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step-families. Moreover, while adult adoptees showed more variability than their non-adopted peers on a range of psychosocial measures, adult adoptees exhibited more similarities than differences with adults who had not been adopted. There have been many cases of remediation or the reversibility of early trauma. For example, in one of the earliest studies conducted, Professor
Goldfarb in England concluded that some children adjust well socially and emotionally despite their negative experiences of institutional deprivation in early childhood. Other researchers also found that prolonged institutionalization does not necessarily lead to emotional problems or character defects in all children. This suggests that there will always be some children who fare well, who are resilient, regardless of their experiences in early childhood. Furthermore, much of the research on psychological outcomes for adoptees draws from clinical populations. This suggests that conclusions such that adoptees are more likely to have behavioral problems such as ODD and ADHD may be biased. Since the proportion of adoptees that seek mental health treatment is small, psychological outcomes for adoptees compared to those for the general population are more similar than some researchers propose.
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racial/ethnic discrimination. It has been found that multicultural and transnational youth tend to identify with their parents origin of culture and ethnicity rather than their residing location, yet it is sometimes hard to balance an identity between the two because school environments tend to lack diversity and acknowledgment regarding such topics. These tensions also tend to create questions for the adoptee, as well as the family, to contemplate. Some common questions include what will happen if the family is more naïve to the ways of socially constructed life? Will tensions arise if this is the case? What if the very people that are supposed to be modeling a sound identity are in fact riddled with insecurities? Ginni
Snodgrass answers these questions in the following way. The secrecy in an adoptive family and the denial that the adoptive family is different builds dysfunction into it. "... social workers and insecure adoptive parents have structured a family relationship that is based on dishonesty, evasions and exploitation. To believe that good relationships will develop on such a foundation is psychologically unsound" (Lawrence). Secrecy erects barriers to forming a healthy identity.
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designed to construct the present tool and per-study study. The analysis of item and initial psychometric analyses indicate that there are two factors in it. Items 3-10-11-12-14-15-16-17-19-20-21 are reversed and the rest are graded positively. The results of exploratory factor analysis by main components with varimax rotation indicated two components of attitude toward adoption being named respectively cognitive as the aspects of attitude toward adoption and behavioral-emotional aspects of attitude toward adoption. These two components explained 43.25% of the variance of the total sample. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.709 for the whole questionnaire, 0.71 for the first component, and 0.713 for the second one. In addition, there was a significant positive relationship between desired social tendencies and the cognitive aspect of attitude toward adoption as well as the behavioral -emotional aspects of attitude toward adoption (P ≤ 0.01).
1484:"Honest Adoption Language" refers to a set of terms that proponents say reflect the point of view that: (1) family relationships (social, emotional, psychological or physical) that existed prior to the legal adoption often continue past this point or endure in some form despite long periods of separation, and that (2) mothers who have "voluntarily surrendered" children to adoption (as opposed to involuntary terminations through court-authorized child-welfare proceedings) seldom view it as a choice that was freely made, but instead describe scenarios of powerlessness, lack of resources, and overall lack of choice. It also reflects the point of view that the term "birth mother" is derogatory in implying that the woman has ceased being a mother after the physical act of giving birth. Proponents of HAL liken this to the mother being treated as a "breeder" or "incubator". Terms included in HAL include terms that were used before PAL, including "natural mother", "first mother", and "surrendered for adoption".
788:: this involves the placing of a child for adoption outside that child's country of birth. This can occur through public or private agencies. In some countries, such as Sweden, these adoptions account for the majority of cases (see above table). The U.S. example, however, indicates there is wide variation by country since adoptions from abroad account for less than 15% of its cases. More than 60,000 Russian children have been adopted in the United States since 1992, and a similar number of Chinese children were adopted from 1995 to 2005. The laws of different countries vary in their willingness to allow international adoptions. Recognizing the difficulties and challenges associated with international adoption, and in an effort to protect those involved from the corruption and exploitation which sometimes accompanies it, the
1444:(founded in 1996), groups that helped overturn sealed records in Alabama, Delaware, New Hampshire, Oregon, Tennessee, and Maine. A coalition of New York and national adoptee rights activists successfully worked to overturn a restrictive 83-year-old law in 2019, and adult adopted people born in New York, as well as their descendants, today have the right to request and obtain their own original birth certificates. As of 2021, ten states in the United States recognize the right of adult adopted people to obtain their own original birth certificates, including Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Kansas, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon and Rhode Island. Connecticut in 2021 became the tenth state to restore an adopted person's right to request and obtain their original birth certificates.
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were never pregnant. Another study found similar consequences for choosing to release a child for adoption. Adolescent mothers who released their children were more likely to reach a higher level of education and to be employed than those who kept their children. They also waited longer before having their next child. Most of the research that exists on adoption effects on the birth parents was conducted with samples of adolescents, or with women who were adolescents when carrying their babies—little data exists for birth parents from other populations. Furthermore, there is a lack of longitudinal data that may elucidate long-term social and psychological consequences for birth parents who choose to place their children for adoption.
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adoption circumstances, the people involved and affected by adoption (the biological parent, the adoptive parent and the adoptee) can be known as the "triad members and state". Adoption may threaten triad members' sense of identity. Triad members often express feelings related to confused identity and identity crises because of differences between the triad relationships. Adoption, for some, precludes a complete or integrated sense of self. Triad members may experience themselves as incomplete, deficient, or unfinished. They state that they lack feelings of well-being, integration, or solidity associated with a fully developed identity.
1327:'s 1939–1975 dictatorship the newborns of some left-wing opponents of the regime, or unmarried or poor couples, were removed from their mothers and adopted. New mothers were frequently told their babies had died suddenly after birth and the hospital had taken care of their burials, when in fact they were given or sold to another family. It is believed that up to 300,000 babies were involved. These system—which allegedly involved doctors, nurses, nuns and priests—outlived Franco's death in 1975 and carried on as an illegal baby trafficking network until 1987 when a new law regulating adoption was introduced.
1026:
Studies by Leynes and by
Festinger and Young, Berkman, and Rehr found that, for pregnant adolescents, the decision to release the child for adoption depended on the attitude toward adoption held by the adolescent's mother. Another study found that pregnant adolescents whose mothers had a higher level of education were more likely to release their babies for adoption. Research suggests that women who choose to release their babies for adoption are more likely to be younger, enrolled in school, and have lived in a two-parent household at age 10, than those who kept and raised their babies.
759:: under this arrangement, charities and for-profit organizations act as intermediaries, bringing together prospective adoptive parents with families who want to place a child, all parties being residents of the same country. Alternatively, prospective adoptive parents sometimes avoid intermediaries and connect with women directly, often with a written contract; this is not permitted in some jurisdictions. Private domestic adoption accounts for a significant portion of all adoptions; in the United States, for example, nearly 45% of adoptions are estimated to have been arranged privately.
40:
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referred to as Late
Discovery Adoptees (LDAs). Failure of the adoptive parent(s) to disclose adoption status to a child is an outdated adoption practice that was once fairly common for adoptees born in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. Since the 1970s, it has been socially unacceptable to keep the truth from adopted individuals regarding their genetic origins. The discovery of the deception regarding true parentage and that one is, in fact, a Late Discovery Adoptee can add "layers of trauma, loss, betrayal, identity confusion, and disorganization upon learning the truth."
713:
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are removed including abuse and neglect, which can have a lasting impact on the adoptee. Social workers in many cases will be notified of a safeguarding concern in relation to a child and will make enquiries into the child's well-being. Social workers will often seek means of keeping a child together with the birth family, for example, by providing additional support to the family before considering removal of a child. A court of law will often then make decisions regarding the child's future, for example, whether they can return to the birth family, enter into
989:. Studies by Cicchetti et al. (1990, 1995) found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants in their sample exhibited disorganized attachment styles. Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms, as well as depressive, anxious, and acting-out symptoms. "Attachment is an active process—it can be secure or insecure, maladaptive or productive." In the U.K., some adoptions fail because the adoptive parents do not get sufficient support to deal with difficult, traumatized children. This is a
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parents enrich their children's lives to compensate for the lack of biological ties and the extra challenges of adoption." Another recent study found that adoptive families invested more heavily in their adopted children, for example, by providing further education and financial support. Noting that adoptees seemed to be more likely to experience problems such as drug addiction, the study speculated that adoptive parents might invest more in adoptees not because they favor them, but because they are more likely than genetic children to need the help.
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develop feelings of a lack of acceptance because of such racial, ethnic, and cultural differences. Therefore, exposing transracial and transnational adoptees to their "cultures of origin" is important in order to better develop a sense of identity and appreciation for cultural diversity. Identity construction and reconstruction for transnational adoptees the instant they are adopted. For example, based upon specific laws and regulations of the United States, the Child
Citizen Act of 2000 makes sure to grant immediate U.S. citizenship to adoptees.
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groups were high, and those who released their child were similar to those who kept their child in ratings of life satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and positive future outlook for schooling, employment, finances, and marriage. Subsequent research found that adolescent mothers who chose to release their babies for adoption were more likely to experience feelings of sorrow and regret over their decision than those who kept their babies. However, these feelings decreased significantly from one year after birth to the end of the second year.
210:
419:, and 2) adoption became infused with secrecy, eventually resulting in the sealing of adoption and original birth records by 1945. The origin of the move toward secrecy began with Charles Loring Brace, who introduced it to prevent children from the Orphan Trains from returning to or being reclaimed by their parents. Brace feared the impact of the parents' poverty, in general, and Catholic religion, in particular, on the youth. This tradition of secrecy was carried on by the later Progressive reformers when drafting of American laws.
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their biological parents? Silverstein and Kaplan's research states that adoptees lacking medical, genetic, religious, and historical information are plagued by questions such as "Who am I?" "Why was I born?" "What is my purpose?" This lack of identity may lead adoptees, particularly in adolescent years, to seek out ways to belong in a more extreme fashion than many of their non-adopted peers. Adolescent adoptees are overrepresented among those who join sub-cultures, run away, become pregnant, or totally reject their families.
108:
901:
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that have same-sex marriage allow joint adoption by those couples, the exceptions being
Ecuador (no adoption by same-sex couples), Taiwan (step-child adoption only) and Mexico (in one third of states with same-sex marriage). A few countries with civil unions or lesser marriage rights nonetheless allow step- or joint adoption.In 2019, the ACS enhanced its approach to measuring same-sex couple households, explicitly distinguishing between same-sex and opposite-sex spouses or partners.
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strengthened by experiences where non-adoptees suggest adoptive ties are weaker than blood ties, 3) together, these factors engender, in some adoptees, a sense of social exclusion, and 4) these adoptees react by searching for a blood tie that reinforces their membership in the community. The externally focused rationale for reunion suggests adoptees may be well adjusted and happy within their adoptive families, but will search as an attempt to resolve experiences of social stigma.
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regression. One's identity tends to lack stability in the beginning years of life but gains a more stable sense in later periods of childhood and adolescence. Typically associated with a time of experimentation, there are endless factors that go into the construction of one's identity. As well as being many factors, there are many types of identities one can associate with. Some categories of identity include gender, sexuality, class, racial and religious, etc. For transracial and
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simultaneously cause offense or insult to others. This controversy illustrates the problems in adoption, as well as the fact that coining new words and phrases to describe ancient social practices will not necessarily alter the feelings and experiences of those affected by them. Two of the contrasting sets of terms are commonly referred to as "positive adoption language" (PAL) (sometimes called "respectful adoption language" (RAL)), and "honest adoption language" (HAL).
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364:, rather than adopted, to families who took them in. As in times past, some children were raised as members of the family while others were used as farm laborers and household servants. The sheer size of the displacement—the largest migration of children in history—and the degree of exploitation that occurred, gave rise to new agencies and a series of laws that promoted adoption arrangements rather than indenture. The hallmark of the period is
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new principles including "to prevent placements of children...", reflecting the belief that children would be better served by staying with their biological families, a striking shift in policy that remains in force today. In addition, groups such as
Origins USA (founded in 1997) started to actively speak about family preservation and the rights of mothers. The intellectual tone of these reform movements was influenced by the publishing of
1476:"Constructive Adoption Terminology". This influenced Pat Johnston's "Positive Adoption Language" (PAL) and "Respectful Adoption Language" (RAL). The terms contained in "Positive Adoption Language" include the terms "birth mother" (to replace the terms "natural mother" and "real mother"), and "placing" (to replace the term "surrender"). These kinds of recommendations encouraged people to be more aware of their use of adoption terminology.
683:(also called confidential or secret adoption), which has not been the norm for most of modern history, seals all identifying information, maintaining it as secret and preventing disclosure of the adoptive parents', biological kin's, and adoptees' identities. Nevertheless, closed adoption may allow the transmittal of non-identifying information such as medical history and religious and ethnic background. Today, as a result of
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for adoptees, step-children, and foster children, causing the researchers to speculate that people are less interested in sustaining the genetic lines of others. This theory is supported in another more qualitative study wherein adoptive relationships marked by sameness in likes, personality, and appearance, were associated with both adult adoptees and adoptive parents reporting being happier with the adoption.
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327:(BFA) is a good example, which had up to 30% of its charges adopted out by 1888. Officials of the BFA noted that, although the asylum promoted otherwise, adoptive parents did not distinguish between indenture and adoption: "We believe," the asylum officials said, "that often, when children of a younger age are taken to be adopted, the adoption is only another name for service."
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rear a noble family. How short-sighted it is then for such a family to take into its midst a child whose pedigree is absolutely unknown; or, where, if it were partially known, the probabilities are strong that it would show poor and diseased stock, and that if a marriage should take place between that individual and any member of the family the offspring would be degenerates.
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adoptive parents, making it appear that the child was born to the adoptive parents. Beginning in the late 1930s and continuing through the 1970s, state laws allowed for the sealing of original birth certificates after an adoption and, except in some states, made the original birth certificate unavailable to the adopted person even at the age of majority.
1220:. Negative perceptions result in the belief that such children are so troubled it would be impossible to adopt them and create "normal" families. A 2004 report from the Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care has shown that the number of children waiting in foster care doubled since the 1980s and now remains steady at about a half-million a year."
1119:(ADHD), with an 8% rate in the general population. Suicide risks were also significantly greater than the general population. Swedish researchers found both international and domestic adoptees undertook suicide at much higher rates than non-adopted peers; with international adoptees and female international adoptees, in particular, at highest risk.
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health of relationship to partner, and other contextual factors predicted later adjustment in early placed adoptees. Along with this, a 2009 study showed again that sexual orientation of parents does not affect externalizing and internalized problems, but family functioning and income can affect adjustment, especially for older adoptees.
268:, three adoptees were made heirs to an estate. Like other contemporary arrangements, the agreement stressed the responsibility of the adopted rather than adopter, focusing on the fact that, under the contract, the adoptive father was meant to be cared for in his old age; an idea that is similar to the conceptions of adoption under Roman law.
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adoption, and that the overall rate of never-married
American women who adopt is about 1.4%. Other reasons people adopt are numerous although not well documented. These may include wanting to cement a new family following divorce or death of one parent, compassion motivated by religious or philosophical conviction, to avoid contributing to
782:: this is a type of domestic adoption where a child is initially placed in public care. Many times the foster parents take on the adoption when the children become legally free. Its importance as an avenue for adoption varies by country. Of the 127,500 adoptions in the U.S. in 2000, about 51,000 or 40% were through the foster care system.
171:, used some form of adoption as well. Evidence suggests the goal of this practice was to ensure the continuity of cultural and religious practices; in contrast to the Western idea of extending family lines. In ancient India, adoption was conducted in a limited and highly ritualistic form, so that an adopter might have the necessary
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detailed biological background, including medical information. It is speculated by adoption researchers, however, that the reasons given are incomplete: although such information could be communicated by a third-party, interviews with adoptees, who sought reunion, found they expressed a need to actually meet biological relations.
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the biological and adoptive parents may enter into a legally enforceable and binding agreement concerning visitation, exchange of information, or other interaction regarding the child. As of
February 2009, 24 U.S. states allowed legally enforceable open adoption contract agreements to be included in the adoption finalization.
748:) are not passed on, and health concerns relating to pregnancy and childbirth. Although there are a range of reasons, the most recent study of experiences of women who adopt suggests they are most likely to be 40–44 years of age, to be currently married, to have impaired fertility, and to be childless.
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birth records, exceeding original forecasts made in 1975 when it was believed that only a small fraction of the adoptee population would request their records. The projection is known to underestimate the true search rate, however, since many adoptees of the era get their birth records by other means.
