Coral bleaching - Knowledge

1483:, and relocation. The population of corals is rapidly declining, so scientists are doing experiments in coral growth and research tanks to help replenish their population. These research tanks mimic the coral reefs natural environment in the ocean. They are growing corals in these tanks to use for their experiments, so no more corals are being harmed or taken from the ocean. They are also transplanting the successfully grown corals from the research tanks and putting them into the areas of the ocean where the reefs are dying out. An experiment is being done in some coral growth and research tanks by Ruth Gates and Madelaine Van Oppen. They are trying to make "super corals" that can withstand some of the environmental factors that the corals are currently dying from. Van Oppen is also working on developing a type of algae that will have a symbiotic relationship with corals and can withstand water temperature fluctuations for long periods of time. This project may be helping to replenish our reefs, but the growing process of corals in research tanks is very time-consuming. It can take at least 10 years for the corals to fully grow and mature enough to where they will be able to breed. Following Ruth Gates' death in October 2018, her team at the Gates Coral Lab at the Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology continues her research on restoration efforts. Continuing research and restoration efforts at the Gates Coral Lab focuses on the effects of beneficial mutations, genetic variation, and relocation via human assistance on the resilience of coral reefs. As of 2019, the Gates Coral Lab team determined that large-scale restoration techniques would not be effective; localized efforts to restore coral reefs on an individual basis are tested to be more realistic and effective while research is conducted to determine the best ways to combat coral destruction on a mass scale. 1274:

there was a massive bleaching event that affected the reefs in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, though the southern reefs were more resilient and it affected them very little. Previously, it was thought that the northern reef suffers more from coral bleaching and shows a fast turnover of coral, while the southern reef was thought to not suffer from bleaching as harshly and show more consistency. However, new research shows that where the southern reef should be bigger and healthier than the northern, it was not. This is believed to be because of major disturbances in recent history from bleaching events, and coral-eating starfish. In 2010, coral bleaching occurred in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, where the temperature rose 10 to 11 degrees. Certain taxa experienced 80% to 100% of their colonies bleaching, while some showed on average 20% of that taxa bleaching.

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shoreline protection, biotic services within and between ecosystems, biogeochemical services such as maintaining nitrogen levels in the ocean, climate records, and recreational and commercial (tourism) services. Coral reefs are one of the best marine ecosystems to use to as a food source. The coral reefs are also the perfect habitat for rare and economically important species of tropical fish, as they provide the perfect area for fish to breed and create nurseries in. If the populations of the fish and corals in the reef are high, then we can use the area as a place to gather food and things with medicinal properties, which also helps create jobs for people who can collect these specimens. The reefs also have some cultural importance in specific regions around the world.

1024:), a chemical that becomes toxic to coral when exposed to sunlight. Up to one-tenth of the approximated 14,000 tons of sunscreen polluting coral reef areas contains oxybenzone, putting almost half of all coral reefs in danger of being exposed. Coral reefs show increased rates of bleaching in both controlled and natural environments when exposed to high levels of oxybenzone, found in many commercial sunscreen products. Another study showed that over time, the presence of oxybenzone in water will decrease a reef's strength to face other bleaching events such as increasing water temperatures. SB-2571 banned all sunscreen products with the exception of prescription products. Hawaii is the first U.S. state to introduce this type of ban, which went into effect in January 2021. 1492: 952:. A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans. These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef. The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas. In late November 2016, surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused a 29% loss of shallow water coral. The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-shelf reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay. The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2 °C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely to regularly experience 1433:. notes that while species richness, diversity, and abundance did not change, fish assemblages contained more generalist species and less coral dependent species. Responses to coral bleaching are diverse between reef fish species, based on what resources are affected. Rising sea temperature and coral bleaching do not directly impact adult fish mortality, but there are many indirect consequences of both. Coral-associated fish populations tend to be in decline due to habitat loss; however, some herbivorous fish populations have seen a drastic increase due to the increase of algae colonization on dead coral. Studies note that better methods are needed to measure the effects of disturbance on the resilience of corals. 38: 634: 1283: 138: 714:. Currently, 190 reef sites around the globe are monitored by the NOAA, and send alerts to research scientists and reef managers via the NOAA Coral Reef Watch (CRW) website. By monitoring the warming of sea temperatures, the early warnings of coral bleaching alert reef managers to prepare for and draw awareness to future bleaching events. The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010, which was when the El Niño caused the ocean temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions. The 2014–2017 El Niño was recorded to be the longest and most damaging to the corals, which harmed over 70% of our coral reefs. Over two-thirds of the 675:, one of which is being a natural fishery, as many frequently consumed commercial fish spawn or live out their juvenile lives in coral reefs around the tropics. Thus, reefs are a popular fishing site and are an important source of income for fishers, especially small, local fisheries. As coral reef habitat decreases due to bleaching, reef associated fish populations also decrease, which affects fishing opportunities. A model from one study by Speers et al. calculated direct losses to fisheries from decreased coral cover to be around $ 49–69 billion, if human societies continue to emit high levels of greenhouse gases. But, these losses could be reduced for a 1413:, where previously flourishing coral reefs are taken over by thick layers of macroalgae. This inhibits further coral growth because the algae produces antifouling compounds to deter settlement and competes with corals for space and light. As a result, macroalgae forms stable communities that make it difficult for corals to grow again. Reefs will then be more susceptible to other issues, such as declining water quality and removal of herbivore fish, because coral growth is weaker. Discovering what causes reefs to be resilient or recover from bleaching events is of primary importance because it helps inform conservation efforts and protect coral more effectively. 159: 1332:, leading to up to a 50% loss in the concentration of symbionts over a short period of time. Under conditions of high temperature or increased light exposure, the coral will exhibit a stress response that includes producing reactive oxygen species, the accumulation of this if not removed by antioxidant systems will lead to the death of the coral. Studies testing the structures of coral under heat stressed environments show that the thickness of the coral itself greatly decreases under heat stress compared to the control. With the death of the 777: 1317:. Production of these pigments by shallow-water corals is stimulated by blue light. When corals bleach, blue light inside the coral tissue increases greatly because it is no longer being absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments found inside the symbiotic algae, and is instead reflected by the white coral skeleton. This causes an increase in the production of the sun-screening pigments, making the bleached corals appear very colourful instead of white – a phenomenon sometimes called 'colourful coral bleaching'. 622: 1417:

equip the algae to live among the bleached corals. As Emma Camp, a National Geographic Explorer, marine bio-geochemist and an ambassador for Biodiversity for the charity IBEX Earth, suggests, the super-corals could have the capability to help with the damaged reefs long-term. While it can take 10 to 15 years to restore damaged and bleached coral reefs, the super-corals could have lasting impacts despite climate change as the oceans rise in temperature and gain more acidity. Bolstered by the research of

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zooxanthellae. This leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached". Under mild stress conditions, some corals may appear bright blue, pink, purple, or yellow instead of white, due to the continued or increased presence of the coral cells' intrinsic pigment molecules, a phenomenon known as "colourful bleaching". As the zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy needs through products of photosynthesis, after expelling, the coral may begin to starve.

