285:t-e:-dbíl-na
3275:
3272:
3269:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3237:
3230:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3100:
3096:
3094:"Old Present"
3093:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3057:
3054:
3048:
3046:
3035:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2949:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2841:
2840:stative verbs
2837:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2740:Kossmann 2012
2737:
2733:
2732:Lipiński 2001
2729:
2723:
2715:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2543:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2485:Mubi (Chadic)
2484:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2379:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2343:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2300:reduplication
2291:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2267:
2265:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2199:
2197:-dbil- (past)
2196:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2068:(imperative)
2067:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2010:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1971:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1946:
1944:
1943:vowel harmony
1940:
1936:
1928:Vowel systems
1925:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1851:dissimilation
1848:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1775:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1757:labialization
1754:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1696:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1608:
1602:
1598:
1583:
1579:
1565:
1561:
1546:
1542:
1525:
1523:
1522:macrofamilies
1519:
1515:
1514:Jared Diamond
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1452:
1450:
1449:areal contact
1423:
1413:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1348:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1275:
1269:
1267:
1261:
1259:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1229:Chado-Berber
1228:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1055:Boreafrasian
1054:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1001:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
975:
973:
971:
968:
967:
966:
965:
963:
962:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
935:
921:
917:
914:
910:
907:
903:
900:
897:
893:
892:
891:
883:
879:
874:
864:
860:
858:
854:
850:
846:
840:
830:
828:
824:
820:
816:
810:
806:
798:
797:Seth-Peribsen
793:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
751:
741:
739:
735:
728:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
694:
684:
682:
678:
674:
669:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
637:
628:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
605:
603:
599:
595:
591:
586:
585:afroasiatique
581:
576:
574:
570:
569:Indo-European
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
537:
535:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
449:
444:
440:
436:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
317:Modern Hebrew
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
247:Indo-European
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
191:
186:
182:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
162:
158:
154:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
120:
119:
115:
112:
109:
105:
102:
98:
96:
92:
88:
82:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
60:
54:
49:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
13928:
13921:
13920:Families in
13877:Pre-Goidelic
13872:Pre-Germanic
13702:Indo-Semitic
13697:Indo-Pacific
13692:Indo-Hittite
13607:
13600:
13593:
13523:
13500:Indian Ocean
13467:
13462:Austronesian
13460:
13453:
13446:
13439:
13434:Sino-Tibetan
13432:
13411:
13389:
13384:Sino-Tibetan
13382:
13375:
13368:
13336:
13311:
13304:
13297:
13290:
13283:
13276:
13269:
13262:
13255:
13249:
13248:
13241:
13221:
13214:
13207:
13200:
13193:
13188:North Picene
13186:
13179:
13172:
13165:
13158:
13151:
13144:
13132:
13125:
13118:
13054:
13047:
13046:Families in
12981:
12932:
12830:
12818:
12668:
12636:
12627:Pano-Tacanan
12584:
12547:
12535:
12506:Arutani–Sape
12498:
12443:
12425:
12418:
12403:Oto-Manguean
12401:
12384:
12377:
12324:
12312:
12305:
12298:
12291:
12284:
12257:
12250:
12227:
12220:
12208:
12181:
12159:
12152:
12140:
12128:
12111:
12104:
12097:
12090:
12083:
12071:
12064:
12023:
11990:
11986:Western Daly
11964:Pama–Nyungan
11962:
11950:
11943:
11930:
11908:
11903:Eastern Daly
11901:
11893:
11848:
11724:
11712:
11690:
11673:
11651:
11622:Kaure–Kosare
11582:Doso–Turumsa
11572:Chimbu–Wahgi
11562:Bulaka River
11546:Austronesian
11544:
11505:
11498:
11479:
11466:
11459:
11452:
11378:
11371:
11364:
11354:Sino-Tibetan
11352:
11335:
11318:
11296:
11289:
11282:
11265:
11255:Austronesian
11253:
11246:
11235:
11234:
11180:
11118:Nilo-Saharan
11116:
11109:
11094:Austronesian
11092:
11086:
11085:
11021:
10995:
10953:
10855:Macro-Somali
10845:Lowland East
10774:
10733:South Bauchi
10723:North Bauchi
10713:Bole–Tangale
10598:
10593:Proto-Berber
10591:
10584:
10570:
10530:Roger Blench
10498:(in Russian)
10480:Afro-Asiatic
10456:
10447:
10428:
10418:
10390:
10386:
10367:
10348:
10331:
10312:
10293:
10268:
10264:
10237:
10218:
10201:
10197:
10177:
10167:
10158:
10154:
10135:
10126:
10122:
10113:
10109:
10093:
10067:
10048:
10039:
10019:
9991:
9972:
9945:
9928:
9924:
9905:
9896:
9887:
9878:
9869:
9860:
9825:
9800:
9796:
9771:
9767:
9758:
9723:
9696:
9661:
9642:
9623:
9614:
9605:
9586:
9544:
9540:
9521:
9512:
9503:
9499:
9487:. Retrieved
9482:
9453:
9449:
9400:
9396:
9387:
9368:
9356:. Retrieved
9340:
9319:
9301:
9297:
9288:
9284:
9257:
9230:
9221:
9212:
9208:
9199:
9182:
9178:
9159:
9140:
9121:
9085:
9058:
9031:
9009:
8997:
8985:
8973:
8961:
8949:
8937:
8925:
8913:
8901:
8889:
8877:
8865:
8853:
8811:
8799:
8787:
8775:
8763:
8751:
8739:
8732:Beylage 2018
8712:
8705:Stauder 2023
8700:
8688:
8681:Stauder 2023
8676:
8664:
8659:, p. 8.