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Social workers and other professionals in the field of adoption began changing terms of use to reflect what was being expressed by the parties involved. In 1979, Marietta
Spencer wrote "The Terminology of Adoption" for The Child Welfare League of America (CWLA), which was the basis for her later work
1397:
Adoption practices have changed significantly over the course of the 20th century, with each new movement labeled, in some way, as reform. Beginning in the 1970s, efforts to improve adoption became associated with opening records and encouraging family preservation. These ideas arose from suggestions
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in China, when women were only allowed to have one child, local governments would often allow the woman to give birth and then they would take the baby away. Child traffickers, often paid by the government, would sell the children to orphanages that would arrange international adoptions worth tens of
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The most recent adoption attitudes survey completed by the Evan Donaldson Institute provides further evidence of this stigma. Nearly one-third of the surveyed population believed adoptees are less-well adjusted, more prone to medical issues, and predisposed to drug and alcohol problems. Additionally,
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are more likely to have mental health problems. The study suggests that to identify and treat mental health problems early, care professionals and the adopting parents need detailed biographical information about the child's life. Another study in the UK suggests that adopted children are more likely
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While adoption studies have shown that by adulthood the personalities of adopted siblings are little or no more similar than random pairs of strangers, the parenting style of adoptive parents may still play a role in the outcome of their adoptive children. Research has suggested that adoptive parents
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Nevertheless, work on adult adoptees has found that the additional risks faced by adoptees are largely confined to adolescence. Young adult adoptees were shown to be alike with adults from biological families and scored better than adults raised in alternative family types including single parent and
1037:
In another study that compared mothers who released their children to those who raised them, mothers who released their children were more likely to delay their next pregnancy, to delay marriage, and to complete job training. However, both groups reached lower levels of education than their peers who
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More recent research found that in a sample of mothers who had released their children for adoption four to 12 years prior, every participant had frequent thoughts of their lost child. For most, thoughts were both negative and positive in that they produced both feelings of sadness and joy. Those who
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Beyond the foundational issues, the unique questions posed for adoptive parents are varied. They include how to respond to stereotypes, answering questions about heritage, and how best to maintain connections with biological kin when in an open adoption. One author suggests a common question adoptive
724:
Adoptions can occur between related or unrelated individuals. Historically, most adoptions occurred within a family. The most recent data from the U.S. indicates that about half of adoptions are currently between related individuals. A common example of this is a "step-parent adoption", where the new
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Now it happens that some people are interested in the welfare and high development of the human race; but leaving aside those exceptional people, all fathers and mothers are interested in the welfare of their own families. The dearest thing to the parental heart is to have the children marry well and
3646:
Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1995). Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants' attachments to their caregivers. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds), Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child
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In sum, reunions can bring a variety of issues for adoptees and parents. Nevertheless, most reunion results appear to be positive. In the largest study to date (based on the responses of 1,007 adoptees and relinquishing parents), 90% responded that reunion was a beneficial experience. This does not,
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Some adoptees reject the idea of reunion. It is unclear, though, what differentiates adoptees who search from those who do not. One paper summarizes the research, stating, "...attempts to draw distinctions between the searcher and non-searcher are no more conclusive or generalizable than attempts to
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It appears the desire for reunion is linked to the adoptee's interaction with and acceptance within the community. Internally focused theories suggest some adoptees possess ambiguities in their sense of self, impairing their ability to present a consistent identity. Reunion helps resolve the lack of
1412:
After a legal adoption in the United States, an adopted person's original birth certificate is usually amended and replaced with a new post-adoption birth certificate. The names of any birth parents listed on the original birth certificate are replaced on an amended certificate with the names of the
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is the emphasis that, if possible, mothers and children should be kept together. In the U.S., this was clearly illustrated by the shift in policy of the New York Foundling Home, an adoption-institution that is among the country's oldest and one that had pioneered sealed records. It established three
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Family plays a vital role in identity formation. This is not only true in childhood but also in adolescence. Identity (gender/sexual/ethnic/religious/family) is still forming during adolescence and family holds a vital key to this. The research seems to be unanimous; a stable, secure, loving, honest
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Joint adoption by same-sex couples is legal in 34 countries as of March 2022, and additionally in various sub-national territories. Adoption may also be in the form of step-child adoption (6 additional countries), wherein one partner in a same-sex couple adopts the child of the other. Most countries
885:
Ad hoc studies performed in the U.S., however, suggest that between 10 and 25 percent of adoptions through the child welfare system (e.g., excluding babies adopted from other countries or step-parents adopting their stepchildren) disrupt before they are legally finalized and from 1 to 10 percent are
806:
treatments have been completed; embryos are given to another individual or couple, followed by the placement of those embryos into the recipient woman's uterus, to facilitate pregnancy and childbirth. In the United States, embryo adoption is governed by property law rather than by the court systems,
739:
is the main reason parents seek to adopt children they are not related to. One study shows this accounted for 80% of unrelated infant adoptions and half of adoptions through foster care. Estimates suggest that 11–24% of Americans who cannot conceive or carry to term attempt to build a family through
728:
Adoption is not always a voluntary process. In some countries, for example in the U.K., one of the main origins of children being placed for adoption is that they have been removed from the birth home, often by a government body such as the local authority. There are a number of reasons why children
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allows identifying information to be communicated between adoptive and biological parents and, perhaps, interaction between kin and the adopted person. Open adoption can be an informal arrangement subject to termination by adoptive parents who have sole custody over the child. In some jurisdictions,
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and informal adoption extended into the 19th century, today seen as a transitional phase for adoption history. Under the direction of social welfare activists, orphan asylums began to promote adoptions based on sentiment rather than work; children were placed out under agreements to provide care for
141:
Markedly different from the modern period, ancient adoption practices put emphasis on the political and economic interests of the adopter, providing a legal tool that strengthened political ties between wealthy families and created male heirs to manage estates. The use of adoption by the aristocracy
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Abdollahzadeh,H., Chaloui.O., Mahmoudi,H.(2019). The Development and Standardization of Psychometric Criteria of Attitude toward Adoption Questionnaire (ATAQ) and its Relation to Prosocial Behavior and Character Strengths, International Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences (IJABS),6(1),1–12. DOI:
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A common problem is that terms chosen by an identity group, as acceptable descriptors of themselves, can be used in negative ways by detractors. This compromises the integrity of the language and turns what was intended to be positive into negative or vice versa, thus often devaluing acceptability,
1223:
Attitude toward Adoption Questionnaire (ATAQ): this questionnaire was first developed by Abdollahzadeh, Chaloyi and Mahmoudi(2019). Preliminary Edition: This questionnaire has 23 items based on the Likert scale of 1 (totally Disagree), up to 5 (Totally Agree) being obtained after refining the items
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In Western culture, many see that the common image of a family being that of a heterosexual couple with biological children. This idea places alternative family forms outside the norm. As a consequence – research indicates – disparaging views of adoptive families exist, along with doubts concerning
1086:
The research says that the dysfunction, untruths and evasiveness that can be present in adoptive families not only makes identity formation impossible, but also directly works against it. What effect on identity formation is present if the adoptee knows they are adopted but has no information about
1068:
Identity is defined both by what one is and what one is not. Adoptees born into one family lose an identity and then borrow one from the adopting family. The formation of identity is a complicated process and there are many factors that affect its outcome. From a perspective of looking at issues in
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suggested that the "parent-infant system", rather than a bond between biologically related individuals, is an evolved fit between innate behavior patterns of all human infants and equally evolved responses of human adults to those infant behaviors. Thus nature "ensures some initial flexibility with
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passed by some U.S. states, secret adoption is seeing renewed influence. In so-called "safe-haven" states, infants can be left anonymously at hospitals, fire departments, or police stations within a few days of birth, a practice criticized by some adoption advocacy organizations as being retrograde
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enacted its first laws in 1977. Additionally, the Asian powers opened their orphanage systems to adoption, influenced as they were by Western ideas following colonial rule and military occupation. In France, local public institutions accredit candidates for adoption, who can then contact orphanages
263:
made adoption difficult, requiring adopters to be over the age of 50, sterile, older than the adopted person by at least 15 years, and to have fostered the adoptee for at least six years. Some adoptions continued to occur, however, but became informal, based on ad hoc contracts. For example, in the
1550:
Nevertheless, some indication of the level of search interest by adoptees can be gleaned from the case of England and Wales which opened adoptees' birth records in 1975. The U.K. Office for National Statistics has projected that 33% of all adoptees would eventually request a copy of their original
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is that a child needs a mother and a father in the home to develop properly. However, a 2013 study of predictors for psychological outcomes of adoptees showed that family type (hetero, gay, lesbian) does not affect the child's adjustment; rather the preparedness of the adoptive parent(s), and
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Evidence about the development of adoptees can be supported in newer studies. It can be said that adoptees, in some respect, tend to develop differently from the general population. This can be seen in many aspects of life, but usually can be found as a greater risk around the time of adolescence.
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Recent research has shown that adoptive parenting may have impacts on adoptive children, it has been shown that warm adoptive parenting reduces internalizing and externalizing problems of the adoptive children over time. Another study shows that warm adoptive parenting at 27 months predicted lower
959:
study of 6,000 adoptive, step, and foster families in the United States and South Africa from 1968 to 1985; the study indicated that food expenditures in households with mothers of non-biological children (when controlled for income, household size, hours worked, age, etc.) were significantly less
940:
Same-sex parents, according to the ACS, were predominantly female. Notably, 22.5% of female same-sex couple households had children under 18, in contrast to 6.6% of male same-sex couple households. In homes with children, neither male nor female same-sex couples were more likely to have biological
72:
or other systems designed for the care of the young, adoption is intended to effect a permanent change in status and as such requires societal recognition, either through legal or religious sanction. Historically, some societies have enacted specific laws governing adoption, while others used less
1554:
The research literature states adoptees give four reasons for desiring reunion: 1) they wish for a more complete genealogy, 2) they are curious about events leading to their conception, birth, and relinquishment, 3) they hope to pass on information to their children, and 4) they have a need for a
1585:
Attitudes and laws regarding adoption vary greatly. Whereas all cultures make arrangements whereby children whose birth parents are unavailable to rear them can be brought up by others, not all cultures have the concept of adoption, that is treating unrelated children as equivalent to biological
1173:
Late Discovery Adoption is a term used to describe the situation where an adopted individual first discovers that they are adopted at a later age than is universally considered to be appropriate, often well into adulthood. Adopted individuals who discover their adoption status at a later age are
1029:
There is limited research on the consequences of adoption for the original parents, and the findings have been mixed. One study found that those who released their babies for adoption were less comfortable with their decision than those who kept their babies. However, levels of comfort over both
651:
The number of adoptions is reported to be constant since 1987. Since 2000, adoption by type has generally been approximately 15% international adoptions, 40% from government agencies responsible for child welfare, and 45% other, such as voluntary adoptions through private adoption agencies or by
470:
Adoption is today practiced globally. The table below provides a snapshot of Western adoption rates. Adoption in the United States still occurs at rates nearly three times those of its peers even though the number of children awaiting adoption has held steady in recent years, between 100,000 and
380:
in 1909, where it was declared that the nuclear family represented "the highest and finest product of civilization" and was best able to serve as primary caretaker for the abandoned and orphaned. As late as 1923, only two percent of children without parental care were in adoptive homes, with the
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Externally focused theories, in contrast, suggest that reunion is a way for adoptees to overcome social stigma. First proposed by Goffman, the theory has four parts: 1) adoptees perceive the absence of biological ties as distinguishing their adoptive family from others, 2) this understanding is
1319:, which allows the tribe and family of a Native American child to be involved in adoption decisions, with preference being given to adoption within the child's tribe. While forced assimilation usually revolves around ethnicity, assimilating children of political minorities has also occurred. In
1106:
These differences in development appear to play out in the way young adoptees deal with major life events. In the case of parental divorce, adoptees have been found to respond differently from children who have not been adopted. While the general population experienced more behavioral problems,
1012:
These differences in development appear to play out in the way young adoptees deal with major life events. In the case of parental divorce, adoptees have been found to respond differently from children who have not been adopted. While the general population experienced more behavioral problems,
981:" or "trace your eye color back through your parents and grandparents to see where your genes come from" could be hurtful to children who were adopted and do not know this biological information. Numerous suggestions have been made to substitute new lessons, e.g., focusing on "family orchards".
963:
Other studies provide evidence that adoptive relationships can form along other lines. A study evaluating the level of parental investment indicates strength in adoptive families, suggesting that parents who adopt invest more time in their children than other parents, and concludes "...adoptive
3636:
Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parents' Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status. In M.T. Greenberg, D. Ciccehetti, & E.M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention (pp161-184). Chicago: University of
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is the practice of rearing human children to be sold, typically for adoption. Poor mothers have used street clinics, known as "baby factories", to deliver babies to be adopted by richer women for payment. While this can be voluntary, baby factories have also coerced or abducted women into such
1064:
adoptees, tension is generally found in the categories of racial, ethnic and national identification. Because of this, the strength and functionality of family relationships play a huge role in its development and outcome of identity construction. Transracial and transnational adoptees tend to
1025:
Several factors affect the decision to release or raise the child. White adolescents tend to give up their babies to non-relatives, whereas black adolescents are more likely to receive support from their own community in raising the child and also in the form of informal adoption by relatives.
1046:
Previous research on adoption has led to assumptions that indicate that there is a heightened risk in terms of psychological development and social relationships for adoptees. Yet, such assumptions have been clarified as flawed due to methodological failures. But more recent studies have been
414:
Taken together, these trends resulted in a new American model for adoption. Following its Roman predecessor, Americans severed the rights of the original parents while making adopters the new parents in the eyes of the law. Two innovations were added: 1) adoption was meant to ensure the "best
1206:
The majority of people state that their primary source of information about adoption comes from friends and family and the news media. Nevertheless, most people report the media provides them a favorable view of adoption; 72% indicated receiving positive impressions. There is, however, still
1059:
There are many ways in which the concept of identity can be defined. It is true in all cases that identity construction is an ongoing process of development, change and maintenance of identifying with the self. Research has shown that adolescence is a time of identity progression rather than
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adoptions are some factors that play a significant role in the identity construction of adoptees. Many tensions arise from relationships built between the adoptee(s) and their family. These include being "different" from the parent(s), developing a positive racial identity, and dealing with
984:
Adopting older children presents other parenting issues. Some children from foster care have histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse, and are at risk of developing psychiatric problems. Such children are at risk of developing a
1458:
The language of adoption is changing and evolving, and since the 1970s has been a controversial issue tied closely to adoption reform efforts. The controversy arises over the use of terms which, while designed to be more appealing or less offensive to some persons affected by adoption, may
1471:
by Sorosky, Pannor and Baran were published, and support groups formed like CUB (Concerned United Birthparents), a major shift from "natural parent" to "birthparent" occurred. Along with the change in times and social attitudes came additional examination of the language used in adoption.
271:
Europe's cultural makeover marked a period of significant innovation for adoption. Without support from the nobility, the practice gradually shifted toward abandoned children. Abandonment levels rose with the fall of the empire and many of the foundlings were left on the doorstep of the
1421:. In the United States, Jean Paton founded Orphan Voyage in 1954, and Florence Fisher founded the Adoptees' Liberty Movement Association (ALMA) in 1971, calling sealed records "an affront to human dignity". While in 1975, Emma May Vilardi created the first mutual-consent registry, the
153:
were often picked up for slavery and composed a significant percentage of the Empire's slave supply. Roman legal records indicate that foundlings were occasionally taken in by families and raised as a son or daughter. Although not normally adopted under Roman Law, the children, called
1492:
There are supporters of various lists, developed over many decades, and there are persons who find them lacking, created to support an agenda, or furthering division. All terminology can be used to demean or diminish, uplift or embrace. In addressing the linguistic problem of naming,
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on adoptee maturation, concluding that cognitive abilities of adoptees reflect those of their adoptive parents in early childhood but show little similarity by adolescence, resembling instead those of their biological parents and to the same extent as peers in non-adoptive families.
1000:
on adoptee maturation, concluding that cognitive abilities of adoptees reflect those of their adoptive parents in early childhood but show little similarity by adolescence, resembling instead those of their biological parents and to the same extent as peers in non-adoptive families.
1258:. "Primal wound" is described as the "devastation which the infant feels because of separation from its birth mother. It is the deep and consequential feeling of abandonment which the baby adoptee feels after the adoption and which may continue for the rest of his life."
1416:
Adopted people have long sought to undo these laws so that they can obtain their own original birth certificates. Movements to unseal original birth certificates and other adoption records for adopted people proliferated in the 1970s along with increased acceptance of
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Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E.M., Greenberg, M.T., & Marvin, R.S. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years (pp. 3–50). Chicago: University of Chicago
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Furstenburg, F.F. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1985). Teenage childbearing: Causes, consequences, and remedies. In L. Aiken and D. Mechanic (Eds.), Applications of social science to clinical medicine and health policy (pp. 307–334). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
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partner of a parent legally adopts a child from the parent's previous relationship. Intra-family adoption can also occur through surrender, as a result of parental death, or when the child cannot otherwise be cared for and a family member agrees to take over.
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The adoptee population does, however, seem to be more at risk for certain behavioral issues. Researchers from the University of Minnesota studied adolescents who had been adopted and found that adoptees were twice as likely as non-adopted people to develop
1102:
found correlations between an adoptee's weight class and his biological parents' BMI while finding no relationship with the adoptive family environment. Moreover, about one-half of inter-individual differences were due to individual non-shared influences.
1008:
found correlations between an adoptee's weight class and his biological parents' BMI while finding no relationship with the adoptive family environment. Moreover, about one-half of inter-individual differences were due to individual non-shared influences.
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Psychologists' findings regarding the importance of early mother-infant bonding created some concern about whether parents who adopt older infants or toddlers after birth have missed some crucial period for the child's development. However, research on
3617:
Lyons-Ruth K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999) Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment. (pp. 520–554). NY: Guilford
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dissolved after legal finalization. The wide range of values reflects the paucity of information on the subject and demographic factors such as age; it is known that teenagers are more prone to having their adoptions disrupted than young children.
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abroad or ask for the support of NGOs. The system does not involve fees, but gives considerable power to social workers whose decisions may restrict adoption to "standard" families (middle-age, medium to high income, heterosexual, Caucasian).
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changed. Simultaneously, the scientific community began to stress the dominance of nurture over genetics, chipping away at eugenic stigmas. In this environment, adoption became the obvious solution for both unwed people and infertile couples.
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Adopted children are more likely to experience psychological and behavioral problems than non-adopted peers. Children who were older than four at the time of their adoption experience more psychological problems than those who were younger.
422:
The number of adoptions in the United States peaked in 1970. It is uncertain what caused the subsequent decline. Likely contributing factors in the 1960s and 1970s include a decline in the fertility rate, associated with the introduction of
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40–45% thought adoptees were more likely to have behavior problems and trouble at school. In contrast, the same study indicated adoptive parents were viewed favorably, with nearly 90% describing them as "lucky, advantaged, and unselfish".
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substance use, lower school achievement, and impaired social competence after parental divorce, the adoptee population appeared to be unaffected in terms of their outside relationships, specifically in their school or social abilities.
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substance use, lower school achievement, and impaired social competence after parental divorce, the adoptee population appeared to be unaffected in terms of their outside relationships, specifically in their school or social abilities.
1546:
Estimates for the extent of search behavior by adoptees have proven elusive; studies show significant variation. In part, the problem stems from the small adoptee population which makes random surveying difficult, if not impossible.
4440:
Adoption, and it's Associated Therapy Issues. A Literature Review discussing the impact of adoption on Self-worth, Identity and the Primary Relationships of the Adoptee and both the Biological and Adoptive Parents. Christine Peers
1537:
Language at its best honors the self-referencing choices of the persons involved, uses inclusive terms and phrases, and is sensitive to the feelings of the primary parties. Language evolves with social attitudes and experiences.
375:
movement swept the United States with a critical goal of ending the prevailing orphanage system. The culmination of such efforts came with the First White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children called by President
763:
822:, as witnessed by the public, the adoption is then considered binding, in some courts of law, even though not initially sanctioned by the court. The particular terms of a common-law adoption are defined by each legal
6445:(University of Texas Press; 185 pages; 2010). Uses interviews with 131 adoptive parents in a study of how adopters' attitudes uphold, accommodate, or subvert prevailing ideologies of kinship in the United States.
954:
The biological relationship between a parent and child is important, and the separation of the two has led to concerns about adoption. The traditional view of adoptive parenting received empirical support from a
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Goldfarb, W. (1955). Emotional and intellectual consequences of psychologic deprivation in infancy: A Re-evaluation. In P. Hoch & J. Zubin (Eds.), Psychopathology of Childhood (pp. 105–119). NY: Grune &
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supportive in indicating more accurate information and results about the similarities, differences and overall lifestyles of adoptees. Adoptees are four times more likely to attempt suicide than other people.
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ideas in America put up obstacles to the growth of adoption. There were grave concerns about the genetic quality of illegitimate and indigent children, perhaps best exemplified by the influential writings of
7533:
3753:
Lyons-Ruth, K.; Alpern, L.; Repacholi, B. (1993). "Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom".
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parents have is: "Will we love the child even though he/she is not our biological child?" A specific concern for many parents is accommodating an adoptee in the classroom. Familiar lessons like "draw your
5881:
284:. This created the first system in European history in which abandoned children did not have legal, social, or moral disadvantages. As a result, many of Europe's abandoned and orphaned children became
2231:
Bernadine Barr, "Spare Children, 1900–1945: Inmates of Orphanages as Subjects of Research in Medicine and in the Social Sciences in America" (PhD diss., Stanford University, 1992), p. 32, figure 2.2.
323:, unique in that it codified the ideal of the "best interests of the child". Despite its intent, though, in practice, the system operated much the same as earlier incarnations. The experience of the
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and its attendant social stigma were usually the impetus for a mother's decision to give her child to a baby farmer. Baby 'farmers' would sometimes neglect or murder the babies to keep costs down.
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1436:(AAC) passing a unanimous resolution: "Open Records complete with all identifying information for all members of the adoption triad, birthparents, adoptive parents and adoptee at the adoptee's
352:
roaming the streets of New York City. Brace considered the abandoned youth, particularly Catholics, to be the most dangerous element challenging the city's order. His solution was outlined in
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319:
them as family members instead of under contracts for apprenticeship. The growth of this model is believed to have contributed to the enactment of the first modern adoption law in 1851 by the
1261:
Forced adoption has also been enforced with the rationale of child welfare. The children of unwed or single mothers are commonly the target of such forced adoption. This was prominent during
1429:). Similar ideas were taking hold globally with grass-roots organizations like Parent Finders in Canada and Jigsaw in Australia. In 1975, England and Wales opened records on moral grounds.