259: 811:, and other essential inorganic compounds that help them to survive and thrive. Zooxanthellae share 95% of the products of photosynthesis with their host coral. According to a study done by D.J. Smith et al., photoinhibition is a likely factor in coral bleaching. It also suggests that the hydrogen peroxide produced in zooxanthealle plays a role in signaling themselves to flee the corals. Photo-inhibition of Zooxanthellae can be caused by exposure to 907: 407: 737: 250:. Under the increased carbon dioxide concentration expected in the 21st century, corals are expected to become increasingly rare on reef systems. Coral reefs located in warm, shallow water with low water flow have been more affected than reefs located in areas with higher water flow.Marine heatwaves caused by the El Nino Southern Oscillation have been found to be one of the main causes of widespread coral bleaching and consequent coral mortality. 267: 948:

of reefs bleached to some extent, and 18% strongly bleached. However, coral losses on the reef between 1995 and 2009 were largely offset by growth of new corals. An overall analysis of coral loss found that coral populations on the Great Barrier Reef had declined by 50.7% from 1985 to 2012, but with only about 10% of that decline attributable to bleaching, and the remaining 90% caused about equally by tropical cyclones and by predation by

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future growth, grazing species remove algae. The presence of each type of species can influence the ability for normal levels of coral recruitment which is an important part of coral recovery. Lowered numbers of grazing species after coral bleaching in the Caribbean has been likened to sea-urchin-dominated systems which do not undergo regime shifts to fleshy macroalgae dominated conditions.

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factors influencing the probability of recovery, the study identified five major factors: density of juvenile corals, initial structural complexity, water depth, biomass of herbivorous fishes, and nutrient conditions on the reef. Overall, resilience was seen most in coral reef systems that were structurally complex and in deeper water.

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the Dominican Republic which relies heavily on its coral reefs to attract tourists resulting in increased structural damage, over fishing, nutrient pollution, and an increase in diseases to the coral reefs. As a result, the Dominican Republic has implemented a sustainable management plan for its land and marine areas to regulate

819:(BP-3) had the most negative effects on zooxanthellae health. The combination of temperature increase and presence of UV filters in the ocean has further decreased zooxanthellae health. The combination of UV filters and higher temperatures led to an additive effect on photo-inhibition and overall stress on coral species. 1531:

There are a number of stressors locally impacting coral bleaching, including sedimentation, continual support of urban development, land change, increased tourism, untreated sewage, and pollution. To illustrate, increased tourism is good for a country, however, it also comes with costs. An example is

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The ecological roles and functional groups of species also play a role in the recovery of regime shifting potential in reef systems. Coral reefs are affected by bioeroding, scraping, and grazing fish species. Bioeroding species remove dead corals, scraping species remove algae and sediment to further

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A primary subject of research regarding coral recovery pertains to the idea of super-corals, otherwise referred to as the corals that live and thrive in naturally warmer and more acidic regions and bodies of water. When transplanted to endangered or bleached reefs, their resilience and irradiance can

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in the Indian Ocean. Normal zooxanthellae cannot withstand temperatures as high as was there, so this finding was unexpected. This gives researchers hope that with rising temperatures due to global warming, coral reefs will develop tolerance for different species of symbiotic algae that are resistant

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does not bleach despite summer water temperatures up to 34 °C (93 °F). Coral bleaching in the Red Sea is more common in the northern section of the reefs; the southern part of the reef has been plagued by coral-eating starfish, dynamite fishing and human impacts on the environment. In 1988,

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along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016, 2017 and 2022. Some locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality. The most widespread and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54%, respectively,

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killed 29 to 50 percent of the reef's coral. In 2017, the bleaching extended into the central region of the reef. The average interval between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016. The world's most bleaching-tolerant corals can be found in the southern Persian/Arabian Gulf. Some of these

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caused by anthropogenic activities. A temperature about 1 °C (or 2 °F) above average can cause bleaching.The ocean takes in a large portion of the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced by human activity. Although this uptake helps regulate global warming, it is also changing the chemistry

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Santoro, Erika P.; Borges, Ricardo M.; Espinoza, Josh L.; Freire, Marcelo; Messias, Camila S. M. A.; Villela, Helena D. M.; Pereira, Leandro M.; Vilela, Caren L. S.; Rosado, João G.; Cardoso, Pedro M.; Rosado, Phillipe M.; Assis, Juliana M.; Duarte, Gustavo A. S.; Perna, Gabriela; Rosado, Alexandre

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There is always the possibility of unobservable changes, or cryptic losses or resilience, in a coral community's ability to perform ecological processes. These cryptic losses can result in unforeseen regime changes or ecological flips. More detailed methods for determining the health of coral reefs

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in the Indo-Pacific in order to document the long-term effects of coral bleaching. After the loss of more than 90% of corals due to bleaching in 1998 around 50% of the reefs recovered and roughly 40% of the reefs experienced regime shifts to macroalgae dominated compositions. After an assessment of

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This schematic shows how bleaching can trigger the production of sun-screening pigments that are responsible for the bright colours observed during some bleaching events. In case of a mild or short episode of stress, the protective pigments may help the algal symbionts return to the coral after the

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Coral reef ecosystems are a notable feature of the western shoreline of the Gulf of Thailand. In 1998 and 2010, there were bleaching events in Thailand; the effects of both occurrences varied among coral species, with some exhibiting more resilience to the 2010 bleaching. In contrast to 1998, there

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of the rise of sea temperatures. It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity, as well as it weakening corals, eventually leading to their mortality. This system detected the worldwide 1998 bleaching

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Coral reefs also act as a protective barrier for coastlines by reducing wave impact, which lowers the damage from storms, erosions, and flooding. Countries that lose this natural protection will lose more money because of the increased susceptibility of storms. This indirect cost, combined with the

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benefit of about $ 14–20 billion, if societies chose to emit a lower level of greenhouse gases instead. These economic losses also have important political implications, as they fall disproportionately on developing countries where the reefs are located, namely in Southeast Asia and around the

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experienced its first major bleaching event in 1998. Since then, bleaching events have increased in frequency, with three events occurring in the years 2016–2020. Bleaching is predicted to occur three times a decade on the Great Barrier Reef if warming is kept to 1.5 °C, increasing every other

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found 47% of the corals suffering from coral bleaching and close to 10% of the corals dying. In 2014 and 2015, 56% of the coral reefs of the big island were affected by coral bleaching events. During the same period, 44% of the corals on west Maui were effected. On 24 January 2019, scientists with

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density, making it easier for young coral organisms to grow and increase in population/strength. From this study, a 62% increase in coral populations was recorded due to the protection of an MPA. Higher populations of young coral increase the longevity of a reef, as well as its ability to recover

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invasions. Fish species tend to fare better following reef disturbance than coral species as corals show limited recovery and reef fish assemblages have shown little change as a result of short-term disturbances. In contrast, fish assemblages in reefs that experience bleaching exhibit potentially

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Hard coral cover on reefs in the Caribbean have declined by an estimated 80%, from an average of 50% cover in the 1970s to only about 10% cover in the early 2000s. A 2013 study to follow up on a mass bleaching event in Tobago from 2010 showed that after only one year, the majority of the dominant