8652:
8640:
8628:
8601:
8589:
8577:
8546:
8534:
8507:
8478:
8466:
8454:
8442:
8430:
8418:
8406:
8379:
8367:
8360:Beylage 2018
8355:
8343:
8331:
8319:
8307:
8295:
8283:
8271:
8210:
8198:
8186:
8140:
8092:
8046:
8019:
8012:Hayward 2000
8007:
7995:
7953:
7941:
7929:
7917:
7905:
7870:
7858:
7846:
7826:, p. 7.
7804:
7799:, p. 1.
7792:
7780:
7768:
7741:
7729:
7717:
7705:
7693:
7662:
7655:Hetzron 2009
7631:
7588:Hayward 2000
7568:
7556:
7499:
7487:
7475:
7463:
7458:, p. 5.
7451:
7439:
7419:
7412:
7400:
7388:
7346:
7334:
7288:
7276:
7264:
7252:
7245:Hayward 2000
7240:
7228:
7216:
7204:
7192:
7180:
7168:
7137:
7130:Hayward 2000
7117:, p. 4.
7080:
7075:, p. 1.
7068:
7056:
7029:
6983:
6956:
6923:
6894:
6882:
6870:
6858:
6823:
6796:
6789:Fleming 2006
6784:
6777:Hayward 2000
6772:
6728:
6701:
6696:, p. 6.
6689:
6677:
6672:, p. 4.
6665:
6653:
6625:, p. 2.
6618:
6606:
6594:
6542:
6530:
6467:
6423:
6411:
6399:
6387:
6375:
6370:, p. 1.
6348:
6343:, p. 4.
6326:Hetzron 2009
6298:, p. 5.
6259:
6230:
6218:
6206:
6178:Hetzron 2009
6173:
6151:, p. 3.
6098:Nichols 2003
6034:, p. 3.
6008:
5994:
5980:
5958:
5953:
5938:glottal stop
5916:
5907:
5898:
5889:
5879:
5870:
5861:
5847:
5838:
5829:
5816:
5808:
5804:
5799:
5749:
5736:
5727:
5720:
5714:
5707:
5686:
5680:
5673:
5668:
5661:
5655:
5649:
5625:
5618:
5612:
5606:
5599:
5578:
5568:
5562:
5556:
5543:*sǔm / *sǐm-
5532:
5525:
5519:
5512:
5507:
5501:
5497:
5491:
5484:
5477:
5471:
5453:
5446:
5440:
5433:
5427:
5421:
5414:
5393:
5386:
5379:
5374:
5370:
5364:
5354:
5333:
5332:(cf. Hebrew
5326:
5320:
5310:
5304:
5283:
5273:
5266:
5260:
5233:
5227:
5221:
5214:
5193:
5186:
5182:'red linen')
5179:
5173:
5166:
5159:
5153:
5133:
5126:
5119:
5114:
5110:
5104:
5097:
5035:Hayward 2000
5023:
5019:
4693:səmmus, afus
4395:
4382:Austronesian
4375:
4348:'she' (dep.)
4285:'she' (ind.)
3934:
3919:
3915:
3912:
3905:
3899:
3891:
3885:
3874:
3868:
3847:Beylage 2018
3832:
3766:Passive *n-
3747:Bubenik 2023
3733:', and *n- '
3727:middle voice
3719:derivational
3716:
3701:
3695:
3684:
3675:
3664:
3658:
3652:
3641:
3635:
3634:mu-katib-un
3629:
3615:
3609:
3581:Beylage 2018
3568:
3558:
3518:pars-a:tina
3355:
3345:əkănnăf-năt
3313:ta-parras-i:
3279:t-i:-dbíl-na
3276:t-əkănnăf-ăm
3146:t-əkănnăf-ət
3126:ʔ-a-danbí:l
3088:Imperfective
3045:glottal stop
3041:
3027:imperfective
3016:
2998:
2992:
2986:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2920:
2914:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2848:
2844:
2833:
2815:
2798:
2781:
2764:
2720:
2713:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2674:
2668:
2657:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2601:
2595:
2592:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2504:
2385:
2322:
2297:
2273:
2261:
2181:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2112:
2108:
2078:
2065:
2061:(infinitive)
2058:
2051:women, wives
2050:
2044:
2032:
2026:work! do it!