1586:
children of the adoptive parents. Under Islamic Law, for example, adopted children must keep their original surname to be identified with blood relations, and, traditionally, women wear a
6199:
R. Rushbrooke, The proportion of adoptees who have received their birth records in England and Wales, Population Trends (104), UK Office for National Statistics, Summer 2001, pages 26–34
1194:, Canada. Since its first publication in 1908, the story of the orphaned Anne, and how the Cuthberts took her in, has been widely popular in the English-speaking world and, later, Japan.
1148:(PTS) than the general population. Their PTS symptoms depend on the type of adverse experiences they went through and knowledge of their history offers an option for tailored support.
439:
services available to the young and low-income, and the legalization of abortion. In addition, the years of the late 1960s and early 1970s saw a dramatic change in society's view of
3181:
1315:. These practices have become significant social and political issues in recent years, and in many cases the policies have changed. The United States, for example, now has the 1978
46:
of New York Foundling Hospital with children. Sister Irene is among the pioneers of modern adoption, establishing a system to board out children rather than institutionalize them.
2834:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. 2005. Archived from
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5737:, Child Welfare Information Gateway, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Children's Bureau, 2020, p. 5
2814:
5213:"The Development and Standardization of Psychometric Criteria of Attitude toward Adoption Questionnaire (ATAQ) and its Relation to Prosocial Behavior and Character Strengths"
1291:. Forced adoption based on ethnicity occurred during World War II. In German-occupied Poland, it is estimated that 200,000 Polish children with purportedly Aryan traits were
5670:
276:. Initially, the clergy reacted by drafting rules to govern the exposing, selling, and rearing of abandoned children. The Church's innovation, however, was the practice of
3544:
Gauthier, L.; Stollak, G.; Messe, L.; Arnoff, J. (1996). "Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning".
360:
movement. The orphan trains eventually shipped an estimated 200,000 children from the urban centers of the East to the nation's rural regions. The children were generally
5820:
3528:
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efforts grew so that few children born out of wedlock today are adopted. Ironically, adoption is far more visible and discussed in society today, yet it is less common.
10472:
10327:
4176:
Fravel, D.L.; McRoy, R.G.; Grotevant, H.D. (2000). "Birthmother perceptions of the psychologically present adopted child: Adoption openness and boundary ambiguity".
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and girls might be married off under the institution's authority. Institutions informally adopted out children as well, a mechanism treated as a way to obtain cheap
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5985:
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2863:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. 2009.
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can have impacts on adoptees as well, several recent studies have shown that warm adoptive parenting can reduce behavioral problems of adopted children over time.
1098:
Similar mechanisms appear to be at work in the physical development of adoptees. Danish and American researchers conducting studies on the genetic contribution to
1004:
Similar mechanisms appear to be at work in the physical development of adoptees. Danish and American researchers conducting studies on the genetic contribution to
6274:
R. Sullivan and E. Lathrop, "Openness in adoption: retrospective lessons and prospective choices," Children and Youth Services Review Vol. 26 Issue 4, April 2004.
5887:
2961:
Berry, Marianne; Barth, Richard P.; Needell, Barbara (1996). "Preparation, support, and satisfaction of adoptive families in agency and independent adoptions".
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According to study in the UK, adopted children can have mental health problems that do not improve even four years after their adoption. Children with multiple
2650:
874:. It is a legal avenue unique to adoptive parents as disruption/dissolution does not apply to biological kin, although biological family members are sometimes
845:
Although adoption is often described as forming a "forever" family, the relationship can be ended at any time. The legal termination of an adoption is called
4650:"Long-Term Effects of Pre-Placement Risk Factors on Children's Psychological Symptoms and Parenting Stress Among Families Adopting Children From Foster Care"
3851:
Plomin, R.; Fulker, D.W.; Corley, R.; DeFries, J.C. (1997). "Nature, nurture, and cognitive development from 1–16 years: A parent-offspring adoption study".
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2918:
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Farr, Rachel H.; Patterson, Charlotte J. (2013). "Lesbian and Gay Adoptive Parents and Their Children". In Goldberg, Abbie E.; Allen, Katherine R. (eds.).
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As the idea of institutional care gained acceptance, formal rules appeared about how to place children into families: boys could become apprenticed to an
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8158:
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Bauer, Stephanie; Loomis, Colleen; Akkari, Abdeljalil (May 2012). "Intercultural immigrant youth identities in contexts of family, friends, and school".
2505:
6028:
3708:
Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). "Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns".
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McLaughlin, S.D.; Manninen, D.L.; Winges, L.D. (1988). "Do adolescents who relinquish their children fare better or worse than those who raise them?".
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out of the belief that it is more responsible to care for otherwise parent-less children than to reproduce, to ensure that inheritable diseases (e.g.,
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R. Rushbrooke, The proportion of adoptees who have received their birth records in England and Wales, Population Trends (104), Summer 2001, pp 26–34."
3914:
Vogler, G.P., Influences of genes and shared family environment on adult body mass index assessed in an adoption study by a comprehensive path model,
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Adoption is usually managed by judges, bureaucrats and social workers. Profiting from giving or receiving orphans has incentivized abusive practices.
3158:
1467:
In the 1970s, as adoption search and support organizations developed, there were challenges to the language in common use at the time. As books like
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3949:"Charting the trajectories of adopted children's emotional and behavioral problems: The impact of early adversity and postadoptive parental warmth"
1440:(18 or 19, depending on state) or earlier if all members of the triad agree." Later years saw the evolution of more militant organizations such as
1078:
and supportive family in which all members feel safe to explore their identity is necessary for the formation of a sound identity. Transracial and
3211:
1269:. The children of parents in poverty have also been targeted for forced adoption under the rational of child welfare. This was often the case for
4422:
Snodgrass, Ginni D. Research and Studies on Adoptees. Statistics on the effects of Adoption. Appendix A. s.l. : George Fox University, 1998.
1255:
4543:
Pringel, M. L., & Bossio, V. (1960). Early, prolonged separation and emotional adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37–48
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Breakdown: 50 non-relative, 50 relative, 17 step-parent, 12 surrogacy, 1 foster parent, 18 international relative, 6 international non-relative
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3364:
1602:
In some countries, such as the United States, "Homecoming Day" is the day when an adoptee is officially united with their new adoptive family.
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says that using "inclusive" and "neutral" language is based upon the concept that "language represents thought, and may even control thought."
5140:
4369:
Johnson, Fern L.; Mickelson, Stacie; Lopez Davila, Mariana (22 September 2013). "Transracial Foster Care and Adoption: Issues and Realities".
6411:(University of Michigan Press; 2014) 422 pages; Scholarly biography of an activist (1908–2002) who led the struggle for open adoption records
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789:
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Removing children of ethnic minorities from their families to be adopted by those of the dominant ethnic group has been used as a method of
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experienced the greatest portion of positive thoughts were those who had open, rather than closed or time-limited mediated, adoptions.
406:, saw rapid growth and acceptance of adoption as a means to build a family. Illegitimate births rose three-fold after World War II, as
6296:
6162:
5020:
Wegar, Katarina (2000). "Adoption, Family Ideology, and Social Stigma: Bias in Community Attitudes, Adoption Research, and Practice".
818:, leaves his or her children with a friend or relative for an extended period of time. At the end of a designated term of (voluntary)
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368:'s adoption law of 1917, which mandated investigation of all placements and limited record access to those involved in the adoption.
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3895:
3115:
2811:
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families and those in heterosexual families have no significant differences in development. One of the main arguments used against
1116:
5677:
5165:
4574:"Mental health and behavioural difficulties in adopted children: A systematic review of post-adoption risk and protective factors"
4129:
Kalmuss, D.; Namerow, P.B.; Bauer, U. (1992). "Short-term consequences of parenting versus adoption among young unmarried women".
4001:"Warm Parenting and Effortful Control in Toddlerhood: Independent and Interactive Predictors of School-Age Externalizing Behavior"
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2769:
2334:
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9814:
8079:
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7695:
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1668:
5883:
Governor Cuomo Announces New Law Allowing Adoptees to Obtain a Certified Birth Certificate at Age 18 Goes into Effect January 15
2601:
2373:
E. Wayne Carp, Family Matters: Secrecy and Disclosure in the History of Adoption, Harvard University Press, 2000, pages 103–104.
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57:
of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all
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9722:
9419:
8143:
7938:
7609:
3525:
3080:"Adoption Experiences of Women and Men and Demand for Children to Adopt by Women 18–44 Years of Age in the United States, 2002"
3048:"Adoption Experiences of Women and Men and Demand for Children to Adopt by Women 18–44 Years of Age in the United States, 2002"
1422:
565:
92 non-family adoptions; 171 family adoptions (e.g. stepparent). Not included: 459 international adoptions were also recorded.
5194:
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311:, demonstrated by the fact that when the adopted died their bodies were returned by the family to the institution for burial.
255:
was replaced, a stark contrast to Roman traditions. The evolution of European law reflects this aversion to adoption. English
8298:
8133:
4860:
1854:
1425:(ISRR), allowing those separated by adoption to locate one another. and Lee Campbell and other birthmothers established CUB (
1304:
259:, for instance, did not permit adoption since it contradicted the customary rules of inheritance. In the same vein, France's
6433:
The Girls Who Went Away: The Hidden History of Women Who Surrendered Children for Adoption in the Decades Before Roe v. Wade
5982:
5494:
5436:
3999:
Reuben, Julia D.; Shaw, Daniel S.; Neiderhiser, Jenae M.; Natsuaki, Misaki N.; Reiss, David; Leve, Leslie D. (August 2016).
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1930:
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By 1979, representatives of 32 organizations from 33 states, Canada and Mexico gathered in Washington, DC, to establish the
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160:, were reared in an arrangement similar to guardianship, being considered the property of the father who abandoned them.
130:, for example, details the rights of adopters and the responsibilities of adopted individuals at length. The practice of
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6476:(Stanford University Press; 2013) 336 pages); comparative ethnographic study of transnational and interracial adoption.
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126:
While the modern form of adoption emerged in the United States, forms of the practice appeared throughout history. The
5732:
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Nadeem, Erum; Waterman, Jill; Foster, Jared; Paczkowski, Emilie; Belin, Thomas R.; Miranda, Jeanne (28 January 2016).
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9758:
7812:
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6696:
6265:
Schechter and Bertocci, "The Meaning of the Search" in Brodzinsky and Schechter, Psychology of Adoption," 1990, p. 70
6190:
Schechter and Bertocci, "The Meaning of the Search" in Brodzinsky and Schechter, Psychology of Adoption," 1990, p. 67
6093:
5446:
4927:"Predictors of psychological adjustment in early placed adopted children with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents"
4059:
Kallen, D.J.; Griffore, R.J.; Popovich, S.; Powell, V. (1990). "Adolescent mothers and their mothers view adoption".
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balance in foster arrangements and orphanages. Less than forty years later, nearly one-third were in adoptive homes.
4094:
Donnelly, B.W.; Voydanoff, P. (1996). "Parenting versus placing for adoption: Consequences for adolescent mothers".
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340:
The next stage of adoption's evolution fell to the emerging nation of the United States. Rapid immigration and the
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is the practice of accepting custody of a child in return for payment. This was most common in Victorian Britain.
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Stereotyping is mostly implicit, unconscious, and facilitated by the availability of pejorative labels and terms.
6256:
K. March, "The stranger who bore me: Adoptee-birth mother interactions," Dissertation, McMaster University, 1990
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9783:
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7983:
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4973:"A safe space for Late Discovery Adoptees or anyone who has made an unexpected discovery about their parentage"
1683:
1145:
6453:
3204:"33: Convention of 29 May 1993 on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption"
1594:, these cultural distinctions have led to making adoption illegal opting instead for a system of foster care.
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L. Borders, et. Adult Adoptees and Their Friends, National Council of Family Relations, 2000, Vol. 49, No. 4,
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For example, it has been found that many adoptees experience difficulty in establishing a sense of identity.
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children, but male same-sex couples were more likely to adopt children and less likely to have stepchildren.
637:
320:
5845:
3930:
Thomas O'Conner, Are Associations Between Parental Divorce and Children's Adjustment Genetically Mediated?,
221:
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performed by a son. China had a similar idea of adoption with males adopted solely to perform the duties of
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8001:
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6830:
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1693:
1623:
3400:
Gibson, K. (2009). "Differential parental investment in families with both adopted and genetic children".
3365:"Adoptive Parents, Adoptive Parents: Evaluating the Importance of Biological Ties for Parental Investment"
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for using outdated orphanage imagery as did advocacy non-profit The Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute.
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986:
5533:
2998:"Understanding U.S. Fertility: Continuity and Change in the National Survey of Family Growth, 1988–1995"
2307:"Understanding U.S. Fertility: Continuity and Change in the National Survey of Family Growth, 1988–1995"
1571:
however, imply ongoing relationships were formed between adoptee and parent nor that this was the goal.
344:
resulted in unprecedented overcrowding of orphanages and foundling homes in the mid-nineteenth century.
10223:
9871:
9558:
9389:
9384:
8170:
7671:
7636:
7626:
6666:
6548:
6499:
5342:
5320:
4499:
3135:
2936:
1837:
Scheidel, W. (28 September 2011). "The Roman Slave Supply". In Bradley, Keith; Cartledge, Paul (eds.).
1433:
1295:
and given to German or Austrian couples, and only 25,000 returned to their families after the war. The
6436:
2422:
2103:
Topic: Charles Loring Brace, The Dangerous Classes of New York and Twenty Years' Work Among Them, 1872
288:
of the Church, which in turn took the role of adopter. Oblation marks the beginning of a shift toward
9904:
9866:
9861:
9768:
9727:
9563:
9283:
9115:
8892:
8858:
8007:
7893:
7848:
7429:
7299:
7257:
7118:
5656:
3650:
3640:
3444:
3438:
2765:
The National Adoption Information Clearinghouse of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
1673:
1508:
The rights, opportunities, and freedoms of certain people are restricted because they are reduced to
1399:
1273:
or "contract children" in Switzerland between the 1850s through the middle of the twentieth century.
1207:
substantial criticism of the media's adoption coverage. Some adoption blogs, for example, criticized
793:
176:
31:
3722:
3375:
830:
relationships after co-habitation of 2 years. The practice is called "private fostering" in Britain.
415:
interests of the child", the seeds of this idea can be traced to the first American adoption law in
10307:
9996:
9851:
9135:
8093:
8056:
8029:
8018:
7802:
7641:
7165:
6981:
6948:
6840:
5767:
5137:
1688:
1316:
131:
122:. Adoption was a customary practice of the Roman Empire that enabled peaceful transitions of power.
2579:
863:. After legal finalization, the disruption process is usually initiated by adoptive parents via a
10385:
10312:
10238:
10029:
9922:
9591:
8981:
8935:
8833:
8201:
7786:
7594:
7448:
7240:
6933:
5632:
4797:
4341:
Patton-Imani, Sandra (2012). "Orphan Sunday: Narratives of Salvation in Transnational Adoption".
1618:
1359:
1308:
796:, which came into force on 1 May 1995 and has been ratified by 105 countries as of February 2024.
85:). Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive
6212:
March, K. (1995). "Perception of Adoption as Social Stigma: Motivation for Search and Reunion".
6146:
Cultural Sensitivity and Political Correctness: The Linguistic Problem of Naming, Edna Andrews,
6001:
5243:
5055:
March, K. (1995). "Perception of Adoption as Social Stigma: Motivation for Search and Reunion".
4451:
2567:
10034:
10016:
9971:
9856:
9424:
9263:
8191:
7898:
7833:
7507:
7375:
7365:
7230:
6953:
6886:
6861:
6797:
6671:
5347:
3717:
1518:
Rendering the labels and terms socially unacceptable, people then must consciously think about
1079:
1061:
916:
803:
785:
717:
280:, whereby children were dedicated to lay life within monastic institutions and reared within a
182:
The practice of adopting the children of family members and close friends was common among the
6246:
6127:
5914:
5800:
5272:
2897:
2485:
2102:
10213:
10200:
9876:
9753:
9314:
9238:
9165:
9130:
8899:
8258:
7888:
7807:
7766:
7756:
7487:
7289:
7093:
6768:
3476:
Michaels, Ruth, and Florence Rondell. The Adoption Family Book I: You and Your Child. Page 4.
3263:
3244:
2617:
1678:
846:
840:
745:
499:
146:
was a kind of Roman adoption in which the person adopted consented to be adopted by another.
39:
17:
6385:
Children and Youth in Adoption, Orphanages, and Foster Care: A Historical Handbook and Guide
4707:"Early adversity predicts adoptees' enduring emotional and behavioral problems in childhood"
4491:
4319:
Meeus, Wim. "The Study of Adolescent Formation 2000–2010: A Review of Longitunal Research".
3526:
http://adoption.com/Grade_School:_Understanding_Child_Development_and_the_Impact_of_Adoption
2858:"Postadoption Contact Agreements Between Birth and Adoptive Families: Summary of State Laws"
10434:
10279:
10114:
9846:
9611:
9538:
9487:
9248:
9223:
9213:
8955:
8940:
8887:
8843:
8753:
8685:
8231:
8035:
7950:
7908:
7903:
7502:
7453:
6773:
6763:
6691:
6686:
6661:
6646:
6641:
6178:
6159:
6013:
3946:
3915:
3411:
2698:
1638:
1453:
1191:
1187:
956:
779:
741:
345:
324:
289:
6321:
Smit, Eileen M. (1 December 2002). "Adopted Children: Core Issues and Unique Challenges".
4463:
Annika von Borczyskowski, Suicidal behavior in national and international adult adoptees,
3627:
Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.) (1999). Attachment Disorganization. NY: Guilford Press
3079:
3047:
2273:
2213:
2172:
1732:
712:
632:
10–20 of these were national adoptions of infants. The rest were international adoptions.
8:
10467:
10134:
10074:
9991:
9838:
9626:
9553:
9477:
9298:
9278:
9233:
9170:
9053:
9005:
8925:
8877:
8870:
8572:
8529:
7853:
7843:
7838:
7722:
7006:
6963:
6928:
6835:
6815:
5090:
National Adoption Attitudes Survey, June 2002, Evan Donaldson Institute, page 20 and 38."
4306:
As if born to: The social construction of a deficit identity position for adopted persons
3892:
2677:"Live births (by sex), stillbirths (Maori and total population) (Annual-Jun) – Infoshare"
1643:
1611:
1288:
1282:
1244:
1239:
1090:
Concerning developmental milestones, studies from the Colorado Adoption Project examined
996:
Concerning developmental milestones, studies from the Colorado Adoption Project examined
444:
6460:
Adoption in post-Soviet Russia: Nationalism and the re-invention of the "Russian family"
6443:
Blue-Ribbon Babies and Labors of Love: Race, Class, and Gender in U.S. Adoption Practice
6077:
5391:
5119:
3415:
3116:
US Child Welfare Information Gateway: "How Many Children Were Adopted in 2000 and 2001?"
2114:
1769:
H. David Kirk, Adoptive Kinship: A Modern Institution in Need of Reform, 1985, page xiv.
1384:
are known to abduct the children of homeless mothers sleeping on the street. During the
810:
Common law adoption: this is an adoption that has not been recognized beforehand by the
10380:
10269:
10175:
9976:
9899:
9672:
9409:
9145:
8974:
7761:
7604:
7333:
7187:
6958:
6943:
6334:
6229:
6110:
5858:
5169:
5072:
5037:
4907:
4825:
4796:
Anthony, R.; Paine, A.L.; Westlake, M.; Lowthian, E.; Shelton, K.H. (7 November 2020).