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relationship with zooxanthellae. This relationship is crucial for the health of the coral and the reef, which provide shelter for approximately 25% of all marine life. In this relationship, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with shelter. In return, the zooxanthellae provide compounds that give

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Bleached corals continue to live, but they are more vulnerable to disease and starvation. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy, so corals are deprived of nutrients when zooxanthellae are expelled. Some corals recover if conditions return to normal, and some corals can feed

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due to their ability to outcompete the zooxanthella since they need less resources to survive. There is little evidence of competition between zooxanthellae and algae, but in the absence of zooxanthellae the algae thrives on the coral structures. Once algae takes over and the coral can no longer

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due to rises in carbon dioxide levels exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress. Acidification affects the corals' ability to create calcareous skeletons, essential to their survival. This is because ocean acidification decreases the amount of carbonate ion in the water, making it more

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Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress-resistance which reduces bleaching, tolerance to the absence of zooxanthellae, and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead. Due to the patchy nature of bleaching, local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of

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Coral can survive short-term disturbances, but if the conditions that lead to the expulsion of the zooxanthellae persist, the coral's chances of survival diminish. In order to recover from bleaching, the zooxanthellae have to re-enter the tissues of the coral polyps and restart photosynthesis to

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provide shelter to an estimated quarter of all ocean species. Experts estimate that coral reef services are worth up to $ 1.2 million per hectare which translates to an average of $ 172 billion per year. The benefits of coral reefs include providing physical structures such as coastal

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during the massive 1997–98 bleaching event. The Indian Ocean in 1998 reported 20% of its coral had died and 80% was bleached. The shallow tropical areas of the Indian Ocean are already experiencing what are predicted to be worldwide ocean conditions in the future. Coral that has survived in the

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During the summer of 2003, coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to the pathogen, and further infection was not observed. The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals. The bacterial

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trained to withstand the high temperatures. Researchers are now asking a new question: can we condition corals, that are not from this area, in this manner and slowly introduce them to higher temperatures for short periods of time and make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures.

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also found corals around the Samoan Islands that experience a drastic temperature increase for about four hours a day during low tide. The corals do not bleach or die regardless of the high heat increase. Studies showed that the corals off the coast of Ofu Island near America Samoa have become

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Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events. Sixty major episodes of coral bleaching have occurred between 1979 and 1990, with the associated coral mortality affecting reefs in every part of the world. In 2016, the longest coral bleaching event was recorded. The

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Coral restoration is a common strategy used to combat the problems brought on by global warming; however, while ecological factors are primarily taken into account, efforts need also be made to address social, economic, and governance factors.The rapid growth in advocacy and implementation of

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In recent times, climate change has been linked to a notable increase in coral mortality. Moreover, mounting evidence suggests that bacteria associated with corals contribute to their ability to withstand thermal stress. Attempts have been undertaken to enhance coral resilience in the face of

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rises 1 °C or more above the long-term monthly average. The "hot spots" are the locations in which thermal stress is measured, and with the development of Degree Heating Week (DHW), the coral reef's thermal stress is monitored. Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the

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Coral bleaching events and the subsequent loss of coral coverage often result in the decline of fish diversity. The loss of diversity and abundance in herbivorous fish particularly affect coral reef ecosystems. As mass bleaching events occur more frequently, fish populations will continue to

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needed for photosynthesis. Negative environmental conditions, such as abnormally warm or cool temperatures, high light, and even some microbial diseases, can lead to the breakdown of the coral/zooxanthellae symbiosis. To ensure short-term survival, the coral-polyp then consumes or expels the

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homogenize. Smaller and more specialized fish species that fill particular ecological niches that are crucial for coral health are replaced by more generalized species. The loss of specialization likely contributes to the loss of resilience in coral reef ecosystems after bleaching events.

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Kopecky, Kai L.; Pavoni, Gaia; Nocerino, Erica; Brooks, Andrew J.; Corsini, Massimiliano; Menna, Fabio; Gallagher, Jordan P.; Capra, Alessandro; Castagnetti, Cristina; Rossi, Paolo; Gruen, Armin; Neyer, Fabian; Muntoni, Alessandro; Ponchio, Federico; Cignoni, Paolo (August 2023).

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Downs CA, Kramarsky-Winter E, Fauth JE, Segal R, Bronstein O, Jeger R, Lichtenfeld Y, Woodley CM, Pennington P, Kushmaro A, Loya Y (March 2014). "Toxicological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, benzophenone-2, on planulae and in vitro cells of the coral, Stylophora pistillata".

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brought in stormy weather on 27 October but only reduced temperatures by 1 degree or less. During this time period, mass bleaching in the fore-reef and lagoon occurred. While some fore reef colonies suffered some damage, coral mortality in the lagoon was catastrophic.

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The Paris Agreement has offered reasons for hope by pledging nations worldwide to maintain the rise in global average temperatures significantly below 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels, with concerted endeavors aimed at capping the increase at 1.5°C. In 2010, the

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loss by 80 percent and has a capital cost of $ 1.036 billion with recurring costs of $ 130 million. CBD acknowledges that they may be underestimating the costs and resources needed to achieve this target due to lack of relevant data but nonetheless, the

1243:. On 22 and 23 October, surveys were conducted at two sites and the findings were devastating. Virtually all the living coral was bleached white and their skeletons indicated that they had died recently. At the lagoon floor, complete bleaching was evident among 570:

According to Clive Wilkinson of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of Townsville, Australia, in 1998 the mass bleaching event that occurred in the Indian Ocean region was due to the rising of sea temperatures by 2 °C coupled with the strong El Niño event

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exhibited greater tolerance. Moreover, it was noted that larger coral colonies experienced more bleaching compared to smaller ones. The prediction suggests that mass bleaching events are likely to affect larger coral colonies even within the same community.

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shows that the benefits outweigh the costs by a great enough amount for both programs (benefit cost ratio of 95.3 and 98.5) that "there is ample scope to increase outlays on coral protection and still achieve a benefit to cost ratio that is well over one".

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in the heat stressed events, the coral must find new sources to gather fixed carbon to generate energy, species of coral that can increase their carnivorous tendencies have been found to have an increased likelihood of recovering from bleaching events.

807:. These organisms are phytoplankton and therefore photosynthesize. The host organism harnesses the products of photosynthesis, i.e. oxygen, sugar, etc., and in exchange, the zooxanthellae are offered housing and protection, as well as carbon dioxide, 7724:

Leggat, William P.; Camp, Emma F.; Suggett, David J.; Heron, Scott F.; Fordyce, Alexander J.; Gardner, Stephanie; Deakin, Lachlan; Turner, Michael; Beeching, Levi J.; Kuzhiumparambil, Unnikrishnan; Eakin, C. Mark; Ainsworth, Tracy D. (August 2019).

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of the ocean in ways never seen before. Ocean acidification (OA) is the decline in seawater pH caused by absorption of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This decrease in seawater pH has a significant effect on marine ecosystems.

517:(PAR) had a detrimental impact on its reproductive physiology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the survival of reef-building corals in their natural habitat, as coral reproduction is being hindered by the effects of climate change. 1557:

intervention measures, such coral restoration, are a result of the intensifying effects of climate change and human pressure on coral reefs. The goal is to preserve the remaining reefs and the functions that they provide to the reef ecosystem.