2025:
2014:
2008:
1999:
1992:
1985:
1959:pitch accent
1952:
1931:
1919:
1913:
1909:
1859:
1855:assimilation
1835:
1834:(other than
1828:
1745:assimilation
1742:
1699:
1687:glottal stop
1637:
1626:
1622:
1614:
1606:
1499:
1486:
1478:Proto-Zenati
1458:
1442:BCE to 8,000
1430:
1398:
1383:Marcel Cohen
1380:
1371:
1368:Carl Meinhof
1353:
1299:
1278:
1270:
1262:
1258:Marcel Cohen
1255:
1237:
1232:
1223:
1222:
1214:
1204:
1199:
1179:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1105:
1104:
1096:
1091:
1070:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1050:
1042:
1034:
1013:
1008:
999:
998:
993:
988:
977:
974:Afroasiatic
969:
938:Fleming 1983
911:The extinct
889:
880:
876:
861:
842:
812:
753:
730:
700:
696:
670:
642:
620:
616:
612:
608:
606:
598:afrazijskije
589:
582:, as French
577:
572:
568:
560:
553:monophyletic
548:
544:
540:
538:
529:Ernest Renan
524:
508:
499:, while the
452:
442:
437:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
405:Afro-Asiatic
404:
400:
398:
365:
287:
251:Sino-Tibetan
231:North Africa
218:
214:
210:
209:, sometimes
207:Afro-Asiatic
206:
202:
200:
117:Subdivisions
62:North Africa
58:distribution
40:
13727:Ural-Altaic
13707:Indo-Uralic
13519:Sentinelese
13250:Afroasiatic
13216:Eteocypriot
12940:Germanosign
12844:Mura-Pirahã
12725:Lule–Vilela
12701:Bora-Witoto
12676:Uru–Chipaya
12649:Ticuna–Yuri
12632:Peba–Yaguan
12617:Nambikwaran
12420:Uto-Aztecan
12356:Mesoamerica
12210:Uto-Aztecan
12199:Tsimshianic
12161:Palaihnihan
12031:Malak-Malak
11768:Papuan Gulf
11742:West Papuan
11647:Lower Sepik
11637:Lakes Plain
11540:Arai–Samaia
11528:the Pacific
11236:Afroasiatic
11111:Niger–Congo
11087:Afroasiatic
10799:Ngeté-Herdé
10680:Biu–Mandara
10644:Mzab–Wargla
10639:East Zenati
10534:family tree
10408:2445/195869
10393:(1): 1–18.
9023:Works cited
8768:Wilson 2020
8744:Wilson 2020
8657:Takács 2008
8621:Wilson 2020
7851:Allen 2020a
7839:Bender 1978
7824:Vernet 2011
7797:Vernet 2011
7785:Takács 1999
7773:Edzard 1992
7722:Bender 1978
7444:Blench 2006
7339:Blench 2006
7269:Winand 2023
7197:Ruhlen 1991
7142:Ruhlen 1991
7073:Blažek 2013
7007:Blench 2006
6976:Sanker 2023
6961:Blench 2006
6899:Blench 2008
5884:incidental.
5470:(cf. Yemsa
5336:'to shout')
5165:(cf. Oromo
4615:ḵraṭt, šaṛṭ
4418:Blažek 2018
4414:Blažek 2017
4408:languages.
4314:'he' (dep.)
4253:'he' (ind.)
4060:'we' (ind.)
3843:Wilson 2020
3743:Wilson 2020
3663:má-háif-áa
3657:má-hàif-íi
3640:ma-ktab-un
3585:Wilson 2020
3565:agent nouns
3535:moʕ-o:nu-h
3504:pars-a:tunu
3296:t-ăknəf-măt
3282:t-i-dbíl-na
3169:t-i:-dbíl-i
3166:ta-parras-i
3149:t-i:-dbíl-a
2539:Bender 2000
2506:Nouns cases
2334:singulative
2045:woman, wife
1791:b, f, m, h
1774:Allen 2020a
1738:continuants
1714:glottalized
1564:Old Aramaic
1560:Neo-Aramaic
1494:Paul Newman
1323:Ernst Renan
1310:Hiob Ludolf
1196:Cushomotic
1039:Erythraean
948:Bender 1997
823:hieroglyphs
401:Afroasiatic
293:Middle East
255:Niger–Congo
89:630 million
46:Afroasiatic
32:Afro-Asians
13946:Categories
13867:Pre-Celtic
13835:East Asian
13825:Austro-Tai
13815:Andamanese
13665:Eurasiatic
13586:North Asia
13536:North Asia
13448:Hmong–Mien
13402:Burushaski
13361:South Asia
13332:Kartvelian
13299:Philistine
13209:Eteocretan
13153:Tartessian
12934:Francosign
12782:Chiquitano
12762:Alacalufan
12570:Guaicuruan
12543:Chapacuran
12526:Cahuapanan
12494:Araucanian
12397:Mixe–Zoque
12392:Misumalpan
12106:Comecrudan
11958:Nyulnyulan
11737:Upper Yuat
11714:Torricelli
11686:Senu River
11617:Foja Range
11523:New Guinea
11448:Burushaski
11309:Kartvelian
11284:Hmong–Mien
11100:Khoe–Kwadi
10161:: 221–251.
10116:: 339–408.
9506:: 151–171.