4778:
4739:
4682:
4649:
4630:
4593:
4516:
4405:
4281:
4256:
4220:
4146:
4111:
4076:
4025:
4000:
3973:
3948:
3868:
3864:
3814:
3767:
3685:
3668:
3423:
3336:
3017:
2997:
2978:
2766:
2711:
2326:
2306:
2241:
1653:
1501:
1300:
1209:
476:
Adoptions, live births and adoption/live birth ratios for a number of Western countries
377:
341:
293:
183:
5821:"Most American adoptees can't access their birth certificates. That could soon change"
5492:
National Indian Child Welfare Association: the Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 (ICWA)
4705:
Paine, Amy L.; Fahey, Kevin; Anthony, Rebecca E.; Shelton, Katherine H. (1 May 2021).
4552:
Hamilton, L. (2012). Adoption. In Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Retrieved from
1380:
facilities to be raped in order to sell their babies for adoption. Organized rings in
209:
10462:
10149:
10069:
9763:
9606:
9528:
9508:
9379:
9258:
9253:
9218:
9195:
9125:
9110:
8853:
8680:
8650:
8403:
8288:
8186:
7995:
7913:
7771:
7424:
7343:
7267:
7245:
6758:
6676:
6527:
6346:
6338:
6114:
5442:
5212:
5033:
4954:
4946:
4926:
4911:
4899:
4856:
4829:
4817:
4782:
4744:
4726:
4687:
4669:
4634:
4597:
4512:
4409:
4286:
4228:
4189:
4030:
3978:
3931:
3872:
3806:
3771:
3735:
3690:
3600:
3561:
3557:
3448:
3236:
3025:
2982:
2598:
2536:
2127:
1850:
1787:
1648:
1398:
that the secrecy inherent in modern adoption may influence the process of forming an
1296:
1161:
895:
879:
854:
756:
570:
451:
407:
150:
135:
127:
3818:
3340:
2433:
Christine Adamec and William Pierce, The Encyclopedia of Adoption, 2nd Edition, 2000
10411:
10406:
10302:
10286:
9646:
9482:
9457:
9449:
9205:
9089:
9068:
8945:
8617:
8607:
8602:
8577:
8408:
8387:
8283:
8148:
7868:
6986:
6753:
6748:
6330:
6221:
6102:
6073:
5191:
5064:
5029:
4938:
4889:
4848:
4809:
4770:
4734:
4718:
4677:
4661:
4622:
4585:
4508:
4397:
4276:
4268:
4212:
4185:
4138:
4103:
4068:
4020:
4012:
3968:
3960:
3860:
3798:
3763:
3727:
3680:
3592:
3553:
3419:
3326:
3009:
2970:
2459:
2318:
1842:
1385:
1376:
1371:
1324:
1250:
390:
228:
168:
164:
5633:"'One Child Nation' Exposes the Tragic Consequences of Chinese Population Control"
5155:
National Adoption Attitudes Survey, June 2002, Evan Donaldson Institute, page 20."
4798:"Patterns of adversity and post-traumatic stress among children adopted from care"
4572:
Duncan, Morvwen; Woolgar, Matt; Ransley, Rachel; Fearon, Pasco (1 December 2021).
1846:
1719:
10233:
10170:
10104:
10064:
10046:
9914:
9799:
9677:
9596:
9433:
9394:
9293:
9043:
8848:
8828:
8816:
8748:
8597:
8592:
8582:
8472:
8278:
8273:
8224:
8123:
7878:
7482:
7338:
7202:
7160:
7021:
6996:
6920:
6810:
6792:
6738:
6622:
6486:
6363:
6253:
6166:
6134:
6051:
6032:
5989:
5807:
5606:
5580:
5554:
5498:
5491:
5413:
5325:
5198:
5144:
5126:
5099:
National Adoption Attitudes Survey, June 2002, Evan Donaldson Institute, page 47"
4813:
4560:
4401:
3947:
Amy L. Paine; Oliver Perra; Rebecca Anthony; Katherine H. Shelton (August 2021).
3899:
3888:
3532:
3297:
3290:
3289:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Child Welfare Information Gateway,
2922:
2904:
2818:
2773:
2750:
2730:
2723:
2637:
2605:
2586:
2555:
2524:
2492:
2361:
2348:
2292:
2280:
2260:
2248:
2220:
2200:
2179:
2159:
2146:
2134:
2088:
2073:
2060:
2053:
2036:
2021:
2006:
1991:
1977:
1960:
1946:
1916:
1901:
1886:
1871:
1823:
1808:
1756:
1739:
1437:
1233:
1099:
1005:
799:
701:
680:
436:
273:
260:
107:
6491:
6064:
Logan, J. (1996). "Birth Mothers and Their Mental Health: Uncharted Territory".
4852:
2812:
Openness in Adoption: Building Relationships Between Adoptive and Birth Families
2086:
Wayne Carp, Editor, Adoption in America, article by: Susan Porter, A Good Home,
2071:
Wayne Carp, Editor, Adoption in America, article by: Susan Porter, A Good Home,
2034:
Wayne Carp, Editor, Adoption in America, article by: Susan Porter, A Good Home,
2019:
Wayne Carp, Editor, Adoption in America, article by: Susan Porter, A Good Home,
9737:
9717:
9712:
9702:
9662:
9339:
9268:
9058:
8780:
8728:
8695:
8690:
8612:
8552:
8462:
8432:
8268:
8164:
8108:
7715:
7525:
7352:
7328:
7272:
7150:
7145:
7135:
7123:
7001:
6785:
6656:
6602:
6309:
6106:
5962:"Adoptees nationwide may soon gain access to their original birth certificates"
5710:
5520:
4722:
3596:
1633:
1628:
1441:
1336:
1262:
900:
684:
615:
Adoptions breakdown: 438 inter-country; 174 stepchildren; 35 foster; 10 other.
403:
315:
236:
187:
172:
7534:
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
6044:
5642:
4894:
4877:
4589:
4464:
4016:
3964:
3731:
3537:
3512:
10456:
10429:
10144:
9963:
9931:
9926:
9894:
9732:
9641:
9586:
9581:
9523:
9354:
9190:
9175:
9160:
9073:
9033:
8915:
8710:
8627:
8557:
8457:
8118:
8113:
7945:
7563:
7477:
7438:
7414:
7323:
7207:
7140:
7011:
6915:
6876:
6733:
6568:
6474:
Broken Links, Enduring Ties: American Adoption Across Race, Class, and Nation
6342:
6295:
Tim Lister and Mary Rogers, "Egypt says adoptive moms were human smugglers,"
4950:
4903:
4730:
4706:
4673:
4665:
4476:
William Feigelman, Comparisons with Persons Raised in Conventional Families,
2940:
2454:
1663:
1658:
1270:
990:
819:
815:
672:
428:
416:
252:
5910:
Signed and Unsealed, New York Delivers on Its Promise for Open Birth Records
5671:"Does Adoption Affect the Adolescent Eriksonian Task of Identity Formation?"
5231:
4573:
3802:
3746:
3331:
2630:
2548:
931: Same-sex marriage but adoption by married same-sex couples not allowed
925: No laws allowing adoption by same-sex couples and no same-sex marriage
10441:
10424:
9682:
9533:
9518:
9374:
9364:
9150:
8838:
8800:
8795:
8622:
8467:
8153:
7707:
7392:
7387:
7128:
7028:
6973:
6701:
6580:
6575:
6350:
5338:
5216:
5211:
Abdollahzadeh, Hasan; Chaloui, Ommolbanin; Mahmoudi, Hiva (November 2019).
4958:
4845:
LGBT-Parent Families: Innovations in Research and Implications for Practice
4821:
4748:
4691:
4290:
4272:
4034:
3982:
3810:
2821:, Child Welfare Information Gateway, January 2013, Retrieved 1 January 2019
2786:
1494:
1418:
1355:
1350:
1091:
997:
823:
811:
463:
440:
357:
240:
69:
43:
4359:
24. Kaplan, Deborah N Silverstein and Sharon. Lifelong Issues in Adoption.
4255:
Keyes, M. A.; Malone, S. M.; Sharma, A.; Iacono, W. G.; McGue, M. (2013).
4232:
3775:
3739:
3694:
3604:
3565:
3029:
2382:
National Council for Adoption, Adoption Fact Book, 2000, page 42, Table 11
10259:
10218:
10185:
9953:
9946:
9692:
9667:
9513:
9349:
9334:
9120:
9048:
9038:
8720:
8675:
8519:
8413:
8368:
8196:
7863:
7742:
7382:
7318:
7155:
7098:
7038:
7033:
6871:
6820:
6681:
4972:
3831:
3669:"A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment"
3524:
Grade School: Understanding Child Development and the Impact of Adoption
3490:
2261:
Child Welfare and Social Action in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
1917:
Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa
1698:
1266:
1217:
978:
736:
730:
455:
308:
74:
6523:
5703:"ADOPTING -Why adoptive parents support open records for adult adoptees"
4774:
4626:
4553:
2882:
Seymore, Malinda L. (March 2015). "Openness in International Adoption".
2743:
10419:
10119:
10109:
10041:
9707:
9601:
9404:
9329:
9273:
9243:
9180:
9078:
8920:
8865:
8738:
8700:
8562:
8507:
8502:
8497:
8489:
8477:
8417:
8373:
6780:
6720:
6651:
5750:"The Strange History of Adult Adoptee Access to Original Birth Records"
4224:
3884:
3882:
3572:
3021:
2974:
2330:
1509:
1182:
875:
827:
697:
443:
and in the legal rights of those born outside of wedlock. In response,
361:
256:
143:
6233:
5534:"£700 for a child? Guatemalan 'baby factory' deals in misery and hope"
5076:
5041:
4763:"Adopted children may develop specific types of post-traumatic stress"
4520:
4150:
4115:
4080:
3926:
3924:
3285:
3283:
3275:
704:
adopted 10 children in the 1960s. In this photo they are on a tour of
10208:
10096:
9936:
9398:
9369:
9344:
9228:
9083:
8997:
8930:
8637:
8514:
8263:
8138:
8061:
7858:
7170:
7043:
6903:
6893:
6728:
6706:
6633:
5637:
5298:
4942:
4162:
4160:
2832:"Postadoption Contact Agreements Between Birth and Adoptive Families"
2460:
The Politics of Adoption: Gender and the Making of French Citizenship
1403:
705:
393:, who protested against adopting children of unknown origin, saying,
365:
297:
281:
248:
82:
62:
54:
6467:
Adoption Nation: How the Adoption Revolution Is Transforming America
6378:
Related by Adoption: a handbook for grandparents and other relatives
5138:
The Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute, 9 April 2007 press release
4216:
3910:
3908:
3879:
3013:
2996:
Mosher, William D.; Bachrach, Christine A. (January–February 1996).
2322:
2305:
Mosher, William D.; Bachrach, Christine A. (January–February 1996).
348:, a Protestant minister, became appalled by the legions of homeless
10180:
10124:
9981:
9687:
9621:
8733:
8670:
8665:
8642:
8587:
8333:
7553:
7370:
7284:
7262:
7182:
7083:
6991:
6825:
6743:
6563:
6225:
5779:
5068:
4996:"Why wasn't I told? Making sense of the late discovery of adoption"
4142:
4107:
4072:
3921:
3611:
3280:
2115:
The Dangerous Classes of New York and Twenty Years' Work Among Them
1777:
1775:
1216:
The stigmas associated with adoption are amplified for children in
993:
as local authority care for these children is extremely expensive.
867:
277:
244:
4305:
4157:
1931:
Review of Blood Ties and Fictive Ties, Canadian Journal of History
1504:
defend it as inoffensive-language usage whose goal is multi-fold:
192:
9324:
9288:
8660:
8567:
8537:
8450:
8345:
8340:
7472:
7443:
7419:
7401:
7197:
7177:
6402:
Family Matters: Secrecy and Disclosure in the History of Adoption
5416:. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. 7 June 2011
4876:
Averett, Paige; Nalavany, Blace; Ryan, Scott (30 November 2009).
3905:
2933:
1381:
973:
respect to the particular adults who take on the parental role."
871:
859:
if the relationship is ended afterwards. It may also be called a
772:
450:
The American model of adoption eventually proliferated globally.
432:
385:
304:
119:
86:
4615:"Adopted children can experience lasting mental health problems"
3647:
abuse and neglect (pp. 135–157). NY: Cambridge University Press.
2951:
National Council For Adoption, Adoption Factbook, 2000, Table 11
1772:
1567:
substantiate ... differences between adoptees and nonadoptees."
802:: based on the donation of embryos remaining after one couple's
751:
Unrelated adoptions may occur through the following mechanisms:
114:
became emperor of Rome through adoption by the previous emperor
9986:
9548:
9467:
9063:
9023:
9018:
9013:
8950:
8790:
8785:
8440:
8422:
8350:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8247:
7310:
7192:
7016:
6938:
6597:
6592:
6587:
4431:
Kaplan, Deborah N Silverstein and Sharon. Lifelong Issues in A.
1312:
904:
Legal status of adoption by same-sex couples around the world:
459:
354:
The Best Method of Disposing of Our Pauper and Vagrant Children
285:
156:
142:
is well-documented: many of Rome's emperors were adopted sons.
111:
58:
4647:
2896:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2442:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2421:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2240:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2212:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2171:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2126:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2101:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
2052:
Ellen Herman, Adoption History Project, University of Oregon,
1525:
When labeling is a conscious activity, the described person's
8775:
8378:
8323:
7072:
6607:
6558:
4257:"Risk of Suicide Attempt in Adopted and Nonadopted Offspring"
3998:
3621:
1591:
1587:
1320:
864:
265:
232:
115:
8966:
5210:
4795:
4058:
3467:
A. Adesman and C. Adamec, Parenting Your Adopted Child, 2004
1972:
1970:
1750:
1748:
9155:
8705:
8445:
8382:
7277:
6247:
http://digitalcommons.mcmaster.ca/dissertations/AAINN60675/
5510:
Spanish doctor stands trial over Franco-era 'stolen babies'
3487:"Adoptionfilm.org | Messages from the Production Team"
1389:
thousands of dollars, turning a profit for the government.
1157:
349:
5937:"Birth certificate bill championed by Cassano becomes law"
4571:
3789:"Developmental Issues For Young Children in Foster Care".
3543:
3134:. Administration for Children and Families. Archived from
1590:
in the presence of males in their adoptive households. In
1529:
merits become apparent, rather than his or her stereotype.
251:
were paramount; a ruling dynasty lacking a "natural-born"
9429:
8328:
8216:
7088:
4480:
1540-9635, Volume 25, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 199 – 223
3850:
3835:
3752:
3630:
3128:"AFCARS Report #1 – Current Estimates as of January 1999"
1967:
1745:
454:
established their first formal adoption law in 1926. The
7539:
Declaration on the elimination of violence against women
4878:"An Evaluation of Gay/Lesbian and Heterosexual Adoption"
4704:
4202:
3061:(27). U.S. Center for Disease Control: 19. August 2008.
1303:
in Australia were affected by similar policies, as were
1017:
levels of child externalizing problems at ages 6 and 7.
239:
cultures that dominated Europe after the decline of the
6409:
Jean Paton and the Struggle to Reform American Adoption
6308:
Jennifer S. Jones, "Is Adoption from Egypt Possible?,"
6202:
6045:
Speaking Positively: Using Respectful Adoption Language
4254:
3578:
3093:(27). U.S. Center for Disease Control: 8. August 2008.
2653:. Department of Child, Youth and Family. Archived from
853:
if they are ended before being finalized, and they are
826:. For example, the U.S. state of California recognizes
668:
Contemporary adoption practices can be open or closed.
65:, from the biological parents to the adoptive parents.
5521:
Spain's stolen babies and the families who lived a lie
5471:"Internet Adoption Scams and the Russian Adoption Ban"
5438:
Yes, You Can Adopt!: A Comprehensive Guide to Adoption
3257:
The best interests of the child: the least detrimental
814:, but where a parent, without resorting to any formal
7229:
6207:
6205:
3701:
3660:
292:, eventually bringing about the establishment of the
5299:"Book Review - The Primal Wound by Nancy N. Verrier"
4175:
3581:"Long term consequences of childhood physical abuse"
1406:, and provide little in the way of medical history.
8159:
Child abductions in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
6428:(New York: Upper West Side Philosophers, Inc. 2013)
6323:
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing
5778:ISRR – International Soundex Reunion Registry
5292:
5290:
4875:
4128:
3111:
3109:
3107:
1941:
1939:
1462:
118:, and was in turn succeeded by his own adopted son
9829:
5655:Adoption History Project (University of Oregon), "
3182:"Adopted Chinese orphans often have special needs"
2048:
2046:
1020:
720:is among North America's oldest adoption agencies.
534:Includes all adoption orders in England and Wales
462:made adoptees full members of the family in 1959.
27:Parenting a child in place of the original parents
10473:Adoption, fostering, orphan care and displacement
6521:
5254:Martin Gottlieb, The Foundling, 2001, pg. 105–106
5242:Adoption History Project (University of Oregon),
4387:
4336:
4334:
4093:
3515:Robin Hillborn, Teacher's Guide to Adoption, 2005
2960:
1479:
10454:
6091:Wells, S. (1993). "What do Birthmothers Want?".
5846:As adoptees seek roots, states unsealing records
5287:
5192:http://pewfostercare.org/docs/index.php?DocID=41
4309:(D.S.W. dissertation) Wilfrid Laurier University
3309:
3233:The International Law on the Rights of the Child
3104:
2767:How Many Children Were Adopted in 2007 and 2008?
1936:
1841:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 287–310.
1177:
6480:Fictive Kinship: Making Maladaptation Palatable
6450:Strangers and Kin: the American Way of Adoption
4925:Goldberg, Abbie E.; Smith, JuliAnna Z. (2013).
3846:
3844:
3353:L. Raynor, The Adopted Child Comes of Age, 1980
2787:"National Vital Statistics System – Birth Data"
2393:"US Supreme Court Cases from Justia & Oyez"
2362:Strangers and Kin: the American Way of Adoption
2349:Strangers and Kin: the American Way of Adoption
2160:E. Adoption in America: Historical Perspectives
2043:
889:
199:
149:Infant adoption during Antiquity appears rare.
73:formal means (notably contracts that specified
4465:Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology
4331:
2995:
2472:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2304:
1487:
9815:
8982:
8232:
7723:
6507:
6416:Adoption: A Brief Social and Cultural History
5394:. Department of History, University of Oregon
5201:The Pew Commission of Children in Foster Care
5166:"Policy and Practice: Many Faces of Adoption"
4924:
4842:
4654:Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
3710:Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
1156:There is evidence that shows the adoptees of
834:
790:Hague Conference on Private International Law
7737:
6395:Adoption in America: Historical Perspectives
6283:Sayyid Muhammad Rivzi, "Adoption in Islam,"
6150:, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Winter, 1996), pp.389–404.
5976:
5549:
5547:
4340:
3841:
3579:Malinosky-Rummell, R.; Hansen, D.J. (1993).
3310:Case, A.; Lin, I. F.; McLanahan, S. (2000).
2484:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare,
2293:Adoption in America: Historical Perspectives
2201:Adoption in America: Historical Perspectives
10391:Timeline of reproductive rights legislation
10376:Birth control movement in the United States
8719:
4297:
3513:http://www.familyhelper.net/ad/adteach.html
3262:(book), Joseph Goldstein, 1996, p.16, web:
1902:Adoption in India: Policies and Experiences
1151:
10229:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
9822:
9808:
8989:
8975:
8239:
8225:
7730:
7716:
7590:International Center for Research on Women
6514:
6500:
4847:. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 39–55.