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Following bleaching events, there has been a rise in the global disease outbreak among coral populations. This is due to the weakened state of the corals that makes them susceptible to infection caused by disease-carrying pathogens. Infectious

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Certain mild bleaching events can cause coral to produce high concentrations of sun-screening pigments in order to shield themselves from further stress. Some of the pigments produced have pink, blue or purple hues, while others are strongly

169:, changes to the frequency and intensity of tropical storms, and altered ocean circulation patterns. When combined, all of these impacts dramatically alter ecosystem function, as well as the goods and services coral reef ecosystems provide. 656:, "If the reefs vanished, experts say, hunger, poverty and political instability could ensue." Since countless sea life depend on the reefs for shelter and protection from predators, the extinction of the reefs would ultimately create a 566:

Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian), also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures. It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth's history.

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Gischler, Eberhard; Storz, David; Schmitt, Dominik (April 2014). "Sizes, shapes, and patterns of coral reefs in the Maldives, Indian Ocean: the influence of wind, storms, and precipitation on a major tropical carbonate platform".

2032: 684:. A study completed by Chen et al. suggested that the commercial value of reefs decreases by almost 4% every time coral cover decreases by 1% because of losses in ecotourism and other potential outdoor recreational activities. 503:

noted in 2017, "In the past three years, 25 reefs—which comprise three-fourths of the world's reef systems—experienced severe bleaching events in what scientists concluded was the worst-ever sequence of bleachings to date."

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Ateweberhan M, Feary DA, Keshavmurthy S, Chen A, Schleyer MH, Sheppard CR (September 2013). "Climate change impacts on coral reefs: synergies with local effects, possibilities for acclimation, and management implications".

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ions in the ocean, a necessary ion corals use to build their skeletons. Corals go through processes of decalcifying and calcifying during different times of the day and year due to temperature fluctuations. Under current

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energy to the coral through photosynthesis. This relationship has allowed coral to survive for at least 210 million years in nutrient-poor environments. Coral bleaching is caused by the breakdown of this relationship.

6811: 3111:, Smith G (1989). "The effect of sudden changes in temperature, light and salinity on the population density and export of zooxanthellae from the reef corals Stylophora pistillata Esper and Seriatopora hystrix Dana". 1166:. On Saktu Island, the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.3%. In the Melinjo Islands, the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.2%. 4267:

Iguchi A, Ozaki S, Nakamura T, Inoue M, Tanaka Y, Suzuki A, Kawahata H, Sakai K (February 2012). "Effects of acidified seawater on coral calcification and symbiotic algae on the massive coral Porites australiensis".

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difficult for corals to absorb the calcium carbonate they need for the skeleton. As a result, the resilience of reefs goes down, while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve. In addition, the increase in CO

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Indian Ocean. It would cost more for countries in these areas to respond to coral reef loss as they would need to turn to different sources of income and food, in addition to losing other ecosystem services such as

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bleached during a significant coral bleaching event that occurred in 2016. Prior to this event, the region typically experienced multiple typhoons during July and August. However, during this particular event, no

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McClanahan TR, Ateweberhan M, Sebastián CR, Graham NJ, Wilson SK, Bruggemann JH, Guillaume MM (1 September 2007). "Predictability of coral bleaching from synoptic satellite and in situ temperature observations".

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After corals experience a bleaching event to increased temperature stress some reefs are able to return to their original, pre-bleaching state. Reefs either recover from bleaching, where they are recolonized by

94:. This is toxic to the coral, so the coral expels the zooxanthellae. Since the zooxanthellae produce the majority of coral colouration, the coral tissue becomes transparent, revealing the coral skeleton made of 69:

become white due to loss of symbiotic algae and photosynthetic pigments. This loss of pigment can be caused by various stressors, such as changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. Bleaching occurs when coral

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bleaching incidents. Since corals serve as the fundamental components of coral reefs, their decline significantly affects the endurance and composition of reefs directly affecting the reef-dwelling organisms.

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at all depths. Similar patterns occurred in other coral species as well. Measurements on water turbidity suggest that these mortalities were attributed to rising water temperatures rather than solar radiation.

1001:(NOAA) released the first-ever nationwide coral reef status report. The report stated that the northwestern and main Hawaiian islands were in "fair" shape, meaning the corals have been moderately impacted. 6504:"Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands" 6501:

Downs, C. A.; Kramarsky-Winter, Esti; Segal, Roee; Fauth, John; Knutson, Sean; Bronstein, Omri; Ciner, Frederic R.; Jeger, Rina; Lichtenfeld, Yona; Woodley, Cheryl M.; Pennington, Paul (1 February 2016).

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species declined by about 62% while coral abundance declined by about 50%. However, between 2011 and 2013, coral cover increased for 10 of the 26 dominant species but declined for 5 other populations.

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Ainsworth TD, CL Hurd, RD Gates, PW Boyd (2019) How do we overcome abrupt degradation of marine ecosystems and meet the challenge of heatwaves and climate extremes? Global Change Biology 26: 343-354

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Barkley, Hannah C.; Cohen, Anne L.; Mollica, Nathaniel R.; Brainard, Russell E.; Rivera, Hanny E.; DeCarlo, Thomas M.; Lohmann, George P.; Drenkard, Elizabeth J.; Alpert, Alice E. (8 November 2018).

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Final Report: 2016 Coral Bleaching Event on Great Barrier Reef . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Townsville, 2017, pp. 24–24, Final Report: 2016 Coral Bleaching Event on Great Barrier Reef .

1565:'s (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 created twenty distinct targets for sustainable development for post-2015. Target 10 indicates the goal of minimizing "anthropogenic pressures on 459:

in 2022 found that: "Since the early 1980s, the frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events have increased sharply worldwide". Coral reefs, as well as other shelf-sea ecosystems, such as

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corals were dominant coral species of Indonesian reef system however they are extremely vulnerable to external stressors. A study was conducted to study effect of mass bleaching event in 2010 on

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Berkelmans R, De'ath G, Kininmonth S, Skirving WJ (2004). "A comparison of the 1998 and 2002 coral bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef: spatial correlation, patterns, and predictions".

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Zapalski MK, Nowicki J, Jakubowicz M, Berkowski B (2017). "Tabulate corals across the Frasnian/Famennian boundary: architectural turnover and its possible relation to ancient photosymbiosis".

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McWhorter, Jennifer K.; Halloran, Paul R.; Roff, George; Skirving, William J.; Perry, Chris T.; Mumby, Peter J. (February 2022). "The importance of 1.5°C warming for the Great Barrier Reef".

1510:, MPAs currently occupy 26% of U.S. waters. MPAs have been documented to improve and prevent the effects of coral bleaching in the United States. In 2018, research by coral scientists in the 219:

sustain the coral as a whole and the ecosystem that depends on it. If the coral polyps die of starvation after bleaching, they will decay. The hard coral species will then leave behind their

9185: 9098: 1569:". Two programs were looked at, one that reduces coral reef loss by 50% that has a capital cost of $ 684 million and a recurrent cost of $ 81 million. The other program reduces 1087:

shallow areas of the Indian Ocean may be proper candidates for coral restoration efforts in other areas of the world because they are able to survive the extreme conditions of the ocean.