9483:Ethnologue
8816:Gragg 2019
8780:Ehret 1995
8717:Allen 2013
8693:Ehret 1995
8645:Ehret 1995
8606:Gragg 2019
8582:Gragg 2019
8551:Peust 2012
8500:Gragg 2019
8348:Allen 2020
8232:Peust 2012
8215:Gragg 2019
8179:Souag 2023
8051:Gragg 2019
7988:Gragg 2019
7973:Gragg 2019
7746:Ehret 1995
7734:Ehret 1995
7257:Hodge 1971
7221:Gragg 2019
7049:Peust 2012
6949:Gragg 2019
6928:Peust 2012
6887:Peust 2012
6733:Gragg 2019
6670:Allen 2013
6658:Allen 2013
6623:Allen 2013
6599:Gragg 2019
6523:Gragg 2019
6506:Gragg 2019
6445:Gragg 2019
6380:Gragg 2019
6115:Gragg 2019
6068:Sands 2009
6013:Sands 2009
5963:Ehret 1980
5930:circumflex
5683:'to spit';
5658:'to spit';
5652:'to spit';
5522:'to flee';
5494:'to soar';
5480:'to jump')
5474:'to jump';
5443:, 'to die'
5363:Mwaghavul
5250:*gâd-/gûd-
5162:'to blood'
5076:Ehret 1995
5039:Gragg 2019
4844:asarámaat
4583:ḵraḍ, šaṛḍ
4560:snat, sənt
4505:yiwət, išt
4248:-un-t (f)
4243:-kunna (f)
3988:'I' (ind.)
3950:Gragg 2019
3665:birthplace
3493:miʕ-ino-h
3473:măttit-ăt
3439:pars-a:ti
3431:miʕ-ito-h
3411:miʕ-iyo-h
3367:Gragg 2019
3319:əkănnăf-ăn
3273:t-ăknəf-ăm
3267:ta-prus-a:
3256:n-e:-dbíl
3175:danbí:l-i
3172:t-i-dbíl-i
3163:ta-prus-i:
3155:danbí:l-a
3152:t-i-dbíl-a
3143:t-ăknəf-ət
3117:əkănnăf-ăʕ
3091:"Old Past"
3053:Gragg 2019
3032:suppletive
3023:perfective
3008:Verb forms
2836:adjectives
2728:Allen 2020
2531:Gragg 2019
2449:ta-mazir-t
2405:Gragg 2019
2393:epenthesis
2342:Souag 2023
2330:pejorative
2326:diminutive
2304:gemination
2276:word order
2270:Word order
2127:Gragg 2019
2115:triliteral
2094:shortening
1939:epenthesis
1867:pharyngeal
1843:obstruents
1734:obstruents
1722:uvularized
1656:pharyngeal
1648:affricates
1644:fricatives
1274:isoglosses
985:Erythraic
943:Ehret 1995
781:Old Nubian
734:Chad Basin
673:Ethnologue
621:Erythraean
607:The names
563:possesses
421:Erythraean
387:(s-), and
372:sound laws
341:Phoenician
56:Geographic
13892:Pre-Vedic
13882:Pre-Greek
13854:Substrata
13757:Arunachal
13655:Nostratic
13640:Alarodian
13575:Yeniseian
13425:East Asia
13377:Dravidian
13234:West Asia
13202:Tyrsenian
12965:Tanzanian
12906:languages
12803:Hodï/Joti
12747:Isolates
12686:Yanomaman
12622:Otomákoan
12586:Jirajaran
12575:Guajiboan
12537:Catacaoan
12516:Barbacoan
12445:Cuitlatec
12414:Totonacan
12373:Jicaquean
12252:Chimariko
12148:Muskogean
12130:Kalapuyan
12124:Iroquoian
12099:Chumashan
12092:Chinookan
12085:Chimakuan
12003:Yangmanic
11998:Worrorran
11981:Wagaydyic
11871:Australia
11720:Trans-Fly
11386:Yeniseian
11373:Tyrsenian
11267:Dravidian
11024:indicate
10971:Northwest
10884:Saho–Afar
10370:. Brill.
10351:. Brill.
10285:219971042
10129:: 95–106.
9881:. Mouton.
9852:133888593
9817:147639111
9750:225371874
9688:225371874
9470:1749-818X
9425:0036-8075
9304:: 33–60.