4711:European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
3994:
3992:
3707:
3235:(book), Geraldine Van Bueren, 1998, p.95,
2963:Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal
2412:M. Gottlieb, The Foundling, 2001, page 106
1330:
1168:
1041:
692:
53:is a process whereby a person assumes the
8099:Canadian Indian residential school system
6090:
6063:
5641:. YouTube. 16 August 2019. Archived from
5544:
5469:Bernardo, Sanford M. (31 December 2012).
5321:Searching for missing relatives in Poland
5232:https://doi.org/10.22037/ijabs.v6i1.26379
4893:
4738:
4681:
4621:(Plain English summary). 28 August 2020.
4280:
4024:
3972:
3942:
3940:
3721:
3684:
3330:
2618:Families in Rush to Adopt a Foreign Child
2190:M. Gottlieb, The Foundling, 2001, page 76
5581:"Nigeria 'baby factory' raided in Lagos"
5468:
5428:
5182:The Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute
5109:3 Generations of Adoption, 12 April 2007
4769:(Plain English summary). 3 August 2021.
2506:Population and Household Characteristics
1836:
1522:they describe someone unlike themselves.
1181:
1117:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
944:
899:
762:
711:
696:
658:
471:125,000 during the period 2009 to 2018.
264:year 737, in a charter from the town of
208:
106:
38:
8080:List of international adoption scandals
5747:
5531:
5434:
5368:. Australian Government. Archived from
5353:American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise
3989:
3666:
2881:
2474:U.S. Trends in Foster Care and Adoption
1669:Effects of adoption on the birth mother
1447:
243:denounced the practice of adoption. In
14:
10455:
8144:Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany
6016:Child Welfare League of American 1980s
5818:
5366:"Sorry Day and the Stolen Generations"
4609:
4607:
4489:
3937:
3891:, An adoption study of human obesity,
3832:'I sent my adopted son back into care'
3399:
1839:The Cambridge World History of Slavery
1574:
1423:International Soundex Reunion Registry
1276:
1265:in the 1950s through the 1970s in the
652:stepparents and other family members.
9803:
8970:
8220:
8134:Forced adoption in the United Kingdom
7711:
7309:
6495:
6211:
5668:
5054:
5019:
4993:
4554:http://www.sociologyencyclopedia.com/
3179:
3100:from the original on 1 December 2023.
3068:from the original on 1 December 2023.
3036:from the original on 24 October 2008.
2761:
2759:
2337:from the original on 24 October 2008.
2274:Excerpt from Wanted: A Child to Adopt
1781:
1305:Native Americans in the United States
849:. In U.S. terminology, adoptions are
163:Other ancient civilizations, notably
7678:
7572:Office of Research on Women's Health
6320:
5964:. The Conversation. 22 November 2021
5934:
5607:"Nigerian's battle to keep her baby"
4467:Volume 41, Number 2 / February, 2006
4371:New England Journal of Public Policy
4005:Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
3440:The Mental and Social Life of Babies
3436:
3362:
3156:
2870:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1199:the strength of their family bonds.
970:The Mental and Social Life of Babies
807:in contrast to traditional adoption.
663:
427:, the completion of legalization of
190:where the custom was referred to as
81:without an accompanying transfer of
8013:Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act
7978:Adoption Information Disclosure Act
7956:History of children in the military
7690:
7610:Society for Women's Health Research
7544:International Day of the Girl Child
6140:
6078:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjsw.a011137
5296:
4604:
3902:Volume 314:193–198, 23 January 1986
3893:The New England Journal of Medicine
3291:Adoption Disruption and Dissolution
3269:
3226:
3214:from the original on 29 August 2023
3169:from the original on 26 March 2023.
2597:Central Statistics Office Ireland,
2535:UK Office for National Statistics,
2516:UK Office for National Statistics,
1945:Brodzinsky and Schecter (editors),
1754:Brodzinsky and Schecter (editors),
1392:
1365:
24:
9789:Parents Against Child Exploitation
8180:Historical criticism of orphanages
8071:Controversial violations of rights
7654:Birth control in the United States
6426:The Wisdom of Parenthood: An Essay
6370:
6335:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2002.tb00389.x
6214:Journal of Marriage and the Family
5309:from the original on 3 March 2024.
5057:Journal of Marriage and the Family
4492:"Adult Adoptees and Their Friends"
4321:Journal of Research on Adolescence
4166:Donnelly, B.W. & Voydanoff, P.
3932:American Psychological Association
3865:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00458.x
3768:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02929.x
3686:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06163.x
3424:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.01.001
3250:
2756:
1227:
25:
10484:
10085:self-report sexual risk behaviors
9759:Mothers Apart from Their Children
8104:Tennessee Children's Home Society
7549:Commission on the Status of Women
6559:External female genitalia (vulva)
5935:Inquirer, Eric Bedner / Journal.
5886:, 13 January 2020, archived from
4318:
3312:"How Hungry is the Selfish Gene?"
2580:Report of The Adoption Board 2003
2504:Australian Bureau of Statistics,
2495:, Child Welfare Series Number 35.
1597:
61:and responsibilities, along with
10155:Precocious puberty and pregnancy
8085:American Indian boarding schools
8025:Islamic adoptional jurisprudence
7689:
7677:
7666:
7665:
6882:Assisted reproductive technology
6522:
6314:
6302:
6289:
6277:
6268:
6259:
6240:
6193:
6184:
6172:
6153:
6128:"Why Birthmother Means Breeder,"
6121:
6084:
6057:
6038:
6019:
6007:
5995:
5954:
5928:
5901:
5874:
5851:
5838:
5812:
5793:
5784:
5772:
5760:
5741:
5725:
5695:
5662:
5649:
5625:
5599:
5573:
5525:
5514:
5503:
5485:
5462:
5406:
5384:
5358:
5332:
5313:
5257:
5248:
5236:
5223:
5204:
5185:
5158:
5149:
5131:
5113:
5102:
5093:
5084:
5048:
5034:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00363.x
5013:
4987:
4965:
4918:
4869:
4836:
4789:
4755:
4698:
4641:
4565:
4546:
4537:
4527:
4513:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00407.x
4483:
4470:
4457:
4444:
4434:
4425:
4416:
4381:
4362:
4353:
4312:
4248:
4239:
4196:
4190:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00425.x
4169:
4122:
4087:
4051:
4041:
3916:International journal of obesity
3825:
3782:
3503:Adoption: An American Revolution
3443:. Univ. Chicago Press. pp.
1463:Positive adoptive language (PAL)
1130:
384:Nevertheless, the popularity of
330:
10275:Sexually transmitted infections
9617:Management of domestic violence
9463:Corporal punishment in the home
8089:American Indian outing programs
7884:Cultural variations in adoption
6848:Breastfeeding and mental health
3953:Development and Psychopathology
3918:, 1995, vol. 19, no1, pp. 40–45
3518:
3506:
3479:
3470:
3461:
3430:
3393:
3356:
3347:
3303:
3196:
3173:
3150:
3120:
3072:
3040:
2989:
2954:
2945:
2927:
2909:
2890:
2874:
2850:
2824:
2805:
2779:
2736:
2716:
2704:
2691:
2669:
2643:
2623:
2610:
2591:
2578:Adoption Authority of Ireland,
2572:
2560:
2541:
2529:
2510:
2498:
2478:
2466:
2448:
2436:
2427:
2415:
2406:
2385:
2376:
2367:
2354:
2341:
2298:
2285:
2266:
2253:
2234:
2225:
2206:
2193:
2184:
2165:
2152:
2139:
2120:
2107:
2095:
2080:
2065:
2028:
2013:
1998:
1983:
1952:
1923:
1908:
1893:
1878:
1581:Cultural variations in adoption
1344:
1021:Effects on the original parents
9831:Sexual and reproductive health
9774:National Fatherhood Initiative
8744:Genealogical numbering systems
7984:Adoption and Safe Families Act
7972:Access to Adoption Records Act
6066:British Journal of Social Work
5913:, 4 March 2020, archived from
5392:"The Adoption History Project"
5355:). Accessed 15 September 2008.
4131:Journal of Marriage and Family
2317:(1). Guttmacher Institute: 5.
1863:
1830:
1815:
1800:
1763:
1725:
1712:
1684:Notable orphans and foundlings
1480:Honest adoption language (HAL)
13:
1:
9779:National Parents Organization
9504:Adverse childhood experiences
8996:
8883:International Day of Families
8543:Australian Aboriginal kinship
7874:Political abuse of psychiatry
7498:Social determinants of health
5756:, vol. 5, pp. 64–65
5532:Tuckman, Jo (13 March 2007).
5303:The Primal Psychotherapy Page
4343:Dialog: A Journey of Theology
3797:(5): 1145–50. November 2000.
3180:Crary, David (3 April 2010).
3159:"Who Will Adopt the Orphans?"
2884:Texas A&M Law Scholarship
2444:Topic: International Adoption
1847:10.1017/CHOL9780521840668.016
1782:Benet, Mary Kathleen (1976).
1705:
1427:Concerned United Birthparents
1402:, create confusion regarding
1178:Public perception of adoption
1141:adverse childhood experiences
1113:oppositional defiant disorder
1072:
431:methods, the introduction of
402:The period 1945 to 1974, the
321:Commonwealth of Massachusetts
10255:Disorders of sex development
9544:Effects of domestic violence
9186:Social emotional development
8129:Forced adoption in Australia
8073:in adoption or child custody
8002:Foster Care Independence Act
7493:Gender disparities in health
6831:Mother-to-child transmission
6364:the American Way of Adoption
6054:, by Patricia Irwin Johnston
6004:The Adoption History Project
4931:Journal of Family Psychology
4814:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104795
4478:Marriage & Family Review
4402:10.1080/13676261.2012.693593
4303:Beauchesne, Lise M. (1997).
4205:Family Planning Perspectives
3558:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00043-9
3403:Evolution and Human Behavior
3372:American Sociological Review
3002:Family Planning Perspectives
2311:Family Planning Perspectives
1694:Reactive attachment disorder
949:
909: Joint adoption allowed
890:Adoption by same-sex couples
371:During the same period, the
200:Middle ages to modern period
97:
7:
10265:Reproductive system disease
9360:Identification (psychology)
7106:Pelvic inflammatory disease
7049:Hormone replacement therapy
6613:Reproductive system disease
5748:Samuels, Elizabeth (2001),
4975:. latediscoveryadoptees.com
4853:10.1007/978-1-4614-4556-2_3
3008:(1). Guttmacher Institute.
2791:Centers for Disease Control
2722:Embassy of Sweden (Seoul),
2620:, Guardian, 28 January 2007
2486:Adoptions Australia 2003–04
2128:Topic: Charles Loring Brace
1605:
1488:Inclusive adoption language
1293:removed from their families
1054:
771:, a foster care program in
769:Hope and Homes for Children
336:Adopting to create a family
10:
10489:
10224:Obstetrics and gynaecology
9784:Parent–teacher association
9559:Parental abuse by children
9440:Positive Parenting Program
9390:Parent management training
9385:Normative social influence
8246:
8171:Jewish orphans controversy
8008:Hague Adoption Convention
7600:Black Women's Health Study
6667:Complications of pregnancy
6458:Minchella, Tina Danielle.
6107:10.1177/030857599301700405
5734:Access to Adoption Records
4723:10.1007/s00787-020-01553-0
4490:Border, L. DiAnne (2000).
3934:2000, Vol. 36 No.4 429–437
3597:10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.68
2916:Bethany Christian Services
2423:Topic: Adoption Statistics
2259:Lawrence and Pat Starkey,
1947:The Psychology of Adoption
1786:. Free Press. p. 14.
1757:The Psychology of Adoption
1609:
1578:
1541:
1451:
1434:American Adoption Congress
1369:
1348:
1334:
1280:
1237:
1231:
893:
838:
835:Disruption and dissolution
491:Adoption/live birth ratio
356:(1859), which started the
222:Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller
134:is well-documented in the
103:Adoption for the well-born
92:
29:
10399:
10368:
10295:
10247:
10199:
10163:
10140:Pregnant patients' rights
10095:
10055:
10005:
9962:
9913:
9905:Pre-conception counseling
9887:
9862:Abortion-rights movements
9837:
9769:National Childbirth Trust
9746:
9655:
9572:
9564:Stress in early childhood
9496:
9448:
9307:
9284:Taking children seriously
9204:
9116:Applied behavior analysis
9099:
9004:
8908:
8844:National Grandparents Day
8809:
8768:
8636:
8528:
8488:
8431:
8396:
8361:
8297:
8254:
8179:
8070:
8052:
8045:
7990:Christian law of adoption
7964:
7894:Genealogical bewilderment
7849:Adoption reunion registry
7826:
7795:
7749:
7661:
7618:
7577:Women's Health Initiative
7562:
7524:
7515:
7464:
7430:Major depressive disorder
7298:
7258:Intimate partner violence
7220:
7119:Female genital mutilation
7114:
7063:
6972:
6914:
6860:
6806:
6719:
6632:
6621:
6547:
6534:
5766:Adoption History Project
5657:Adoption History in Brief
5435:Mintzer, Richard (2003).
5414:"First Nations in Canada"
4994:Pearl, Lynne (May 2000).
4895:10.1080/10926750903313278
4802:Child Abuse & Neglect
4590:10.1177/03085759211058358
4017:10.1007/s10802-015-0096-6
3965:10.1017/S0954579420000231
3732:10.1037/0022-006x.64.1.64
2599:Births, Deaths, Marriages
2007:The Kindness of Strangers
1992:The Kindness of Strangers
1978:The Kindness of Strangers
1961:The Kindness of Strangers
1887:The Kindness of Strangers
1872:The Kindness of Strangers
1824:The Kindness of Strangers
1809:The Kindness of Strangers
1674:Genetic sexual attraction
794:Hague Adoption Convention
767:Children associated with
595:0.26 per 100 live births
493:
490:
487:
484:
481:
79:parental responsibilities
32:Adoption (disambiguation)
10026:Gamete Cryopreservation
9872:Circumcision controversy
9852:Compulsory sterilization
9425:The talk (sex education)
9136:Developmental psychology
8094:Indian Placement Program
8057:Adoption in ancient Rome
8030:Putative father registry
8019:Indian Child Welfare Act
7166:Gynaecological disorders
6982:Culture and menstruation
6949:Contraceptive prevalence
6841:Compulsory sterilization
6469:. New York: Basic Books.
6441:Gailey, Christine Ward.
6252:10 December 2010 at the
6094:Adoption & Fostering
5988:19 December 2010 at the
5197:17 December 2005 at the
5120:Maya's Mom, 7 April 2007
5001:. The Benevolent Society
4666:10.1177/1063426615621050
4578:Adoption & Fostering
4390:Journal of Youth Studies
2679:. Statistics New Zealand
2291:E. Wayne Carp (Editor),
2199:E. Wayne Carp (Editor),
1784:The Politics of Adoption
1689:Putative father registry
1317:Indian Child Welfare Act
1152:Adoptees of LGBT parents
629:1.1 per 100 live births
612:1.1 per 100 live births
581:0.6 per 100 live births
562:0.4 per 100 live births
548:0.8 per 100 live births
531:0.7 per 100 live births
510:0.2 per 100 live births
458:passed its law in 1956.
429:artificial birth control
132:adoption in ancient Rome
10386:Social hygiene movement
10239:Transgender health care
9632:Parental responsibility
9592:Cost of raising a child
8936:Sociology of the family
8786:Philia (brotherly love)
8362:Second-degree relatives
7449:Urinary tract infection
7241:Abuse during childbirth
6454:excerpt and text search
6437:excerpt and text search
6420:excerpt and text search
6389:excerpt and text search
6181:Holt International 1997
6165:12 January 2011 at the
5983:Birthparent Legacy Term
5860:Today is Truly Historic
5669:Miles, Jadrian (2003).
4368:
3803:10.1542/peds.106.5.1145
3546:Child Abuse and Neglect
3531:6 November 2014 at the
3332:10.1111/1468-0297.00565
3165:. The Washington Post.
2749:31 October 2008 at the
2729:12 October 2008 at the
2523:11 January 2009 at the
2491:10 October 2009 at the
2219:19 October 2009 at the
2178:19 October 2009 at the
2133:19 October 2009 at the
1619:Adoption by celebrities
1331:Commercialized adoption
1169:Late discovery adoptees
1042:Development of adoptees
987:disorganized attachment
718:New York Foundling Home
693:How adoptions originate
648:≈3 per 100 live births
542:between 20 and 35 year
10214:Genitourinary medicine
10017:In vitro fertilization
9972:Hormonal contraception
9857:Contraceptive security
8791:Storge (familial love)
8397:Third-degree relatives
8299:First-degree relatives
8192:Mount Cashel Orphanage
7899:International adoption
7834:Adopted child syndrome
7796:Foster care by country
7366:Cardiovascular disease
6954:Contraceptive security
6887:In vitro fertilization
6798:Postpartum confinement
6672:Hyperemesis gravidarum
5441:. Carroll & Graf.
5348:Jewish Virtual Library
4273:10.1542/peds.2012-3251
3667:Carlson, E.A. (1988).
3585:Psychological Bulletin
3296:3 January 2009 at the
2898:Topic: Confidentiality
2279:28 August 2010 at the
2247:27 August 2010 at the
2113:Charles Loring Brace,
1738:14 August 2014 at the
1195:
933:
917:Second-parent adoption
804:in vitro fertilization
786:International adoption
775:
721:
709:
642:approx 136,000 (2008)
400:
224:
205:Adoption and commoners
123:
47:
9877:Intersex human rights
9754:Families Need Fathers
9315:After-school activity
9239:Concerted cultivation
9234:Buddha-like parenting
9166:Nature versus nurture
9131:Cognitive development
8900:National Adoption Day
8776:Agape (parental love)
7488:Healthcare inequality
7290:Gender discrimination
7094:Human papilloma virus
6769:Vesicovaginal fistula
6031:26 April 2011 at the
5992:TRIADOPTION® Archives
5806:30 April 2011 at the
5799:TRIADOPTION Archives
5768:Topic Confidentiality
3853:Psychological Science
3276:Somebody Else's Child
2772:12 April 2019 at the
2585:11 March 2006 at the
2554:23 April 2011 at the
2158:Wayne Carp (Editor),
2059:15 April 2010 at the
1929:S. Finley-Croswhite,
1679:National Adoption Day
1185:
1146:post-traumatic stress
945:Parenting of adoptees
903:
841:Disruption (adoption)
766:
715:
700:
659:Contemporary adoption
395:
214:At the monastery gate
212:
184:cultures of Polynesia
110:
42:
10435:tax on childlessness
10191:Genital modification
10115:Unintended pregnancy
9847:Reproductive Justice
9612:Right to family life
9539:Dysfunctional family
9249:Free-range parenting
9224:Attachment parenting
9214:Achievement ideology
8956:Dysfunctional family
8941:Museum of Motherhood
8888:National Family Week
8754:Quarters of nobility
8202:St. John's Orphanage
8036:Uniform Adoption Act
7951:Sealed birth records
7909:Language of adoption
7904:Interracial adoption
7595:Nurses' Health Study
7503:Reproductive justice
7454:Urinary incontinence
7074:Sexually transmitted
6929:Intrauterine devices
6774:Rectovaginal fistula
6764:Obstetrical fistulae
6692:Gestational diabetes
6687:Obstetrical bleeding
6662:Adolescent pregnancy
6647:Gravidity and parity
6642:Unintended pregnancy
6485:4 March 2016 at the
6472:Seligmann, Linda J.