6438:

Donovan, Caroline; Towle, Erica K.; Kelsey, Heath; Allen, Mary; Barkley, Hannah; Besemer, Nicole; Blondeau, Jeremiah; Eakin, Mark; Edwards, Kimberly; Enochs, Ian; Fleming, Chloe (2020).

246:

Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors. While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large-scale coral bleaching events of recent years have been triggered by

2024: 141:

Coral bleaching in ecosystems is a complex dynamic. Coral is able to slowly recover after experiencing bleaching, however, it is a slow process which typically results in re-bleaching.

5119:

Maynard JA, Johnson JE, Marshall PA, Eakin CM, Goby G, Schuttenberg H, Spillman CM (July 2009). "A strategic framework for responding to coral bleaching events in a changing climate".

1058:

was detected until September, suggesting a prolonged period of high seawater temperatures.According to the 2017 Japanese government report, almost 75% of Japan's largest coral reef in

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Speers AE, Besedin EY, Palardy JE, Moore C (1 August 2016). "Impacts of climate change and ocean acidification on coral reef fisheries: An integrated ecological–economic model".

964:

In 1996, Hawaii's first major coral bleaching occurred in Kaneohe Bay, followed by major bleaching events in the Northwest islands in 2002 and 2004. In 2014, biologists from the

4873:

Wolff NH, Donner SD, Cao L, Iglesias-Prieto R, Sale PF, Mumby PJ (November 2015). "Global inequities between polluters and the polluted: climate change impacts on coral reefs".

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Cooley, S., D. Schoeman, L. Bopp, P. Boyd, S. Donner, D.Y. Ghebrehiwet, S.-I. Ito, W. Kiessling, P. Martinetto, E. Ojea, M.-F. Racault, B. Rost, and M. Skern-Mauritzen, 2022:

8795:

Baker AC, Glynn PW, Riegl B (10 December 2008). "Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook".

6803: 5926:

Climate Change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3732:

Climate Change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3685:

Climate Change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

1381:. Three of the strains increased the corals' bleaching tolerance after reintroduction into coral host larvae. Their strains and findings may potentially be relevant for the 9400: 3664:

Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

262:

A colourful bleaching event photographed in Palawan, Philippines, in 2010. The colours derive from high concentrations of sun-screening pigments produced by the coral host.

7817:

LaJeunesse TC, Smith R, Walther M, Pinzón J, Pettay DT, McGinley M, Aschaffenburg M, Medina-Rosas P, Cupul-Magaña AL, Pérez AL, Reyes-Bonilla H, Warner ME (October 2010).

6565:

Wijgerde, Tim; van Ballegooijen, Mike; Nijland, Reindert; van der Loos, Luna; Kwadijk, Christiaan; Osinga, Ronald; Murk, Albertinka; Slijkerman, Diana (1 September 2020).

5638:

Wijgerde, Tim; van Ballegooijen, Mike; Nijland, Reindert; van der Loos, Luna; Kwadijk, Christiaan; Osinga, Ronald; Murk, Albertinka; Slijkerman, Diana (20 December 2019).

3846: 2132:"Local bleaching thresholds established by remote sensing techniques vary among reefs with deviating bleaching patterns during the 2012 event in the Arabian/Persian Gulf" 1099:

has over 20,000 km of reefs, of which more than 60% of the coral has suffered from bleaching in 2016.Moreover, the Maldivian coral reef faces risks from the growing

6299: 3538: 2676:

Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ, Steneck RS, Greenfield P, Gomez E, et al. (December 2007). "Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification".

6012: 5562:"The toxicological effects of oxybenzone, an active ingredient in suncream personal care products, on prokaryotic alga Arthrospira sp. and eukaryotic alga Chlorella sp" 2130:

Shuail, Dawood; Wiedenmann, Jörg; D'Angelo, Cecilia; Baird, Andrew H.; Pratchett, Morgan S.; Riegl, Bernhard; Burt, John A.; Petrov, Peter; Amos, Carl (30 April 2016).

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Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures, most severely in the Indian Ocean. Up to 90% of coral cover has been lost in the Maldives,

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that take into account long-term changes to the coral ecosystems and better-informed conservation policies are necessary to protect coral reefs in the years to come.

3228:"Effects of cyanide on coral photosynthesis:implications for identifying the cause of coral bleaching and for assessing the environmental effects of cyanide fishing" 2983:

Marimuthu N, Jerald Wilson J, Vinithkumar NV, Kirubagaran R (9 November 2012). "Coral reef recovery status in south Andaman Islands after the bleaching event 2010".

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Research is being done to help slow down the mortality rate of corals. Worldwide projects are being completed to help replenish and restore the coral reefs. Current

1968: 3925:

Baker AC, Glynn PW, Riegl B (2008). "Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook".

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that would trickle down to the many human societies that depend on those fish for food and livelihood. There has been a 44% decline over the last 20 years in the

6237:

Climate change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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concluded that areas of the ocean managed/protected by government had improved conditions that coral reefs were able to flourish in. MPAs defend ecosystems from

1139:. Post bleaching recovery is influenced by severity and frequency of the bleaching event. Research indicates that frequent moderate disturbances tend to affect 154:

Coral and microscopic algae have a symbiotic relationship. When water temperatures get too high, the algae leave the coral tissue and the coral begins to starve.

4578: 2779:"Reef on the edge: resilience failure of marginal patch coral reefs in Eastern Arabian Sea under recurrent coral bleaching, coral diseases, and local stressors" 2737:

Baker A, Glynn P, Riegl B (2008). "Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook".

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Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, Scheffer M, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling C (2004). "Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management".

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Graham NA, Jennings S, MacNeil MA, Mouillot D, Wilson SK (February 2015). "Predicting climate-driven regime shifts versus rebound potential in coral reefs".

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Hume, Benjamin C. C.; Voolstra, Christian R.; Arif, Chatchanit; D’Angelo, Cecilia; Burt, John A.; Eyal, Gal; Loya, Yossi; Wiedenmann, Jörg (19 April 2016).

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emission pathway scenarios, corals tend to disintegrate, and the winter months with cooler temperatures will not serve ample time for the corals to reform.

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Drury C. (2020) Resilience in Reef-Building Corals: The ecological and evolutionary importance of the host response to thermal stress. Molecular Ecology

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D’Angelo, Cecilia; Denzel, Andrea; Vogt, Alexander; Matz, Mikhail V.; Oswald, Franz; Salih, Anya; Nienhaus, G. Ulrich; Wiedenmann, Jörg (29 July 2008).

7253: 5091:"Methodology, Product Description, and Data Availability of Coral Reef Watch Operational and Experimental Satellite Coral Bleaching Monitoring Products" 2105: 563:

are far more susceptible to stress following a temperature change. Corals consistently exposed to low-stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching.

5973: 5479: 3560:

Wiedenmann, Jörg; D'Angelo, Cecilia; Smith, Edward G.; Hunt, Alan N.; Legiret, François-Eric; Postle, Anthony D.; Achterberg, Eric P. (February 2013).