9112:216256704
8633:Shay 2014
8512:Mous 2012
8024:Shay 2014
7946:Shay 2014
7710:Amha 2012
5973:Citations
5944:based on
5854:cuneiform
5723:'to bite'
5689:'to spit'
5676:'to spit'
5664:'to spit'
5577:Akkadian
5535:'to fly'
5528:'to flee'
5518:Ugaritic
5510:'to fly';
5456:'to die'
5424:'to die',
5413:Rendille
5396:'tongue'
5385:Akkadian
5307:'to say';
5269:'old man'
5222:ka:ma:ma:
5192:Ghadames
5185:Akkadian
4954:aššaḍígt
4899:asúmhayt
4812:asarámaab
4789:asagwitt
4566:ʔiṯnatāni
4398:borrowing
4280:ntta (m)
4238:-kina (f)
4236:-kunu (m)
4149:kmmi (f)
3731:reflexive
3723:causative
3507:sḏm-tjwnj
3490:măttit-it
3484:pars-a:nu
3428:măttit-ət
3422:pars-a:ta
3408:măttit-ăʕ
3402:pars-a:ku
3342:ăknəf-năt
3336:i-prus-a:
3322:ʔ-i:-dbíl
3310:i-prus-u:
3293:ta-parras
3250:n-i:-dbíl
3247:n-əkănnăf
3241:ni-parras
3227:t-i-dbíl
3224:t-i:-dbíl
3221:t-əkănnăf
3215:ta-parras
3198:ʔ-i:-dbíl
3195:y-əkănnăf
3140:ta-parras
3120:ʔ-i:-dbíl
3079:Preterite
2868:Masculine
2763:malkā(h)
2736:Mous 2012
2618:t-frux-t
2583:Feminine
2580:Masculine
2574:Masculine
2568:Masculine
2562:Masculine
2480:gulà:be:
2466:galo:b-a
2452:ti-mizar
2332:, and/or
2188:Templates
2170:to gather
2158:to divide
1976:Examples
1906:sibilants
1875:laryngeal
1780:consonant
1747:known as
1730:implosive
1728:, and/or
1702:voiceless
1659:fricative
1341:Caucasian
539:The term
523:in 1710.
489:Egyptians
481:Assyrians
433:Lamekhite
417:Erythraic
385:causative
227:West Asia
175:Glottolog
157:ISO 639-2
66:West Asia
13887:Vasconic
13862:Atlantic
13616:Eskaleut
13570:Yukaghir
13485:Koreanic
13480:Tungusic
13475:Mongolic
13413:Harappan
13324:Caucasus
13306:Sumerian
13181:Ligurian
12998:See also
12975:Isolates
12950:Japanese
12890:Yuracaré
12772:Candoshi
12731:Macro-Jê
12696:Zaparoan
12691:Zamucoan
12681:Witotoan
12664:Tucanoan
12659:Tiniguan
12654:Timotean
12638:Quechuan
12607:Matacoan
12602:Mascoian
12592:Jivaroan
12555:Chibchan
12549:Charruan
12500:Arawakan
12437:Isolates
12368:Chibchan
12244:Isolates
12216:Wakashan
12177:Salishan
12119:Eskaleut
12025:Giimbiyu
12017:Isolates
11926:Jarrakan
11921:Iwaidjan
11778:Isolates
11632:Kutubuan
11500:Sumerian
11436:Isolates
11391:Yukaghir
11360:Tungusic
11326:Mongolic
11314:Koreanic
11273:Eskaleut
11164:Isolates
11148:Ubangian
10997:Egyptian
10850:Omo–Tana
10822:Cushitic
10624:Northern
9569:15576591
9489:28 April
9441:13350469
9433:12714734
9390:. Nauka.
9358:28 April
9349:Archived
9291:: 63–86.
5928:, and a
5757:See also
5719:Kw'adza
5679:Aramaic
5621:'curds'
5609:'to rot'
5567:Ga'anda
5487:'to fly'
5449:'to die'
5436:'to die'
5430:'to die'
5389:'tongue'
5382:'tongue'
5373:'tongue
5357:'tongue'
5323:'to say'
5313:'to say'
5224:'snack';
5217:'to eat'
5196:'blood'
5194:dəmmm-ən
5156:'blood';
5109:Wandala
5100:'strike'
5064:Egyptian
5058:Cushitic
5016:Cognates
4876:dòdòpórò
4864:ṯamāniya
4806:sebet(t)
4641:erbet(t)
4528:sin, sən
4435:Egyptian
4372:Numerals
4241:-kum (m)
3974:Egyptian
3931:Pronouns
3881:Egyptian
3853:Language
3813:Egyptian
3757:Language
3725:', *t- '
3683:mi-frey
3630:to write
3610:to drink
3605:Egyptian
3591:Language
3543:pars-a:
3459:meʕ-e-h
3396:Singular
3385:Egyptian
3359:Pronouns
3339:i-parras
3325:ʔ-i-dbíl
3316:ăknəf-ăn
3270:a-parras
3253:n-i-dbíl
3204:danbí:l
3201:ʔ-i-dbíl
3189:i-parras
3123:ʔ-a-dbíl
3114:ăknəf-ăʕ
3111:a-parras
3102:Singular
2905:Egyptian
2871:Feminine
2862:Language
2746:Language
2699:šarr-at-
2634:šarr-at-
2600:intal-t-
2577:Feminine
2571:Feminine
2565:Feminine
2438:nägäs-t
2421:Singular
2415:Language
2389:apophony
2357:Egyptian
2264:apophony
2182:to build
2174:m-(w)-t
2164:to roast
2133:Language
2082:suffixes
2033:be done!