6465:Pertman, A. (2000).
6393:Carp, E. Wayne, ed.
6050:24 June 2008 at the
6014:Adoption Terminology
5917:on 12 September 2020
5848:, 13 February 2008."
5819:Gass-Poore, Jordan.
5801:TRIADOPTION Archives
5275:on 12 September 2007
4559:24 July 2008 at the
3898:4 March 2009 at the
3319:The Economic Journal
3138:on 26 September 2006
2939:10 February 2009 at
2921:7 April 2007 at the
2903:3 April 2009 at the
2817:27 July 2020 at the
2636:16 June 2008 at the
2566:Statistics Iceland,
2547:Íslensk Ættleiðing,
1812:, 1998, page 74, 115
1454:Language of adoption
1448:Language of adoption
1192:Prince Edward Island
1188:Anne of Green Gables
957:Princeton University
870:and is analogous to
780:Foster care adoption
522:England & Wales
346:Charles Loring Brace
325:Boston Female Asylum
290:institutionalization
227:The nobility of the
30:For other uses, see
10135:Pregnancy from rape
9992:Intrauterine device
9627:Parental alienation
9554:Narcissistic parent
9478:Positive discipline
9299:Work at home parent
9279:Strict father model
9264:Nurturant parenting
9171:Parental investment
9006:Kinship terminology
8926:Wedding anniversary
8878:American Family Day
8834:Father–Daughter Day
8781:Eros (marital love)
8530:Kinship terminology
7854:Adoption tax credit
7844:Adoption home study
7839:Adoption disclosure
7750:Adoption by country
7508:Women's empowerment
7376:Alzheimer's disease
7007:Cloth menstrual pad
6964:Fertility awareness
6934:Oral contraceptives
6816:Perinatal mortality
6133:6 July 2008 at the
6035:by Brenda Romanchik
5713:on 19 February 2006
5683:on 16 February 2008
5645:on 29 October 2021.
5613:. 26 September 2012
5555:"The baby stealers"
5497:14 May 2013 at the
5172:on 19 February 2006
4775:10.3310/alert_47378
4627:10.3310/alert_40787
3493:on 31 December 2005
3416:2009EHumB..30..184G
3381:on 21 February 2007
2724:Adoptions to Sweden
2710:Statistics Norway,
2697:Statistics Norway,
2631:Demographic Balance
2604:10 May 2008 at the
2173:Topic: Home Studies
1644:Attachment disorder
1624:Adoption by country
1612:Outline of adoption
1575:Cultural variations
1289:forced assimilation
1283:Forced assimilation
1277:Forced assimilation
1245:Family preservation
1240:Family preservation
872:divorce proceedings
478:
445:family preservation
10381:History of condoms
10270:Sexual dysfunction
10176:Sexual orientation
10130:Options counseling
9977:Male contraception
9900:Genetic counseling
9673:T. Berry Brazelton
9410:Social integration
9146:Identity formation
8686:collateral descent
7605:Cartwright Inquiry
7516:Politics, research
7334:Endometrial cancer
7188:Sexual intercourse
6959:Planned parenthood
6944:Male contraceptive
5890:on 17 October 2020
5754:Adoption Quarterly
5561:. 15 November 2020
5329:. 30 October 2009.
5143:3 May 2008 at the
5125:3 May 2008 at the
4882:Adoption Quarterly
2975:10.1007/BF01876644
2742:Statistics Sweden
2733:, 12 February 2002
2657:on 26 October 2014
2463:, MIT Press, 2014.
2214:Topic: Placing Out
2145:Stephen O'Connor,
1890:, 1998, page 53-95
1827:, 1998, page 62-63
1654:Attachment therapy
1502:inclusive language
1210:Meet the Robinsons
1196:
1092:genetic influences
998:genetic influences
934:
776:
757:domestic adoptions
722:
710:
592:59,863 (2012/13)
474:
378:Theodore Roosevelt
342:American Civil War
294:foundling hospital
225:
151:Abandoned children
124:
48:
10450:
10449:
10150:Teenage pregnancy
9867:Genital integrity
9797:
9796:
9607:Family disruption
9529:Cinderella effect
9509:Child abandonment
9483:Tactical ignoring
9380:Moral development
9259:Helicopter parent
9254:Gatekeeper parent
9219:Atlas personality
9196:Social psychology
9141:Human development
9126:Child development
9111:Attachment theory
8964:
8963:
8764:
8763:
8681:Lineal descendant
8651:Bilateral descent
8404:Great-grandparent
8289:Matrifocal family
8214:
8213:
8210:
8209:
8187:Duplessis Orphans
7996:Dima Yakovlev Law
7914:Same-sex adoption
7705:
7704:
7585:
7584:
7410:
7409:
7361:
7360:
7344:Papanicolaou test
7300:Non-communicable
7268:Sexual harassment
7246:Domestic violence
7216:
7215:
7059:
7058:
6856:
6855:
6759:Retained placenta
6677:Ectopic pregnancy
6448:Melosh, Barbara.
6026:Adoption Language
5863:, 15 January 2020
5343:"Stolen Children"
5297:Speyrer, John A.
5265:"Position Papers"
5244:Topic Illegtimacy
4862:978-1-4614-4556-2
4454:, 26 January 2009
4452:Psychiatric Times
3756:Child Development
3673:Child Development
3363:Hamilton, Laura.
3245:Books-Google-81MC
3132:Children's Bureau
3087:Vital Health Stat
3055:Vital Health Stat
2934:SECA Organization
2568:Births and Deaths
2010:, 1998, page 421.
1899:Vinita Bhargava,
1856:978-0-511-78034-9
1733:Codex Justinianus
1720:Code of Hammurabi
1649:Attachment theory
1534:meaning and use.
1469:Adoption Triangle
1301:Aboriginal people
1297:Stolen Generation
1162:same-sex adoption
896:Same-sex adoption
746:Tay–Sachs disease
664:Forms of adoption
656:
655:
645:3,978,500 (2015)
452:England and Wales
136:Codex Justinianus
128:Code of Hammurabi
89:and regulations.
16:(Redirected from
10480:
10412:Two-child policy
10407:One-child policy
10287:Gender dysphoria
9824:
9817:
9810:
9801:
9800:
9647:Shared parenting
9458:Blanket training
9450:Child discipline
9090:In loco parentis
9069:Shared parenting
8991:
8984:
8977:
8968:
8967:
8946:Astronaut family
8717:
8716:
8618:Iroquois kinship
8608:Sudanese kinship
8603:Hawaiian kinship
8578:Family of choice
8409:Great-grandchild
8284:Immediate family
8241:
8234:
8227:
8218:
8217:
8149:Tianjin Massacre
8050:
8049:
7869:Child laundering
7732:
7725:
7718:
7709:
7708:
7693:
7692:
7681:
7680:
7669:
7668:
7522:
7521:
7307:
7306:
7227:
7226:
7221:Non-reproductive
7070:
7069:
6987:Feminine hygiene
6754:Cesarian section
6749:Obstructed labor
6630:
6629:
6545:
6544:
6526:
6516:
6509:
6502:
6493:
6492:
6424:Eskin, Michael.
6407:Carp, E. Wayne.
6400:Carp, E. Wayne.
6383:Askeland, Lori.
6362:Barbara Melosh,
6355:
6354:
6318:
6312:
6306:
6300:
6299:, 23 March 2009,
6293:
6287:
6281:
6275:
6272:
6266:
6263:
6257:
6244:
6238:
6237:
6209:
6200:
6197:
6191:
6188:
6182:
6176:
6170:
6157:
6151:
6144:
6138:
6125:
6119:
6118:
6088:
6082:
6081:
6061:
6055:
6042:
6036:
6023:
6017:
6011:
6005:
5999:
5993:
5980:
5974:
5973:
5971:
5969:
5958:
5952:
5951:
5949:
5947:
5941:Journal Inquirer
5932:
5926:
5925:
5924:
5922:
5905:
5899:
5898:
5897:
5895:
5878:
5872:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5855:
5849:
5842:
5836:
5835:
5833:
5831:
5816:
5810:
5797:
5791:
5788:
5782:
5780:Reunion Registry
5776:
5770:
5764:
5758:
5757:
5745:
5739:
5738:
5729:
5723:
5722:
5720:
5718:
5709:. Archived from
5699:
5693:
5692:
5690:
5688:
5682:
5676:. Archived from
5675:
5666:
5660:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5629:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5618:
5603:
5597:
5596:
5594:
5592:
5577:
5571:
5570:
5568:
5566:
5551:
5542:
5541:
5529:
5523:
5518:
5512:
5507:
5501:
5489:
5483:
5482:
5480:
5478:
5466:
5460:
5459:
5457:
5455:
5432:
5426:
5425:
5423:
5421:
5410:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5399:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5362:
5356:
5336:
5330:
5317:
5311:
5310:
5294:
5285:
5284:
5282:
5280:
5271:. Archived from
5261:
5255:
5252:
5246:
5240:
5234:
5227:
5221:
5220:
5208:
5202:
5189:
5183:
5181:
5179:
5177:
5168:. Archived from
5162:
5156:
5153:
5147:
5135:
5129:
5117:
5111:
5106:
5100:
5097:
5091:
5088:
5082:
5080:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5022:Family Relations
5017:
5011:
5010:
5008:
5006:
5000:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4982:
4980:
4969:
4963:
4962:
4943:10.1037/a0032911
4922:
4916:
4915:
4897:
4888:(3–4): 129–151.
4873:
4867:
4866:
4840:
4834:
4833:
4808:(Pt 2): 104795.
4793:
4787:
4786:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4742:
4702:
4696:
4695:
4685:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4611:
4602:
4601:
4569:
4563:
4550:
4544:
4541:
4535:
4531:
4525:
4524:
4500:Family Relations
4496:
4487:
4481:
4474:
4468:
4461:
4455:
4450:Kaplan, Arline,
4448:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4429:
4423:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4366:
4360:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4338:
4329:
4328:
4316:
4310:
4301:
4295:
4294:
4284:
4252:
4246:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4178:Family Relations
4173:
4167:
4164:
4155:
4154:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4096:Family Relations
4091:
4085:
4084:
4061:Family Relations
4055:
4049:
4045:
4039:
4038:
4028:
4011:(6): 1083–1096.
3996:
3987:
3986:
3976:
3944:
3935:
3928:
3919:
3912:
3903:
3886:
3877:
3876:
3848:
3839:
3829:
3823:
3822:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3750:
3744:
3743:
3725:
3705:
3699:
3698:
3688:
3679:(4): 1107–1128.
3664:
3658:
3654:
3648:
3644:
3638:
3634:
3628:
3625:
3619:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3541:
3535:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3489:. Archived from
3483:
3477:
3474:
3468:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3437:Kaye, K (1982).
3434:
3428:
3427:
3397:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3380:
3374:. Archived from
3369:
3360:
3354:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3334:
3325:(466): 781–804.
3316:
3307:
3301:
3287:
3278:
3273:
3267:
3264:Books-Google-HkC
3254:
3248:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3192:on 5 March 2016.
3188:. Archived from
3186:The Boston Globe
3177:
3171:
3170:
3157:Nemtsova, Anna.
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3124:
3118:
3113:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3084:
3076:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3052:
3044:
3038:
3037:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2943:
2931:
2925:
2913:
2907:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2862:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2828:
2822:
2809:
2803:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2793:. 9 January 2019
2783:
2777:
2776:, September 2011
2763:
2754:
2740:
2734:
2720:
2714:
2708:
2702:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2651:"Adoptions Data"
2647:
2641:
2627:
2621:
2614:
2608:
2595:
2589:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2549:Adoption Numbers
2545:
2539:
2533:
2527:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2482:
2476:
2470:
2464:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2389:
2383:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2365:
2360:Barbara Melosh,
2358:
2352:
2347:Barbara Melosh,
2345:
2339:
2338:
2302:
2296:
2289:
2283:
2270:
2264:
2257:
2251:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2223:
2210:
2204:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2182:
2169:
2163:
2156:
2150:
2143:
2137:
2124:
2118:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2084:
2078:
2069:
2063:
2050:
2041:
2032:
2026:
2017:
2011:
2002:
1996:
1995:, 1998, page 420
1987:
1981:
1980:, 1998, page 184
1974:
1965:
1964:, 1998, page 224
1956:
1950:
1949:, 1990, page 274
1943:
1934:
1927:
1921:
1912:
1906:
1897:
1891:
1882:
1876:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1834:
1828:
1819:
1813:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1779:
1770:
1767:
1761:
1760:, 1990, page 274
1752:
1743:
1729:
1723:
1716:
1559:self-knowledge.
1393:Official records
1386:One Child Policy
1377:Child harvesting
1372:Child harvesting
1366:Child harvesting
1325:Francisco Franco
1251:The Primal Wound
930:
924:
914:
908:
679:The practice of
504:270 (2007–2008)
479:
473:
391:Henry H. Goddard
177:ancestor worship
21:
10488:
10487:
10483:
10482:
10481:
10479:
10478:
10477:
10453:
10452:
10451:
10446:
10395:
10364:
10337:United Kingdom
10291:
10243:
10234:Sexual medicine
10195:
10171:Gender identity
10159:
10105:Maternal health
10091:
10051:
10047:fertility fraud
10008:
10001:
9958:
9909:
9883:
9833:
9828:
9798:
9793:
9742:
9723:Matthew Sanders
9678:Rudolf Dreikurs
9651:
9637:Parents' rights
9597:Deadbeat parent
9574:
9568:
9492:
9444:
9420:The talk (race)
9303:
9294:Tiger parenting
9200:
9095:
9044:Extended family
9000:
8995:
8965:
8960:
8904:
8805:
8760:
8749:Seize quartiers
8715:
8656:Common ancestor
8640:
8632:
8598:Chinese kinship
8593:Nurture kinship
8583:Fictive kinship
8524:
8484:
8473:daughter-in-law
8427:
8392:
8357:
8293:
8279:Conjugal family
8274:Extended family
8250:
8245:
8215:
8206:
8175:
8124:Michael A. Hess
8072:
8066:
8041:
7960:
7879:Closed adoption
7822:
7791:
7745:
7736:
7706:
7701:
7657:
7642:Family planning
7620:
7614:
7581:
7558:
7517:
7511:
7483:Gender equality
7466:
7460:
7406:
7357:
7339:Cervical cancer
7301:
7294:
7232:
7222:
7212:
7203:Sex differences
7161:Forced marriage
7110:
7075:
7065:
7055:
6997:Menstrual cycle
6968:
6921:Family planning
6919:
6910:
6863:
6852:
6811:Maternal deaths
6802:
6793:Postpartum care
6739:Multiple births
6715:
6624:
6617:
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6137:by Diane Turski
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2263:, 2001 page 223
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2242:Topic: Eugenics
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2054:Topic: Timeline
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1234:Forced adoption
1230:
1228:Forced adoption
1180:
1171:
1154:
1144:to suffer from
1133:
1100:body mass index
1075:
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1006:body mass index
952:
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861:failed adoption
843:
837:
800:Embryo adoption
733:or be adopted.
702:Josephine Baker
695:
685:safe haven laws
681:closed adoption
666:
661:
589:154 (2012/13)
578:560,010 (2006)
507:254,000 (2004)
437:family planning
433:federal funding
333:
314:This system of
261:Napoleonic Code
202:
100:
95:
35:
28:
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9738:Benjamin Spock
9735:
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9710:
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9703:Alan E. Kazdin
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8725:
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8696:Patrilineality
8693:
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8605:
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8505:
8494:
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8463:Sibling-in-law
8460:
8455:
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8448:
8437:
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8295:
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8271:
8269:Nuclear family
8266:
8261:
8255:
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8251:
8244:
8243:
8236:
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8212:
8211:
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8205:
8204:
8199:
8194:
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8177:
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8168:
8165:Postremo mense
8161:
8156:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8111:
8109:Baby Scoop Era
8106:
8101:
8096:
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7999:
7993:
7987:
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7966:
7962:
7961:
7959:
7958:
7953:
7948:
7943:
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7934:United Kingdom
7931:
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7906:
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7896:
7891:
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7881:
7876:
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7866:
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7851:
7846:
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7836:
7830:
7828:
7824:
7823:
7821:
7820:
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7813:United Kingdom
7810:
7805:
7799:
7797:
7793:
7792:
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7779:
7774:
7769:
7764:
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7703:
7702:
7700:
7699:
7687:
7675:
7662:
7659:
7658:
7656:
7651:
7646:
7645:
7644:
7634:
7629:
7624:
7622:
7619:Women's health
7616:
7615:
7613:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7586:
7583:
7582:
7580:
7579:
7574:
7568:
7566:
7560:
7559:
7557:
7556:
7551:
7546:
7541:
7536:
7530:
7528:
7526:United Nations
7519:
7518:& advocacy
7513:
7512:
7510:
7505:
7500:
7495:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7468:
7465:Sociocultural
7462:
7461:
7459:
7458:
7457:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7436:
7435:
7434:
7433:
7432:
7422:
7411:
7408:
7407:
7405:
7404:
7399:
7398:
7397:
7396:
7395:
7380:
7379:
7378:
7368:
7362:
7359:
7358:
7356:
7355:
7353:Ovarian cancer
7350:
7349:
7348:
7347:
7346:
7336:
7329:Uterine cancer
7326:
7321:
7315:
7313:
7304:
7296:
7295:
7293:
7292:
7287:
7282:
7281:
7280:
7273:Sexual assault
7270:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7254:
7253:
7243:
7237:
7235:
7224:
7218:
7217:
7214:
7213:
7211:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7174:
7173:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7151:Child marriage
7148:
7146:Breast ironing
7143:
7138:
7136:Breast binding
7133:
7132:
7131:
7126:
7124:Clitoridectomy
7115:
7112:
7111:
7109:
7108:
7103:
7102:
7101:
7091:
7086:
7080:
7078:
7067:
7061:
7060:
7057:
7056:
7054:
7053:
7052:
7051:
7041:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7025:
7024:
7019:
7014:
7009:
7002:Menstrual aids
6999:
6994:
6989:
6984:
6978:
6976:
6970:
6969:
6967:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
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6941:
6936:
6931:
6925:
6923:
6912:
6911:
6909:
6908:
6907:
6906:
6901:
6891:
6890:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6868:
6866:
6858:
6857:
6854:
6853:
6851:
6850:
6845:
6844:
6843:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6807:
6804:
6803:
6801:
6800:
6795:
6790:
6789:
6788:
6786:Husband stitch
6778:
6777:
6776:
6771:
6761:
6756:
6751:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6725:
6723:
6717:
6716:
6714:
6713:
6712:
6711:
6710:
6709:
6704:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6664:
6659:
6657:Antenatal care
6654:
6649:
6644:
6638:
6636:
6627:
6619:
6618:
6616:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6603:Fallopian tube
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6584:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6572:
6571:
6555:
6553:
6549:Reproductive
6542:
6535:
6532:
6531:
6528:Women's health
6519:
6518:
6511:
6504:
6496:
6490:
6489:
6477:
6470:
6463:
6456:
6446:
6439:
6431:Fessler, Ann.
6429:
6422:
6412:
6405:
6398:
6391:
6381:
6376:Argent, Hedi.
6372:
6369:
6368:
6367:
6357:
6356:
6329:(4): 143–150.
6313:
6301:
6288:
6276:
6267:
6258:
6239:
6226:10.2307/353920
6220:(3): 653–660.
6201:
6192:
6183:
6171:
6152:
6139:
6120:
6083:
6072:(5): 609–625.