5094: 5041: 4049: 7875: 5613: 2045:

When coral experiences abnormal conditions, it releases an algae called zooxanthellae. The loss of the colorful algae causes the coral to turn white.

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Van Oppen, M. J., & Gates, R. D. (2006). Conservation genetics and the resilience of reef‐building corals. Molecular Ecology, 15(13), 3863-3883.

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Buerger, P.; Alvarez-Roa, C.; Coppin, C. W.; Pearce, S. L.; Chakravarti, L. J.; Oakeshott, J. G.; Edwards, O. R.; Oppen, M. J. H. van (1 May 2020).

5918: 4708: 721:

To accurately monitoring the extent and evolution of bleaching events, scientist are using underwater photogrammetric techniques to create accurate

7277:"Suppressed recovery of functionally important branching Acropora drives coral community composition changes following mass bleaching in Indonesia" 6273: 5242: 3745: 9177: 7401: 7355:"The effect of species and colony size on the bleaching response of reef-building corals in the Florida Keys during the 2005 mass bleaching event" 5538: 1691: 629:

showing that the warmest water (top picture) coincides with the coral reefs (lower picture), setting up conditions that can cause coral bleaching.

9856: 5326:

Manzello DP, Eakin CM, Glynn PW (2017). "Effects of Global Warming and Ocean Acidification on Carbonate Budgets of Eastern Pacific Coral Reefs".

2911: 1507: 1506:(MPAs) are sectioned-off areas of the ocean designated for protection from human activities such as fishing and un-managed tourism. According to 1163: 998: 986: 938: 697: 579: 117:, between 2014 and 2016, the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In 2016, bleaching of coral on the 9106: 9130:"The coral conservation crisis: interacting local and global stressors reduce reef resiliency and create challenges for conservation solutions" 8868:

Bellwood DR, Hoey AS, Ackerman JL, Depczynski M (2006). "Coral bleaching, reef fish community phase shifts and the resilience of coral reefs".

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can help coral reefs mitigate heat stress, indicating that such could make them more resilient to climate change and mitigate coral bleaching.

8223:

Mollica, Nathaniel R.; Guo, Weifu; Cohen, Anne L.; Huang, Kuo-Fang; Foster, Gavin L.; Donald, Hannah K.; Solow, Andrew R. (20 February 2018).

6240: 3698: 585:

Preceding this, the second major coral bleaching crisis of this decade began in February 2023, affecting reefs across 54 nations in all major

479:. It is expected that many coral reefs will "undergo irreversible phase shifts due to marine heatwaves with global warming levels >1.5°C". 9722: 9215: 3876:

Bouwmeester, Jessica; Daly, Jonathan; Zuchowicz, Nikolas; Lager, Claire; Henley, E. Michael; Quinn, Mariko; Hagedorn, Mary (5 January 2023).

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Sheridan C, Kramarsky-Winter E, Sweet M, Kushmaro A, Leal MC (2013). "Diseases in coral aquaculture: causes, implications and preventions".

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Zhong, Xin; Downs, Craig A.; Che, Xingkai; Zhang, Zishan; Li, Yiman; Liu, Binbin; Li, Qingming; Li, Yuting; Gao, Huiyuan (1 November 2019).

3306: 9478: 8737: 8502:

S.; Macrae, Andrew; Dupont, Christopher L.; Nelson, Karen E.; Sweet, Michael J.; Voolstra, Christian R.; Peixoto, Raquel S. (August 2021).

7198:

Sutthacheep, Makamas; Yucharoen, Mathinee; Klinthong, Wanlaya; Pengsakun, Sittiporn; Sangmanee, Kanwara; Yeemin, Thamasak (November 2013).

3339: 760:

allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral-dominated ecosystems to algal-dominated ecosystems. A recent study from the

7472:

Buglass S, Donner SD, Alemu I JB (March 2016). "A study on the recovery of Tobago's coral reefs following the 2010 mass bleaching event".

8475: 7151:"Assessing population collapse of Drupella spp. (Mollusca: Gastropoda) 2 years after a coral bleaching event in the Republic of Maldives" 5663: 4145: 6700:"Rapid recovery of coral communities from a mass bleaching event in the summer of 2016, observed in Amitori Bay, Iriomote Island, Japan" 2197:"Ancestral genetic diversity associated with the rapid spread of stress-tolerant coral symbionts in response to Holocene climate change" 8833:

Hughes TP, Graham NA, Jackson JB, Mumby PJ, Steneck RS (November 2010). "Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience".

7049:"Land use and land cover (LULC) of the Republic of the Maldives: first national map and LULC change analysis using remote-sensing data" 2356:

Dove SG, Hoegh-Guldberg O (2006). "Coral bleaching can be caused by distress to the coral. The cell physiology of coral bleaching". In

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Smith JE, Brainard R, Carter A, Grillo S, Edwards C, Harris J, Lewis L, Obura D, Rohwer F, Sala E, Vroom PS, Sandin S (January 2016).

4685: 7819:"Host-symbiont recombination versus natural selection in the response of coral-dinoflagellate symbioses to environmental disturbance" 7616: 7526: 2320: 1355: 483: 9471: 8768: 7010:"Human activities influence benthic community structure and the composition of the coral-algal interactions in the central Maldives" 601:, including $ 36 billion from tourism alone. Although a forthcoming shift to a La Niña phase may offer some relief, regions such as 8990: 4154: 2428: 761: 1225:

was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 °C (88.7 °F) from 10 August to 14 October. For a few days,

9393: 6451: 6386: 5304: 3973: 582:

The share of affected coral reefs worldwide by each of the four bleaching events has been estimated to be 20%, 35%, 56% and 54%.

5020: 3854: 9801: 6416: 6409:"11/5/19 – CORAL BLEACHING NOT AS SEVERE AS PREDICTED BUT STILL WIDESPREAD; Extensive Surveys Show Bleaching Event Now Abating" 6295: 5412: 4779:

Chen PY, Chen CC, Chu L, McCarl B (1 January 2015). "Evaluating the economic damage of climate change on global coral reefs".

4250: 3530: 206:, a crucial factor in the clear and nutrient-poor tropical waters. In exchange, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with the 9953: 9450: 7104:"Spatial variability in distribution and prevalence of skeletal eroding band and brown band disease in Faafu Atoll, Maldives" 6043: 6006: 5933: 4162: 3739: 3692: 2493: 2373: 1421:, Camp has looked into lower oxygen levels and the extreme, unexpected habitats that reefs can be found in across the globe. 202:

that live within their tissues and give the coral its coloration. The zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients through

8293:

Dove, Sophie G.; Kline, David I.; Pantos, Olga; Angly, Florent E.; Tyson, Gene W.; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (17 September 2013).

3609:"Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook" 544:

that occurred from 2014 to 2017. During this time, over 70 percent of the coral reefs around the world have become damaged.

9259:

Hein, Margaux Y.; Birtles, Alastair; Willis, Bette L.; Gardiner, Naomi; Beeden, Roger; Marshall, Nadine A. (January 2019).