2031:k'àyts'
2024:k'áyts'
1973:Language
1761:sibilant
1726:ejective
1710:emphatic
1695:Tigrinya
1675:alveolar
1671:bilabial
1582:Cushitic
1455:Location
1427:Timeline
1224:Egyptian
1200:Cushitic
1169:Egyptian
1152:Cushitic
1120:Cushitic
1106:Egyptian
1060:Egyptian
1043:Cushitic
1000:Egyptian
989:Cushitic
853:Wolaitta
815:Egyptian
787:Egyptian
777:Meroitic
744:Cushitic
677:language
657:Egyptian
653:Cushitic
609:Lisramic
511:for the
501:Elamites
493:Cushites
485:Arameans
429:Noahitic
425:Lisramic
349:Ugaritic
333:Akkadian
313:Tigrinya
271:Egyptian
267:Cushitic
221:, are a
211:Afrasian
181:afro1255
138:Egyptian
133:Cushitic
18:Afrasian
13922:italics
13820:Austric
13797:Kho-Bwa
13792:Hrusish
13770:Siangic
13712:Karasuk
13612: ?
13525:Kenaboi
13490:Japonic
13455:Kra–Dai
13416: ?
13407:Kusunda
13313:Elamite
13285:Kassite
13271:Kaskian
13174:Camunic
13146:Iberian
13103:Eurasia
13048:italics
13025:Pidgins
13010:Creoles
12960:Swedish
12928:Chinese
12875:Urarina
12860:Puinave
12814:Itonama
12808:Irantxe
12777:Chimane
12707:Chimuan
12612:Nadahup
12531:Cariban
12511:Aymaran
12472:America
12314:Waikuri
12307:Tonkawa
12300:Timucua
12293:Takelma
12286:Siuslaw
12275:Kutenai
12259:Esselen
12222:Wintuan
12183:Shastan
12154:Na-Dene
12142:Maiduan
12079:Caddoan
12053:America
12007:Wagiman
12005:(incl.
11976:Tangkic
11916:Garawan
11889:Bunuban
11850:Tambora
11817:Maybrat
11785:Abinomn
11708:Teberan
11669:Pauwasi
11659:Mairasi
11627:Kiwaian
11507:Tambora
11493:Shompen
11475:Kusunda
11468:Kenaboi
11454:Elamite
11426:Siangic
11408:Kho-Bwa
11402:Hrusish
11320:Kra–Dai
11304:Japonic
11213:Eurasia
11188:Sandawe
11171:Bangime
11136:Songhay
11022:Italics
10966:Central
10946:Semitic
10879:Oromoid
10872:Western
10690:Kujargé
10658:Western
10619:Eastern
9577:8057990
9561:3839746
9541:Science
9405:Bibcode
9397:Science
5809:italics
5735:Arabic
5726:Ngizim
5713:Dahalo
5685:Arabic
5667:Hausa t
5660:Somali
5656:təff y-
5654:Kemant
5636:to spit
5624:Arabic
5589:to sour
5565:'name';
5559:'name';
5531:Ahogar
5524:Arabic
5452:Kabyle
5439:Hebrew
5407:*mawut-
5392:Kabyle
5387:liša:nu
5369:Gisiga
5367:tongue,
5355:mi-laso
5282:Arabic
5272:Ngizim
5267:gad-uwa
5189:'blood'
5172:Bolewa
5132:Tuareg
5125:Arabic
5070:Berber
5067:Semitic
5049:Meaning
5009:támint
4922:aššaḍíg
4896:ṯamānin
4879:nyartn
4867:asúmhay
4861:samānat
4818:mátàlíŋ
4757:aságwir
4725:səmmust
4679:faḍígt
4667:(j)fd.t
4644:ʔarbaʕa
4635:(j)fd.w
4586:šalāšat
4569:máloot
4534:ʔiṯnāni
4432:Meaning
4387:decimal
4309:ntta-t
4246:-un (m)
4189:-ú:k(i)
4160:-ú:k(a)
4091:nkkwni
4071:inná-ga
4069:anná-ga
3956:Meaning
3873:yərēḥī
3867:yārēaḥ
3735:passive
3700:em-äks
3529:pars-u:
3487:sḏm-wjn
3467:pars-at
3244:n-ăknəf
3238:ni-prus
3218:t-ăknəf
3212:ta-prus
3192:y-ăknəf
3137:ta-prus
3082:Present
2966:təlkəm-
2874:Plural
2865:meaning
2814:a-ryaz
2689:-frux-t
2446:country
2424:Plural
2418:Meaning
2086:infixes
2059:to cook
2049:máatáa
2043:màatáa
1863:glottal
1840:lateral
1708:, and "
1683:glottal
1603:branch)
1601:Semitic
1584:branch)
1547:branch)
1482:Maghreb
1337:Negroid
1215:Semitic
1147:Semitic
1125:Semitic
1071:Semitic
978:Semitic
867:Semitic
773:Sidaama
769:Hadiyya
681:dialect
679:" and "
661:Semitic
625:Red Sea
594:Russian
561:Hamitic
549:Hamitic
525:Hamitic
509:Semitic
389:passive
345:Amorite
321:Sidaama
275:Semitic
143:Semitic
13782:Mijiic
13775:Digaro
13722:Pontic
13650:Borean
13645:Altaic
13609:Rouran
13602:Turkic
13595:Uralic
13584:Other
13469:Turkic
13397:Nihali
13292:Gutian
13264:Hattic
13257:Turkic
13223:Minoan
13195:Sicani
13140:Basque
13134:Turkic
13127:Uralic
13111:Europe
12923:BANZSL
12885:Yamana
12870:Trumai
12839:Movima
12793:Fulniô
12756:Aikanã
12670:Tupian
12565:Chonan
12489:Arauan
12427:Xincan
12379:Lencan
12332:Yokuts
12229:Yukian
12194:Tanoan
12189:Siouan
12172:Pomoan