6056:
6037:
6018:
6006:
5994:
5975:
5953:
5927:
5900:
5873:
5850:
5837:
5811:
5792:
5783:
5771:
5759:
5740:
5724:
5707:Bastard Nation
5694:
5661:
5648:
5624:
5598:
5572:
5543:
5524:
5513:
5502:
5484:
5461:
5447:
5427:
5405:
5383:
5372:on 12 May 2012
5357:
5331:
5312:
5286:
5256:
5247:
5235:
5222:
5203:
5184:
5157:
5148:
5130:
5112:
5101:
5092:
5083:
5069:10.2307/353920
5063:(3): 653–660.
5047:
5028:(4): 363–370.
5012:
4986:
4964:
4937:(3): 431–442.
4917:
4868:
4861:
4835:
4788:
4754:
4717:(5): 721–732.
4697:
4640:
4603:
4584:(4): 414–429.
4564:
4545:
4536:
4526:
4507:(4): 407–418.
4482:
4469:
4456:
4443:
4433:
4424:
4415:
4380:
4361:
4352:
4330:
4311:
4296:
4267:(4): 639–646.
4247:
4238:
4195:
4184:(4): 425–433.
4168:
4156:
4143:10.2307/353277
4121:
4108:10.2307/585172
4102:(4): 427–434.
4086:
4073:10.2307/584877
4067:(3): 311–316.
4050:
4040:
3988:
3959:(3): 922–936.
3936:
3920:
3904:
3878:
3859:(6): 442–447.
3840:
3824:
3781:
3762:(2): 572–585.
3745:
3700:
3659:
3649:
3639:
3629:
3620:
3610:
3571:
3552:(7): 549–559.
3536:
3517:
3505:
3478:
3469:
3460:
3454:978-0226428482
3453:
3429:
3410:(3): 184–189.
3392:
3355:
3346:
3302:
3279:
3268:
3249:
3225:
3195:
3172:
3149:
3119:
3103:
3071:
3039:
2988:
2969:(2): 157–183.
2953:
2944:
2926:
2908:
2889:
2873:
2849:
2838:on 13 May 2008
2823:
2804:
2778:
2755:
2735:
2715:
2703:
2690:
2668:
2642:
2622:
2609:
2590:
2571:
2559:
2540:
2528:
2509:
2497:
2477:
2465:
2447:
2435:
2426:
2414:
2405:
2384:
2375:
2366:
2364:, page 105-107
2353:
2340:
2297:
2284:
2272:H.H. Goddard,
2265:
2252:
2233:
2224:
2205:
2192:
2183:
2164:
2151:
2138:
2119:
2106:
2094:
2079:
2064:
2042:
2027:
2012:
2004:John Boswell,
1997:
1989:John Boswell,
1982:
1976:John Boswell,
1966:
1958:John Boswell,
1951:
1935:
1922:
1907:
1892:
1884:John Boswell,
1877:
1875:, 1998, page 3
1869:John Boswell,
1862:
1855:
1829:
1821:John Boswell,
1814:
1806:John Boswell,
1799:
1792:
1771:
1762:
1744:
1724:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1634:Adult adoption
1631:
1629:Adoption fraud
1626:
1621:
1615:
1610:Main article:
1607:
1604:
1599:
1598:Homecoming Day
1596:
1579:Main article:
1576:
1573:
1543:
1540:
1531:
1530:
1523:
1516:
1513:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1478:
1464:
1461:
1452:Main article:
1449:
1446:
1442:Bastard Nation
1394:
1391:
1370:Main article:
1367:
1364:
1349:Main article:
1346:
1343:
1337:Adoption fraud
1332:
1329:
1278:
1275:
1263:baby scoop era
1232:Main article:
1229:
1226:
1186:Actors at the
1179:
1176:
1170:
1167:
1153:
1150:
1132:
1129:
1074:
1071:
1056:
1053:
1043:
1040:
1022:
1019:
951:
948:
946:
943:
927:
921:
911:
905:
894:Main article:
891:
888:
839:Main article:
836:
833:
832:
831:
808:
797:
792:developed the
783:
761:
760:
742:overpopulation
694:
691:
690:
689:
688:and dangerous.
677:
665:
662:
660:
657:
654:
653:
649:
646:
643:
640:
634:
633:
630:
627:
626:91,466 (2002)
624:
621:
617:
616:
613:
610:
609:58,545 (2006)
607:
604:
600:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
583:
582:
579:
576:
573:
567:
566:
563:
560:
559:61,517 (2003)
557:
554:
550:
549:
546:
543:
540:
536:
535:
532:
529:
528:669,601(2006)
526:
523:
519:
518:
515:known relative
511:
508:
505:
502:
496:
495:
492:
489:
486:
483:
404:baby scoop era
338:
337:
332:
329:
316:apprenticeship
207:
206:
201:
198:
173:funerary rites
105:
104:
99:
96:
94:
91:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10485:
10474:
10471:
10469:
10466:
10464:
10461:
10460:
10458:
10443:
10440:
10436:
10433:
10431:
10430:child benefit
10428:
10426:
10423:
10421:
10418:
10417:
10415:
10413:
10410:
10408:
10405:
10404:
10402:
10398:
10392:
10389:
10387:
10384:
10382:
10379:
10377:
10374:
10373:
10371:
10367:
10359:
10358:birth control
10356:
10354:
10351:
10350:
10349:
10348:United States
10346:
10342:
10339:
10338:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10321:
10319:
10316:
10314:
10311:
10309:
10306:
10304:
10301:
10300:
10298:
10294:
10288:
10285:
10281:
10278:
10277:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10263:
10261:
10258:
10256:
10253:
10252:
10250:
10246:
10240:
10237:
10235:
10232:
10230:
10227:
10225:
10222:
10220:
10217:
10215:
10212:
10210:
10207:
10206:
10204:
10202:
10198:
10192:
10189:
10187:
10184:
10182:
10179:
10177:
10174:
10172:
10169:
10168:
10166:
10162:
10156:
10153:
10151:
10148:
10146:
10145:Prenatal care
10143:
10141:
10138:
10136:
10133:
10131:
10128:
10126:
10123:
10121:
10118:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10106:
10103:
10102:
10100:
10098:
10094:
10086:
10083:
10082:
10080:
10076:
10073:
10072:
10071:
10068:
10066:
10063:
10062:
10060:
10058:
10054:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10036:
10033:
10031:
10028:
10027:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10014:
10012:
10010:
10004:
9998:
9997:Sterilization
9995:
9993:
9990:
9988:
9985:
9983:
9980:
9978:
9975:
9973:
9970:
9969:
9967:
9965:
9964:Contraception
9961:
9955:
9952:
9948:
9945:
9943:
9940:
9939:
9938:
9935:
9933:
9932:Birth spacing
9930:
9928:
9927:childlessness
9924:
9923:Childfreeness
9921:
9920:
9918:
9916:
9912:
9906:
9903:
9901:
9898:
9896:
9895:Sex education
9893:
9892:
9890:
9886:
9878:
9875:
9873:
9870:
9869:
9868:
9865:
9863:
9860:
9858:
9855:
9853:
9850:
9848:
9845:
9844:
9842:
9840:
9836:
9832:
9825:
9820:
9818:
9813:
9811:
9806:
9805:
9802:
9790:
9787:
9785:
9782:
9780:
9777:
9775:
9772:
9770:
9767:
9765:
9762:
9760:
9757:
9755:
9752:
9751:
9749:
9747:Organizations
9745:
9739:
9736:
9734:
9733:B. F. Skinner
9731:
9729:
9728:William Sears
9726:
9724:
9721:
9719:
9716:
9714:
9711:
9709:
9706:
9704:
9701:
9699:
9698:Thomas Gordon
9696:
9694:
9691:
9689:
9686:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9676:
9674:
9671:
9669:
9666:
9664:
9661:
9660:
9658:
9654:
9648:
9645:
9643:
9640:
9638:
9635:
9633:
9630:
9628:
9625:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9613:
9610:
9608:
9605:
9603:
9600:
9598:
9595:
9593:
9590:
9588:
9587:Child support
9585:
9583:
9582:Child custody
9580:
9579:
9577:
9571:
9565:
9562:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9552:
9550:
9547:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9537:
9535:
9532:
9530:
9527:
9525:
9524:Child neglect
9522:
9520:
9517:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9505:
9502:
9501:
9499:
9495:
9489:
9486:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9474:
9471:
9469:
9466:
9464:
9461:
9459:
9456:
9455:
9453:
9451:
9447:
9441:
9438:
9435:
9431:
9428:
9426:
9423:
9421:
9418:
9416:
9413:
9411:
9408:
9406:
9403:
9400:
9396:
9393:
9391:
9388:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9378:
9376:
9373:
9371:
9368:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9355:Homeschooling
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9341:
9338:
9336:
9333:
9331:
9328:
9326:
9323:
9321:
9318:
9316:
9313:
9312:
9310:
9306:
9300:
9297:
9295:
9292:
9290:
9287:
9285:
9282:
9280:
9277:
9275:
9272:
9270:
9267:
9265:
9262:
9260:
9257:
9255:
9252:
9250:
9247:
9245:
9242:
9240:
9237:
9235:
9232:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9220:
9217:
9215:
9212:
9211:
9209:
9207:
9203:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9191:Socialization
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9176:Paternal bond
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9161:Maternal bond
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9098:
9092:
9091:
9087:
9085:
9082:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9074:Single parent
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9055:
9052:
9050:
9047:
9045:
9042:
9040:
9037:
9035:
9034:Alloparenting
9032:
9030:
9027:
9025:
9022:
9020:
9017:
9015:
9012:
9011:
9009:
9007:
9003:
8999:
8992:
8987:
8985:
8980:
8978:
8973:
8972:
8969:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8947:
8944:
8942:
8939:
8937:
8934:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8916:Single parent
8914:
8913:
8911:
8907:
8901:
8898:
8894:
8891:
8890:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8872:
8869:
8868:
8867:
8864:
8860:
8857:
8856:
8855:
8852:
8850:
8847:
8845:
8842:
8840:
8837:
8835:
8832:
8830:
8827:
8823:
8820:
8819:
8818:
8815:
8814:
8812:
8808:
8802:
8799:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8773:
8771:
8769:Relationships
8767:
8755:
8752:
8750:
8747:
8745:
8742:
8741:
8740:
8737:
8735:
8732:
8730:
8727:
8726:
8724:
8722:
8718:
8712:
8711:Royal descent
8709:
8707:
8704:
8702:
8699:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8677:
8674:
8672:
8669:
8667:
8664:
8662:
8659:
8657:
8654:
8652:
8649:
8648:
8646:
8644:
8639:
8635:
8629:
8628:Omaha kinship
8626:
8624:
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8599:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8586:
8584:
8581:
8579:
8576:
8574:
8571:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8558:Consanguinity
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8535:
8533:
8531:
8527:
8521:
8518:
8516:
8513:
8509:
8506:
8504:
8501:
8500:
8499:
8496:
8495:
8493:
8491:
8487:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8471:
8470:
8469:
8466:
8464:
8461:
8459:
8458:Parent-in-law
8456:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8443:
8442:
8439:
8438:
8436:
8434:
8433:Family-in-law
8430:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8401:
8399:
8395:
8389:
8386:
8384:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8366:
8364:
8360:
8352:
8349:
8347:
8344:
8343:
8342:
8339:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8326:
8325:
8322:
8318:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8309:
8308:
8305:
8304:
8302:
8300:
8296:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8256:
8253:
8249:
8242:
8237:
8235:
8230:
8228:
8223:
8222:
8219:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8195:
8193:
8190:
8188:
8185:
8184:
8182:
8178:
8172:
8169:
8167:
8166:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8119:Home Children
8117:
8115:
8114:Sixties Scoop
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8077:
8075:
8069:
8063:
8060:
8058:
8055:
8054:
8051:
8048:
8044:
8037:
8034:
8031:
8028:
8026:
8023:
8020:
8017:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8003:
8000:
7997:
7994:
7991:
7988:
7985:
7982:
7979:
7976:
7973:
7970:
7969:
7967:
7963:
7957:
7954:
7952:
7949:
7947:
7946:Open adoption
7944:
7940:
7939:United States
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7916:
7915:
7912:
7910:
7907:
7905:
7902:
7900:
7897:
7895:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7882:
7880:
7877:
7875:
7872:
7870:
7867:
7865:
7862:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7831:
7829:
7825:
7819:
7818:United States
7816:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7800:
7798:
7794:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7782:United States
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7754:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7733:
7728:
7726:
7721:
7719:
7714:
7713:
7710:
7698:
7697:
7688:
7686:
7685:
7676:
7674:
7673:
7664:
7663:
7660:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7643:
7640:
7639:
7638:
7635:
7633:
7630:
7628:
7625:
7623:
7617:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7596:
7593:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7569:
7567:
7565:
7564:United States
7561:
7555:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7531:
7529:
7527:
7523:
7520:
7514:
7509:
7506:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7496:
7494:
7491:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7478:Disadvantaged
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7463:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7441:
7440:
7439:Urinary tract
7437:
7431:
7428:
7427:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7417:
7416:
7415:Mental health
7413:
7412:
7403:
7400:
7394:
7391:
7390:
7389:
7386:
7385:
7384:
7381:
7377:
7374:
7373:
7372:
7369:
7367:
7364:
7363:
7354:
7351:
7345:
7342:
7341:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7331:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7324:Breast cancer
7322:
7320:
7317:
7316:
7314:
7312:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7297:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7279:
7276:
7275:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7252:
7249:
7248:
7247:
7244:
7242:
7239:
7238:
7236:
7234:
7233:against women
7228:
7225:
7219:
7209:
7208:Sex education
7206:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7172:
7169:
7168:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7141:Breast health
7139:
7137:
7134:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7121:
7120:
7117:
7116:
7113:
7107:
7104:
7100:
7097:
7096:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7081:
7079:
7077:
7071:
7068:
7062:
7050:
7047:
7046:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7015:
7013:
7012:Menstrual cup
7010:
7008:
7005:
7004:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6993:
6990:
6988:
6985:
6983:
6980:
6979:
6977:
6975:
6971:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6926:
6924:
6922:
6917:
6916:Contraception
6913:
6905:
6902:
6900:
6897:
6896:
6895:
6892:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6877:Childlessness
6875:
6874:
6873:
6870:
6869:
6867:
6865:
6862:Reproductive
6859:
6849:
6846:
6842:
6839:
6838:
6837:
6836:Sterilization
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6805:
6799:
6796:
6794:
6791:
6787:
6784:
6783:
6782:
6779:
6775:
6772:
6770:
6767:
6766:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6757:
6755:
6752:
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6734:Preterm birth
6732:
6730:
6727:
6726:
6724:
6722:
6718:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6699:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6669:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6658:
6655:
6653:
6650:
6648:
6645:
6643:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6635:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6620:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6570:
6569:Clitoral hood
6567:
6566:
6565:
6562:
6561:
6560:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6552:
6546:
6543:
6540:
6537:Reproductive
6533:
6529:
6525:
6517:
6512:
6510:
6505:
6503:
6498:
6497:
6494:
6488:
6484:
6481:
6478:
6475:
6471:
6468:
6464:
6461:
6457:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6444:
6440:
6438:
6434:
6430:
6427:
6423:
6421:
6417:
6414:Conn, Peter.
6413:
6410:
6406:
6403:
6399:
6396:
6392:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6379:
6375:
6374:
6365:
6361:
6360:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6332:
6328:
6324:
6317:
6310:
6305:
6298:
6292:
6285:
6280:
6271:
6262:
6255:
6251:
6248:
6243:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6208:
6206:
6196:
6187:
6180:
6175:
6168:
6164:
6161:
6156:
6149:
6143:
6136:
6132:
6129:
6124:
6116:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6095:
6087:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6060:
6053:
6049:
6046:
6041:
6034:
6030:
6027:
6022:
6015:
6010:
6003:
6002:Birth Parents
5998:
5991:
5987:
5984:
5979:
5963:
5957:
5942:
5938:
5931:
5916:
5912:
5911:
5904:
5889:
5885:
5884:
5877:
5862:
5861:
5854:
5847:
5841:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5809:
5805:
5802:
5796:
5787:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5744:
5736:
5735:
5728:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5698:
5679:
5672:
5665:
5658:
5652:
5644:
5640:
5639:
5634:
5628:
5612:
5608:
5602:
5586:
5582:
5576:
5560:
5556:
5550:
5548:
5539:
5535:
5528:
5522:
5517:
5511:
5506:
5500:
5496:
5493:
5488:
5472:
5465:
5450:
5448:9780786710355
5444:
5440:
5439:
5431:
5415:
5409:
5393:
5387:
5371:
5367:
5361:
5354:
5350:
5349:
5344:
5340:
5335:
5328:
5327:
5322:
5316:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5293:
5291:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5260:
5251:
5245:
5239:
5233:
5226:
5218:
5214:
5207:
5200:
5196:
5193:
5188:
5171:
5167:
5161:
5152:
5146:
5142:
5139:
5134:
5128:
5124:
5121:
5116:
5110:
5105:
5096:
5087:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5051:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5016:
4997:
4990:
4974:
4968:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4921:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4872:
4864:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4839:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4767:NIHR Evidence
4764:
4758:
4750:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4701:
4693:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4644:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4619:NIHR Evidence
4616:
4610:
4608:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4568:
4562:
4558:
4555:
4549:
4540:
4530:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4501:
4493:
4486:
4479:
4473:
4466:
4460:
4453:
4447:
4437:
4428:
4419:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4384:
4376:
4372:
4365:
4356:
4348:
4344:
4337:
4335:
4326:
4322:
4315:
4308:
4307:
4300:
4292:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4251:
4242:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4199:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4172:
4163:
4161:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4125:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4090:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4054:
4044:
4036:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3995:
3993:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3943:
3941:
3933:
3927:
3925:
3917:
3911:
3909:
3901:
3897:
3894:
3890:
3885:
3883:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3847:
3845:
3838:
3837:
3833:
3828:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3785:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3749:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3704:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3663:
3653:
3643:
3637:Chicago Press
3633:
3624:
3614:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3575:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3473:
3464:
3456:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3441:
3433:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3404:
3396:
3377:
3373:
3366:
3359:
3350:
3342:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3306:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3286:
3284:
3277:
3272:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3253:
3246:
3242:
3241:90-411-1091-7
3238:
3234:
3229:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3199:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3117:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3075:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3049:
3043:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2948:
2942:
2941:archive.today
2938:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2920:
2917:
2912:
2906:
2902:
2899:
2893:
2885:
2877:
2866:
2859:
2853:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2808:
2792:
2788:
2782:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2762:
2760:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2739:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2700:
2694:
2678:
2672:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2626:
2619:
2616:Tom Kington,
2613:
2607:
2603:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2557:
2553:
2550:
2544:
2538:
2532:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2518:Adoption Data
2513:
2507:
2501:
2494:
2490:
2487:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2455:Bruno Perreau
2451:
2445:
2439:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2409:
2394:
2388:
2379:
2370:
2363:
2357:
2350:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2294:
2288:
2282:
2278:
2275:
2269:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2237:
2228:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2209:
2202:
2196:
2187:
2181:
2177:
2174:
2168:
2161:
2155:
2148:
2147:Orphan Trains
2142:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2123:
2116:
2110:
2104:
2098:
2091:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2075:
2068:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2049:
2047:
2039:
2038:
2031:
2024:
2023:
2016:
2009:
2008:
2001:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1979:
1973:
1971:
1963:
1962:
1955:
1948:
1942:
1940:
1933:, August 1997
1932:
1926:
1919:
1918:
1911:
1904:
1903:
1896:
1889:
1888:
1881:
1874:
1873:
1866:
1858:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1826:
1825:
1818:
1811:
1810:
1803:
1795:
1793:9780029025000
1789:
1785:
1778:
1776:
1766:
1759:
1758:
1751:
1749:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1715:
1711:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1664:Child-selling
1662:
1660:
1659:Child welfare
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1603:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1582:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1500:Advocates of
1498:
1496:
1485:
1477:
1473:
1470:
1460:
1455:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1410:Open records:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1390:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1342:
1338:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:First Nations
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1284:
1274:
1272:
1271:Verdingkinder
1268:
1264:
1259:
1257:
1256:Nancy Verrier
1253:
1252:
1246:
1241:
1235:
1225:
1221:
1219:
1214:
1212:
1211:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1175:
1166:
1163:
1159:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1131:Mental health
1128:
1124:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1080:International
1070:
1066:
1063:
1062:international
1052:
1048:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1002:
999:
994:
992:
991:false economy
988:
982:
980:
974:
971:
965:
961:
958:
942:
938:
918:
902:
897:
887:
883:
881:
877:
873:
869:
866:
862:
858:
857:
852:
848:
842:
829:
825:
821:
820:co-habitation
817:
816:legal process
813:
809:
805:
801:
798:
795:
791:
787:
784:
781:
778:
777:
774:
770:
765:
758:
754:
753:
752:
749:
747:
743:
738:
734:
732:
726:
719:
714:
707:
703:
699:
686:
682:
678:
674:
673:Open adoption
671:
670:
669:
650:
647:
644:
641:
639:
638:United States
636:
635:
631:
628:
625:
622:
619:
618:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
601:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
584:
580:
577:
575:3,158 (2006)
574:
572:
569:
568:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
551:
547:
545:4,560 (2007)
544:
541:
538:
537:
533:
530:
527:
525:4,764 (2006)
524:
521:
520:
516:
512:
509:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
480:
477:
472:
468:
465:
461:
457:
453:
448:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
420:
418:
417:Massachusetts
412:
409:
405:
399:
394:
392:
387:
382:
379:
374:
369:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
335:
334:
331:Modern period
328:
326:
322:
317:
312:
310:
306:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
269:
267:
262:
258:
254:
253:heir apparent
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
223:
219:
218:Am Klostertor
215:
211:
204:
203:
197:
195:
194:
189:
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
159:
158:
152:
147:
145:
139:
137:
133:
129:
121:
117:
113:
109:
102:
101:
90:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
10442:Abortion law
10425:bachelor tax
10075:vulvovaginal
10009:reproduction
9941:
9683:David Elkind
9534:Codependency
9519:Child labour
9375:Latchkey kid
9365:Introjection
9151:Introjection
9101:
9088:
9054:Noncustodial
9028:
8849:Parents' Day
8839:Siblings Day
8829:Father's Day
8817:Mother's Day
8801:Polyfidelity
8796:Filial piety
8721:Family trees
8623:Crow kinship
8573:Estrangement
8547:
8468:Child-in-law
8388:Niece/Nephew
8163:
8154:Mortara case
7738:
7694:
7682:
7670:
7393:Hip fracture
7388:Osteoporosis
7129:Infibulation
7029:Dysmenorrhea
7022:Sanitary pad
6974:Menstruation
6898:
6702:Preeclampsia
6697:Hypertension
6581:Labia majora
6576:Labia minora
6473:
6466:
6459:
6449:
6442:
6432:
6425:
6415:
6408:
6401:
6394:
6384:
6377:
6326:
6322:
6316:
6304:
6291:
6279:
6270:
6261:
6242:
6217:
6213:
6195:
6186:
6174:
6155:
6147:
6142:
6123:
6101:(4): 22–26.