6348: 2739: 1450:

Until recently, the factors mediating the recovery of coral reefs from bleaching were not well studied. Research by Graham

230:, effectively blocking coral regrowth. Eventually, the coral skeletons will erode, causing the reef structure to collapse. 114: 7425:"Re-evaluating the health of coral reef communities: baselines and evidence for human impacts across the central Pacific" 5173:"Quantifying the Loss of Coral from a Bleaching Event Using Underwater Photogrammetry and AI-Assisted Image Segmentation" 1913: 1588: 605:

have already experienced complete die-offs in some reefs, where temperatures have risen to 101°F (38.3°C). Moreover, the

514: 438: 291: 3723:

Fischlin A, Midgley GF, Price JT, Leemans R, Gopal B, Turley C, Rounsevell MD, Dube OP, Tarazona J, Velichko AA (2007).

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In 2017, there was a study done on two islands in Indonesia to see how their coral cover was. One of the places was the

609:

is undergoing its fifth extensive bleaching event since 2016, underscoring the persistent and serious risks these vital

448: 10129: 9876: 8504:"Coral microbiome manipulation elicits metabolic and genetic restructuring to mitigate heat stress and evade mortality" 4311:

Bridge, Tom C. L.; Baird, Andrew H.; Pandolfi, John M.; McWilliam, Michael J.; Zapalski, Mikołaj K. (26 January 2022).

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Bollati, Elena; D’Angelo, Cecilia; Alderdice, Rachel; Pratchett, Morgan; Ziegler, Maren; Wiedenmann, Jörg (July 2020).

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Bollati, Elena; D’Angelo, Cecilia; Alderdice, Rachel; Pratchett, Morgan; Ziegler, Maren; Wiedenmann, Jörg (July 2020).

1562: 1349:. Ocean acidification is the process by which carbon dioxide is absorbed into the ocean, this decreases the amounts of 637:

Bleaching observed at the Great Barrier Reef resulting in the deprivation of habitat for numerous other marine species.

7558:"Red Sea coral reef trajectories over 2 decades suggest increasing community homogenization and decline in coral size" 6567:"Adding insult to injury: Effects of chronic oxybenzone exposure and elevated temperature on two reef-building corals" 5640:"Adding insult to injury: Effects of chronic oxybenzone exposure and elevated temperature on two reef-building corals" 4604:

Pratchett, Morgan S.; Hoey, Andrew S.; Wilson, Shaun K.; Messmer, Vanessa; Graham, Nicholas A. J. (1 September 2011).

3267: 9891: 5343: 1424:

Corals have shown to be resilient to short-term disturbances. Recovery has been shown in after storm disturbance and

98:. Most bleached corals appear bright white, but some are blue, yellow, or pink due to pigment proteins in the coral. 7008:

Brown, Kristen T.; Bender-Champ, Dorothea; Bryant, Dominic E.P.; Dove, Sophie; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (December 2017).

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MURAKAMI, Tomokazu; KOHNO, Hiroyoshi; NAKAMURA, Masako; TAMAMURA, Naoya; MIZUTANI, Akira; SHIMOKAWA, Shinya (2017).

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of climate change and further tests of algal strains in adult colonies across a range of coral species are planned.

993:, up to 50% of the coral reefs were bleached. On the big island, roughly 40% of corals experienced bleaching in the 9996: 9836: 9526: 6983:"Maldives coral reefs under stress from climate change: research survey reveals over 60% of corals bleached | IUCN" 6030: 4552: 4479: 548:

cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence. Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching.

7275:

Watt-Pringle, Rowan; Smith, David J.; Ambo-Rappe, Rohani; Lamont, Timothy A. C.; Jompa, Jamaluddin (9 June 2022).

3659: 9927: 5018:

Overview of NOAA coral reef watch program's near-real time satellite global coral bleaching monitoring activities

1299:

discovered corals that were thriving while using an unusual species of symbiotic algae in the warm waters of the

997:

area. The DAR stated that the recent bleaching events have not been as bad as the 2014–2015 events. In 2020, the

597:. The economic implications are profound, as coral reefs contribute approximately $ 2.7 trillion annually to the 180:, the microscopic algae that lives inside coral, gives it colour and provides it with food through photosynthesis 3878:"Solar radiation, temperature and the reproductive biology of the coral Lobactis scutaria in a changing climate" 2834:"Optical Feedback Loop Involving Dinoflagellate Symbiont and Scleractinian Host Drives Colorful Coral Bleaching" 2557:"Optical Feedback Loop Involving Dinoflagellate Symbiont and Scleractinian Host Drives Colorful Coral Bleaching" 1012:

containing chemicals deemed conducive of coral bleaching on the island's local reefs. The bill was signed in by

6321: 5360: 3361:

Danovaro R, Bongiorni L, Corinaldesi C, Giovannelli D, Damiani E, Astolfi P, Greci L, Pusceddu A (April 2008).

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Reshef L, Koren O, Loya Y, Zilber-Rosenberg I, Rosenberg E (December 2006). "The coral probiotic hypothesis".

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changes in water chemistry, particularly an imbalance in the ratio of the macronutrients nitrate and phosphate

137: 9851: 8360: 7245: 2058: 652: 37: 5965: 5443: 1912:

Hughes TP, Kerry JT, Álvarez-Noriega M, Álvarez-Romero JG, Anderson KD, Baird AH, et al. (March 2017).

985:

found that the reefs had begun to stabilize nearly 4 years after the last bleaching event. According to the

9776: 7867: 6698:

Nakamura, Masako; Murakami, Tomokazu; Kohno, Hiroyoshi; Mizutani, Akira; Shimokawa, Shinya (28 July 2022).

5413:"Zooxanthella | Definition of Zooxanthella by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Zooxanthella" 5090: 5037: 4606:"Changes in Biodiversity and Functioning of Reef Fish Assemblages following Coral Bleaching and Coral Loss" 4039: 1386: 1382: 795:

of many marine invertebrates. Members of the phylum Dinoflagellata, they are round microalgae that share a

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Steneck, Robert S.; Mumby, Peter J.; MacDonald, Chancey; Rasher, Douglas B.; Stoyle, George (4 May 2018).

5235:"Major international study warns global warming is destroying coral reefs and calls for 'drastic actions'" 4716: 4195:"Mortality, growth and reproduction in scleractinian corals following bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef" 711: 572: 9881: 9841: 5939: 5234: 5067: 3724: 3179:

Anthony KR, Kerswell AP (2007). "Coral mortality following extreme low tides and high solar radiation".

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Eight severe and two moderate bleaching events occurred between 1960 and 2016 in the coral community in

7393: 6265: 5502: 1714: 8059: 8009: 5503:"Is photoinhibition of zooxanthellae photosynthesis the primary cause of thermal bleaching in corals?" 5444:"Is photoinhibition of zooxanthellae photosynthesis the primary cause of thermal bleaching in corals?" 2907: 2025:"Portion of Great Barrier Reef hit with back-to-back coral bleaching has 'zero prospect for recovery'" 1683: 1446:) is a coral-associated species that has been shown to decline dramatically following coral bleaching. 9968: 9733: 9442: 9436: 9361: 5561: 1575: 1193: 9208:"What are coral reef services worth? $ 130,000 to $ 1.2 million per hectare, per year: experts" 8697: 7791: 6442:(Report). Coral Reef Conservation Program, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. 5886: 2698: 2476:

Lesser, M.P. (2010). "Coral Bleaching: Causes and Mechanisms". In Dubinzk, Z.; Stambler, N. (eds.).