12113:Coosan
11939:Mirndi
11832:Porome
11827:Pawaia
11681:Senagi
11653:Madang
11602:Eleman
11557:Border
11488:Nihali
11481:Minoan
11461:Hattic
11443:Basque
11414:Mijiic
11396:Digaro
11380:Uralic
11366:Turkic
11217:Europe
11074:Africa
11010:Ongota
11003:Coptic
10989:Others
10914:Dizoid
10901:Omotic
10835:Dullay
10776:Zumaya
10668:Chadic
10653:Tuareg
10634:Zenati
10611:Berber
10532:(with
10435:
10374:
10355:
10319:
10300:
10283:
10252:
10225:
10185:
10142:
10074:
10055:
10027:
10006:
9979:
9960:
9912:
9850:
9840:
9815:
9788:595879
9786:
9748:
9738:
9711:
9686:
9676:
9649:
9630:
9593:
9575:
9567:
9559:
9528:
9468:
9439:
9431:
9423:
9375:
9327:
9272:
9245:
9166:
9147:
9128:
9110:
9100:
9073:
9046:
7427:
5959:*daaʕ-
5700:*zaaʕ-
5598:Mocha
5592:*s'ăm-
5581:'name'
5571:'name'
5557:su:na:
5555:Hausa
5533:fərə-t
5490:Hausa
5445:Ge'ez
5420:Hausa
5404:*maaw-
5401:to die
5353:Kaffa
5344:tongue
5319:Hausa
5303:Sheko
5294:to say
5265:Burji
5259:Oromo
5236:'food'
5230:'mush'
5226:Tumak
5220:Hausa
5169:'red')
5152:Kaffa
5134:bakkat
5061:Chadic
5055:Omotic
5041:, and
4974:ʕašara
4971:ešeret
4934:irstn
4931:váyták
4893:samānē
4870:saddet
4783:šiš(š)
4751:šiššet
4696:ḫamšat
4676:ʔarbaʕ
4624:mháyt
4589:ṯalāṯa
4537:máloob
4511:wāḥida
4508:ištiāt
4424:, and
4391:base-5
4291:ijá-ga
4288:batú:s
4262:isá-ga
4259:barú:s
4221:-ú:kna
4218:-nitì-
4146:ʔan-ti
4131:batú:k
4120:ʔan-ta
4105:adí-ga
4102:barú:k
4085:ni:nu:
4009:ana:ku
3997:aní-ga
3892:divine
3890:nṯr.j
3749:, and
3729:' or '
3696:to eat
3659:father
3651:hayf-
3642:school
3636:writer
3628:k-t-b
3614:m-swr
3583:, and
3532:sḏm-wj
3478:Plural
3470:sḏm-tj
3456:măttit
3425:sḏm-tj
3405:sḏm-kw
3388:Berber
3379:Gender
3376:Person
3373:Number
3232:Plural
3186:i-prus
3108:a-prus
3085:Aorist
3071:Berber
3065:Gender
3062:Person
3059:Number
2972:ilkəm-
2960:ilkəm-
2799:mouths
2769:malkat
2738:, and
2712:macci-
2706:keett-
2673:intal-
2653:macci-
2644:keett-
2612:-frux
2551:Berber
2474:stream
2176:to die
2168:d-b-l
2162:k-n-f
2156:p-r-s
2139:Berber
2064:dàfáa
2057:dáfàa
2007:ínan,
1893:, and
1883:dental
1877:, and
1871:uvular
1755:, and
1706:voiced
1681:, and
1578:Somali
1545:Berber
1541:Shilha
1506:Levant
1444:
1440:
1416:Origin
1391:1969,
1238:Berber
1233:Chadic
1205:Omotic
1180:Omotic
1175:Chadic
1157:Berber
1115:Berber
1097:Chadic
1092:Omotic
1066:Berber
1051:Chadic
1035:Omotic
1014:Chadic
1009:Berber
970:Omotic
833:Omotic
771:, and
761:Somali
721:Chadic
687:Berber
659:, and
649:Chadic
645:Berber
483:, and
431:, and
411:, and
383:(t-),
381:middle
361:Levant
347:, and
289:Arabic
279:Omotic
277:, and
263:Chadic
259:Berber
253:, and
239:Sahara
233:, the
148:Omotic
128:Chadic
123:Berber
76:, and
13560:Nivkh
13514:Ongan
12880:Warao
12849:Nukak
12820:Kunza
12798:Guató
12787:Cofán
12767:Camsá
12560:Choco
12521:Boran
12470:South
12451:Huave
12386:Mayan
12337:Yuchi
12320:Washo
12270:Karuk
12265:Haida
12204:Utian
12136:Keres
12073:Alsea
12066:Algic
12051:North
11843:Taiap
11837:Sulka
11692:Sepik
11607:Engan
11348:Ongan
11331:Nivkh
11199:Shabo
11182:Jalaa
11176:Hadza
11130:Mande
10978:South
10934:Ometo
10929:Gonga
10924:North
10909:Aroid
10891:South
10794:Mesme
10787:South
10770:Musey
10765:Massa
10760:Marba
10753:North
10703:Angas
10629:Atlas
10281:S2CID
10106:(PDF)
10090:(PDF)
9848:S2CID
9813:S2CID
9784:JSTOR
9746:S2CID
9684:S2CID
9573:S2CID
9557:JSTOR
9437:S2CID
9352:(PDF)
9345:(PDF)
9108:S2CID
5934:vowel
5922:caron
5822:Yaaku
5791:Notes
5737:zaʕy-
5728:dáar-
5715:ḏaaʕ-
5706:Gamo
5648:Beja
5642:*tuf-
5639:*tuf-
5626:sumūț
5613:*s'am
5607:*cam-
5600:č'àm-
5561:Sura
5546:*süm-
5496:Mafa
5492:fi:ra
5483:Beja
5476:Dime
5472:fill-
5467:*pir-
5464:*pîr-
5454:ammat
5447:mo:ta
5426:Mubi
5309:Aari
5300:*gay-
5297:*geh-
5284:gadd-
5276:'old'
5274:gad'e
5253:*gad-
5213:Afar
5178:(cf.