6098:
6092:
6086:
6069:
6065:
6059:
6040:
6021:
6009:
5997:
5978:
5966:. Retrieved
5956:
5944:. Retrieved
5940:
5930:
5921:25 September
5919:, retrieved
5915:the original
5909:
5903:
5894:25 September
5892:, retrieved
5888:the original
5882:
5876:
5867:25 September
5865:, retrieved
5859:
5853:
5840:
5828:. Retrieved
5825:Mother Jones
5824:
5814:
5795:
5786:
5774:
5762:
5753:
5743:
5733:
5727:
5715:. Retrieved
5711:the original
5706:
5697:
5685:. Retrieved
5678:the original
5664:
5651:
5643:the original
5636:
5627:
5615:. Retrieved
5610:
5601:
5589:. Retrieved
5584:
5575:
5563:. Retrieved
5558:
5538:The Guardian
5537:
5527:
5516:
5505:
5487:
5475:. Retrieved
5473:. Adoptimist
5464:
5452:. Retrieved
5437:
5430:
5418:. Retrieved
5408:
5396:. Retrieved
5386:
5374:. Retrieved
5370:the original
5360:
5346:
5339:Gitta Sereny
5334:
5324:
5315:
5302:
5277:. Retrieved
5273:the original
5268:
5259:
5250:
5238:
5225:
5217:ResearchGate
5215:– via
5206:
5187:
5174:. Retrieved
5170:the original
5160:
5151:
5133:
5115:
5104:
5095:
5086:
5060:
5056:
5050:
5025:
5021:
5015:
5003:. Retrieved
4989:
4977:. Retrieved
4967:
4934:
4930:
4920:
4885:
4881:
4871:
4844:
4838:
4805:
4801:
4791:
4766:
4757:
4714:
4710:
4700:
4660:(2): 67–81.
4657:
4653:
4643:
4618:
4581:
4577:
4567:
4548:
4539:
4529:
4504:
4498:
4485:
4477:
4472:
4459:
4446:
4436:
4427:
4418:
4393:
4389:
4383:
4374:
4370:
4364:
4355:
4346:
4342:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4304:
4299:
4264:
4260:
4250:
4241:
4211:(1): 25–32.
4208:
4204:
4198:
4181:
4177:
4171:
4137:(1): 80–90.
4134:
4130:
4124:
4099:
4095:
4089:
4064:
4060:
4057:as cited in
4053:
4043:
4008:
4004:
3956:
3952:
3856:
3852:
3834:
3827:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3759:
3755:
3748:
3716:(1): 64–73.
3713:
3709:
3703:
3676:
3672:
3662:
3652:
3642:
3632:
3623:
3613:
3591:(1): 68–69.
3588:
3584:
3574:
3549:
3545:
3539:
3520:
3508:
3495:. Retrieved
3491:the original
3481:
3472:
3463:
3439:
3432:
3407:
3401:
3395:
3383:. Retrieved
3376:the original
3371:
3358:
3349:
3322:
3318:
3305:
3271:
3259:
3256:
3252:
3232:
3228:
3216:. Retrieved
3207:
3198:
3190:the original
3185:
3175:
3162:
3152:
3140:. Retrieved
3136:the original
3131:
3122:
3090:
3086:
3074:
3058:
3054:
3042:
3005:
3001:
2991:
2966:
2962:
2956:
2947:
2929:
2911:
2892:
2883:
2876:
2852:
2840:. Retrieved
2836:the original
2826:
2807:
2795:. Retrieved
2790:
2781:
2738:
2718:
2706:
2693:
2681:. Retrieved
2671:
2659:. Retrieved
2655:the original
2645:
2629:Demo Istat,
2625:
2612:
2593:
2574:
2562:
2543:
2531:
2512:
2500:
2480:
2468:
2458:
2450:
2438:
2429:
2417:
2408:
2396:. Retrieved
2387:
2378:
2369:
2356:
2343:
2314:
2310:
2300:
2287:
2268:
2255:
2236:
2227:
2208:
2195:
2186:
2167:
2154:
2141:
2122:
2109:
2097:
2087:
2082:
2072:
2067:
2035:
2030:
2020:
2015:
2005:
2000:
1990:
1985:
1959:
1954:
1925:
1915:
1910:
1900:
1895:
1885:
1880:
1870:
1865:
1838:
1832:
1822:
1817:
1807:
1802:
1783:
1765:
1755:
1731:
1727:
1718:
1714:
1601:
1584:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1519:
1499:
1495:Edna Andrews
1491:
1483:
1474:
1468:
1466:
1457:
1431:
1419:illegitimacy
1415:
1409:
1408:
1396:
1375:
1360:Illegitimacy
1356:Baby farming
1354:
1351:Baby farming
1345:Baby farming
1340:
1286:
1260:
1249:
1243:
1222:
1215:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1172:
1155:
1138:
1134:
1125:
1121:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1076:
1067:
1058:
1049:
1045:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1015:
1011:
1003:
995:
983:
975:
966:
962:
953:
939:
935:
884:
860:
855:
850:
844:
824:jurisdiction
768:
750:
735:
727:
723:
667:
623:1044 (2002)
586:New Zealand
514:
488:Live births
475:
469:
464:West Germany
449:
441:illegitimacy
421:
413:
408:sexual mores
401:
396:
383:
370:
358:Orphan Train
353:
339:
313:
302:
270:
241:Roman Empire
226:
217:
213:
191:
181:
162:
155:
148:
140:
125:
70:guardianship
67:
50:
49:
44:Sister Irene
36:
10328:Philippines
10260:Infertility
10219:Gynaecology
10186:Transgender
9954:Sperm theft
9947:foster care
9693:Haim Ginott
9668:John Bowlby
9514:Child abuse
9434:educational
9350:Habituation
9335:Co-sleeping
9121:Behaviorism
9049:Foster care
9039:Coparenting
8676:Inheritance
8661:Family name
8520:Stepsibling
8414:Great-uncle
8369:Grandparent
8197:Mary Norris
7864:Child abuse
7787:South Korea
7777:Philippines
7743:foster care
7696:WikiProject
7383:Bone health
7319:Lung cancer
7156:Dyspareunia
7099:HPV vaccine
7039:Amenorrhoea
7034:Menorrhagia
6872:Infertility
6821:Stillbirths
6682:Miscarriage
5844:USA Today,
5454:12 December
5005:21 February
4979:21 February
3889:AJ Stunkard
3260:alternative
2880:See, e.g.,
2089:A Good Home
2074:A Good Home
2037:A Good Home
2022:A Good Home
1914:W. Menski,
1699:Social work
1639:Affiliation
1510:stereotypes
1267:anglosphere
1218:foster care
979:family tree
737:Infertility
731:foster care
606:657 (2006)
556:263 (2003)
456:Netherlands
373:Progressive
77:rights and
75:inheritance
10468:Family law
10457:Categories
10420:baby bonus
10416:Financial
10296:By country
10120:childbirth
10110:Obstetrics
10042:Sperm bank
9708:Truby King
9602:Disownment
9415:Television
9405:Role model
9330:Child care
9308:Techniques
9274:Soccer mom
9244:Enmeshment
9181:Pediatrics
8921:Only child
8866:Family Day
8739:Ahnentafel
8701:Progenitor
8563:Disownment
8508:stepmother
8503:stepfather
8498:Stepparent
8490:Stepfamily
8478:son-in-law
8418:Great-aunt
8374:Grandchild
7889:Disruption
7621:by country
7425:Depression
7076:infections
6781:Episiotomy
6721:Childbirth
6652:Obstetrics
5687:30 January
5617:5 December
5591:5 December
5345:, rpt. in
5269:OriginsUSA
4261:Pediatrics
3791:Pediatrics
3218:5 February
3163:Russia Now
2797:16 January
2351:, page 106
2295:, page 181
2203:, page 108
2162:, page 160
2092:, page 45.
2077:, page 44.
2040:, page 37.
2025:, page 29.
1706:References
1527:individual
1335:See also:
1281:See also:
1238:See also:
1190:Museum on
1115:(ODD) and
1073:Influences
847:disruption
828:common law
517:adoptions
485:Adoptions
362:indentured
257:common law
249:bloodlines
186:including
144:Adrogation
10333:Singapore
10248:Disorders
10209:Andrology
10097:Pregnancy
10081:Research
9937:Parenting
9888:Education
9642:Paternity
9573:Legal and
9473:Grounding
9370:Kommune 1
9345:Education
9320:Allowance
9229:Baby talk
9084:Surrogacy
8998:Parenting
8931:Godparent
8638:Genealogy
8515:Stepchild
8264:Household
8139:Devshirme
8062:Fosterage
7980:(Ontario)
7974:(Ontario)
7919:Australia
7859:Aging out
7803:Australia
7767:Guatemala
7757:Australia
7251:Pregnancy
7231:Violence
7171:Vaginitis
7044:Menopause
6904:Fostering
6894:Parenting
6864:life plan
6729:Midwifery
6707:Eclampsia
6634:Pregnancy
6623:Maternal
6343:1744-6171
6179:Holt 1997
6169:OURS 1992
6115:147064719
5638:Reason TV
4951:1939-1293
4912:143679873
4904:1092-6755
4830:226304165
4783:242996830
4731:1435-165X
4674:1063-4266
4635:241503976
4598:245473080
4534:Stratton.
4441:11/7/2012
4410:145615691
4396:(1): 63.
4349:(4): 301.
3873:145627094
3718:CiteSeerX
2983:144559063
2699:Adoptions
2149:, Page 95
1404:genealogy
950:Parenting
880:abandoned
856:dissolved
851:disrupted
706:Amsterdam
513:Includes
500:Australia
366:Minnesota
298:orphanage
282:monastery
247:society,
98:Antiquity
83:filiation
63:filiation
55:parenting
10463:Adoption
10323:Pakistan
10201:Medicine
10181:Intersex
10164:Identity
10125:Abortion
10007:Assisted
9982:Safe sex
9942:adoption
9915:Planning
9688:Jo Frost
9622:Marriage
9488:Time-out
9064:Orphaned
9029:Adoptive
8810:Holidays
8734:Genogram
8671:Heredity
8666:Heirloom
8588:Marriage
8553:Affinity
8548:Adoption
8334:daughter
7998:(Russia)
7739:Adoption
7672:Category
7632:Ethiopia
7554:UN Women
7371:Dementia
7302:diseases
7285:Femicide
7263:Misogyny
7183:Polygamy
7084:Safe sex
6992:Menarche
6899:Adoption
6826:Abortion
6744:Oxytocin
6564:Clitoris
6483:Archived
6351:12562132
6250:Archived
6163:Archived
6160:PAL 1992
6131:Archived
6048:Archived
6029:Archived
5986:Archived
5968:29 April
5946:29 April
5830:29 April
5804:Archived
5717:12 March
5611:BBC News
5585:BBC News
5559:BBC News
5495:Archived
5307:Archived
5195:Archived
5176:12 March
5141:Archived
5123:Archived
4959:23750525
4822:33172646
4749:32468437
4692:29263641
4557:Archived
4327:(1): 88.
4291:24019414
4035:26496906
3983:32366341
3896:Archived
3819:74279466
3811:11061791
3529:Archived
3497:12 March
3341:11707574
3294:Archived
3212:Archived
3167:Archived
3095:Archived
3063:Archived
3034:Archived
2937:Archived
2919:Archived
2901:Archived
2865:Archived
2815:Archived
2770:Archived
2747:Archived
2727:Archived
2634:Archived
2602:Archived
2583:Archived
2552:Archived
2521:Archived
2489:Archived
2335:Archived
2277:Archived
2245:Archived
2217:Archived
2176:Archived
2131:Archived
2057:Archived
1736:Archived
1606:See also
1400:identity
1055:Identity
876:disowned
868:petition
755:Private
708:in 1964.
553:Ireland
539:Iceland
482:Country
435:to make
425:the pill
278:oblation
245:medieval
229:Germanic
87:statutes
51:Adoption
10369:History
10318:Ireland
10070:Women's
9656:Experts
9432: (
9397: (
9325:Bedtime
9289:Theybie
8909:Related
8643:lineage
8568:Divorce
8538:Kinship
8451:husband
8346:brother
8341:Sibling
8259:History
8046:History
8015:(India)
7992:(India)
7684:Commons
7473:Poverty
7467:factors
7444:Urethra
7420:Anxiety
7402:Anaemia
7198:Puberty
7178:Leblouh
7064:Sexual
6939:Condoms
6452:(2002)
6435:(2007)
6418:(2013)
6387:(2005)
6366:page 10
5565:8 April
5420:16 June
5398:16 June
5376:16 June
5081:p. 654.
4740:8060221
4683:5734114
4377:(1): 2.
4282:3784288
4233:3371467
4225:2135594
4026:5097859
3974:8374623
3776:8477635
3740:8907085
3695:9768489
3605:8346329
3566:8832112
3412:Bibcode
3243:, web:
3142:18 July
3030:8822409
3022:2135956
2683:1 March
2661:1 March
2398:19 July
2331:2135956
1542:Reunion
1382:Nairobi
919:allowed
773:Ukraine
620:Sweden
603:Norway
386:eugenic
305:artisan
120:Hadrian
93:History
68:Unlike
10400:Policy
10280:clinic
10057:Health
9987:Condom
9839:Rights
9549:Incest
9468:Curfew
9206:Styles
9024:Father
9019:Mother
9014:Parent
8951:Incest
8871:Canada
8441:Spouse
8423:Cousin
8351:sister
8317:father
8312:mother
8307:Parent
8248:Family
7929:Europe
7924:Brazil
7827:Issues
7808:Canada
7762:France
7649:Russia
7311:Cancer
7223:health
7193:Orgasm
7066:health
7017:Tampon
6625:health
6598:Uterus
6593:Cervix
6588:Vagina
6539:health
6462:(2011)
6404:(2000)
6397:(2002)
6380:(2014)
6349:
6341:
6234:353920
6232:
6113:
5477:3 June
5445:
5077:353920
5075:
5042:585831
5040:
4957:
4949:
4910:
4902:
4859:
4828:
4820:
4781:
4747:
4737:
4729:
4690:
4680:
4672:
4633:
4596:
4521:585836
4519:
4408:
4289:
4279:
4231:
4223:
4151:353277
4149:
4116:585172
4114:
4081:584877
4079:
4048:Press.
4033:
4023:
3981:
3971:
3871:
3817:
3809:
3774:
3738:
3720:
3693:
3657:Press.
3603:
3564:
3451:
3385:3 June
3339:
3239:
3028:
3020:
2981:
2842:10 May
2753:, 2002
2744:Births
2712:Births
2640:, 2006
2329:
2117:, 1872
1920:, 2000
1853:
1790:
1323:under
1313:Canada
929:
923:
915:
913:
907:
812:courts
494:Notes
460:Sweden
286:alumni
274:Church
237:Slavic
235:, and
233:Celtic
188:Hawaii
157:alumni
112:Trajan
59:rights
10308:India
10303:China
10065:Men's
10035:Sperm
9497:Abuse
9104:Areas
8859:Japan
8379:Uncle
8324:Child
7772:Italy
7637:India
7627:China
6918:&
6608:Ovary
6551:tract
6230:JSTOR
6111:S2CID
5681:(PDF)
5674:(PDF)
5279:2 May
5073:JSTOR
5038:JSTOR
4999:(PDF)
4908:S2CID
4826:S2CID
4779:S2CID
4631:S2CID
4594:S2CID
4517:JSTOR
4495:(PDF)
4406:S2CID
4221:JSTOR
4147:JSTOR
4112:JSTOR
4077:JSTOR
3869:S2CID
3815:S2CID
3618:Press
3379:(PDF)
3368:(PDF)
3337:S2CID
3315:(PDF)
3098:(PDF)
3083:(PDF)
3066:(PDF)
3051:(PDF)
3018:JSTOR
2979:S2CID
2868:(PDF)
2861:(PDF)
2327:JSTOR
1592:Egypt
1588:hijab
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