5167:di:ma
5160:zomʔi
5158:Aari
5149:*dam-
5146:*dâm-
5144:*dîm-
5141:blood
5103:Afar
5096:Gamo
5093:*bak-
5000:mrawt
4980:kuḍan
4977:támin
4942:psḏ.t
4925:sagal
4919:tisʕa
4916:tišīt
4910:psḏ.w
4887:ḫmn.t
4873:jurgù
4855:ḫmn.w
4849:Eight
4832:sfḫ.t
4824:napm
4821:bùhúl
4815:tolba
4809:sabʕa
4800:sfḫ.w
4794:Seven
4780:sḍist
4777:sjs.t
4769:sapm
4763:ménéŋ
4754:sitta
4745:sjs.w
4728:ḫamiš
4714:ut͡ʃ
4699:ḫamsa
4670:kkuẓt
4653:pórìn
4647:faḍíg
4621:ṯalāṯ
4618:šalāš
4612:ḫmt.t
4595:sadii
4580:ḫmt.w
4574:Three
4563:šittā
4557:sn.tj
4525:sn.wj
4514:gáat
4494:mat'
4485:tokko
4479:wāḥid
4476:ištēn
4365:-ha:
4230:ká(n)
4143:at-ti
4123:kiji
4117:at-ta
4088:naħnu
4066:hinín
4015:nkki
3904:ḥr.j
3875:lunar
3835:Nisba
3702:eater
3685:birth
3674:firi
3453:sḏm-w
3450:paris
2974:ən-in
2911:(p-n)
2803:afé-r
2797:afee
2765:queen
2692:šarr-
2682:-frux
2658:woman
2649:house
2640:queen
2624:šarr-
2494:aràn
2477:gulbi
2463:galab
2435:nɨgus
2314:Nouns
2066:cook!
2013:inán
1998:dibí
1991:dibi
1984:díbi
1949:Tones
1935:schwa
1815:ḥ, z
1799:ꜣ, b
1679:velar
1640:stops
757:Oromo
738:Hausa
613:*lis-
243:Sahel
78:Malta
74:Sahel
13929:bold
13787:Miju
13555:Ainu
13055:bold
12982:See
12918:Arab
12904:Sign
12855:Páez
12832:Maku
12826:Leco
12342:Zuni
12326:Yana
12280:Seri
12037:Tiwi
11857:Wiru
11822:Mpur
11812:Kuot
11795:Anêm
11790:Abun
11757:Yuat
11752:Yawa
11698:Skou
11675:Ramu
11526:and
11420:Miju
11242:Ainu
11222:Asia
11220:and
11193:Laal
11154:Kadu
11142:Ijaw
11105:Kx'a
10961:West
10955:East
10830:Agaw
10804:Peve
10745:Masa
10708:Bade
10698:West
10685:East
10483:2006
10433:ISBN
10372:ISBN
10353:ISBN
10317:ISBN
10298:ISBN
10250:ISBN
10223:ISBN
10183:ISBN
10140:ISBN
10072:ISBN
10053:ISBN
10025:ISBN
10004:ISBN
9977:ISBN
9958:ISBN
9925:WORD
9910:ISBN
9838:ISBN
9797:WORD
9736:ISBN
9709:ISBN
9674:ISBN
9647:ISBN
9628:ISBN
9591:ISBN
9565:PMID
9526:ISBN
9491:2021
9466:ISSN
9429:PMID
9421:ISSN
9373:ISBN
9360:2021
9325:ISBN
9270:ISBN
9243:ISBN
9164:ISBN
9145:ISBN
9126:ISBN
9098:ISBN
9071:ISBN
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