9978: 9831: 9796: 6229: 3677: 1715:"Ocean Acidification. A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean: Book Reviews" 1425: 1210: 969: 965: 949: 589:. This event has led to severe damage, with coral mortalities reaching up to 93% in areas like the 9207: 8058:

Ainsworth, T. D.; Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Heron, S. F.; Skirving, W. J.; Leggat, W. (3 October 2008).

4480:"NOAA confirms 4th global coral bleaching event | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration" 740:

A visual depicting the process of atmospheric carbon dioxide contributing to ocean acidification.

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Hennessy K, Fitzharris B, Bates BC, Harvey N, Howden M, Hughes L, Salinger J, Warrick R (2007).

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found that about 66% of the corals were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue.

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Hughes TP, Anderson KD, Connolly SR, Heron SF, Kerry JT, Lough JM, et al. (January 2018).

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During the 2005 mass bleaching event in Florida, the bleaching patterns varied among species.

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Bellwood DR, Hughes TP, Folke C, Nyström M (June 2004). "Confronting the coral reef crisis".

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Baird, Andrew H.; Bhagooli, Ranjeet; Ralph, Peter J.; Takahashi, Shunichi (1 January 2009).

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Montano, Simone; Giorgi, Aurora; Monti, Matteo; Seveso, Davide; Galli, Paolo (26 May 2016).

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Extreme bleaching events are directly linked with climate-induced phenomena that increase

8: 9986: 9781: 9756: 8760: 8060:"Early cellular changes are indicators of pre-bleaching thermal stress in the coral host" 2269: 1746:"Impact of Ocean Acidification on Marine Organisms—Unifying Principles and New Paradigms" 1346: 1321: 1305: 1239: 1222: 864: 752: 741: 499: 379: 9323: 9276: 9049: 8931: 8881: 8808: 8642: 8588: 8519: 8433: 8310: 8240: 8182: 8114: 7963: 7914: 7742: 7632: 7573: 7485: 7215: 7119: 7064: 6914: 6850: 6715: 6632:"Repeat bleaching of a central Pacific coral reef over the past six decades (1960–2016)" 6582: 6519: 6322:"Corals in peril at a popular Hawaiian tourist destination due to global climate change" 6177: 6118: 5877: 5840: 5793: 5750: 5737:

Rosenberg E, Ben-Haim Y (June 2002). "Microbial diseases of corals and global warming".

5702: 5577: 5518: 5459: 5380: 5284: 5188: 5132: 4946: 4888: 4828: 4752: 4505: 4389: 4328: 4281: 4210: 4111: 3938: 3624: 3577: 3479: 3424: 3243: 3192: 3155: 3084: 3043: 2996: 2959: 2849: 2794: 2752: 2689: 2631: 2572: 2420: 2212: 2147: 2077: 1932: 1844: 1614: 920:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

851:

is infectious only during warm periods. Elevated temperature increases the virulence of

764:

found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises, the levels of CO

420:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

158: 86:) that live inside their tissue, causing the coral to turn white. The zooxanthellae are 9932: 9917: 9866: 9806: 9159: 9074: 9033: 8951: 8893: 8710: 8662: 8536: 8503: 8452: 8417: 8398: 8337: 8294: 8267: 8224: 8202: 8142: 7985: 7898: 7843: 7818: 7644: 7592: 7557: 7449: 7424: 6934: 6877: 6834: 6740: 6672: 6631: 6612: 6547: 6196: 6161: 6137: 6102: 6083: 5805: 5716: 5655: 5605: 5530: 5471: 5397: 5364: 5152: 4996: 4960: 4908: 4847: 4812: 4353: 4312: 4194: 4020: 3910: 3828: 3498: 3463: 3444: 3387: 3362: 3204: 3008: 2889: 2719: 2650: 2615: 2294: 2239: 2196: 2177: 2097: 1960: 1864: 1378: 1340:

After the zooxanthellae leaves the coral, the coral structures are often taken over by

944: 781: 726: 715: 672: 626: 606: 490: 118: 7047:

Fallati, Luca; Savini, Alessandra; Sterlacchini, Simone; Galli, Paolo (26 July 2017).

6439: 5801: 4119: 3961: 2616:"Seasonal mesophotic coral bleaching of Stylophora pistillata in the Northern Red Sea" 557:

are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks, while fragile branching corals such

9937: 9786: 9486: 9446: 9394:"Benefits and Costs of the Biodiversity Targets for the Post-2015 Development Agenda" 9343: 9335: 9288: 9241: 9163: 9151: 9079: 9061: 8943: 8889: 8850: 8654: 8600: 8541: 8457: 8402: 8342: 8324: 8272: 8254: 8194: 8134: 8126: 8079: 8037: 8029: 7977: 7948:"Multiple scattering on coral skeletons enhances light absorption by symbiotic algae" 7928: 7848: 7772: 7764: 7706: 7698: 7597: 7507: 7454: 7374: 7335: 7296: 7227: 7180: 7131: 7084: 7076: 7029: 6938: 6926: 6882: 6864: 6784: 6745: 6727: 6677: 6659: 6616: 6604: 6596: 6539: 6531: 6201: 6142: 6039: 6002: 5929: 5899: 5895: 5762: 5758: 5659: 5609: 5597: 5589: 5526: 5467: 5388: 5339: 5296: 5212: 5144: 5017: 4964: 4931:"Remote sensing of sea surface temperatures during 2002 Barrier Reef coral bleaching" 4900: 4852: 4637: 4461: 4358: 4340: 4293: 4224: 4158: 4123: 4012: 3897: 3832: 3820: 3735: 3688: 3636: 3589: 3503: 3436: 3392: 3124: 2944:"Photosynthetic responses of the coral Montipora digitata to cold temperature stress" 2893: 2881: 2873: 2814: 2806: 2711: 2655: 2596: 2489: 2369: 2328: 2244: 2226: 2169: 2161: 2101: 2089: 1964: 1952: 1868: 1856: 1827:

Gilmour, J. P.; Smith, L. D.; Heyward, A. J.; Baird, A. H.; Pratchett, M. S. (2013).

1777: 1730: 844: 509: 444: 220: 102: 95: 9743: 8897: 8596: 8206: 7989: 7648: 7493: 6591: 6566: 6408: 6087: 6029:

Done T, Whetton P, Jones R, Berkelmans R, Lough J, Skirving W, Wooldridge S (2003).

5809: 5720: 5534: 5475: 5420: 5156: 5016:

Liu, Gang & Strong, Alan & Skirving, William & Arzayus, Felipe. (2005).

4912: 4792: 4527: 4289: 4024: 3208: 3012: 2723: 2181: 2156: 2131: 1287:

stress episode has ended, helping the coral recover and survive the bleaching event.

455:

can lead to bleaching of corals which can cause serious damage and coral death. The

191:

of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae-like single-celled

10098: 10073: 9689: 9646: 9570: 9327: 9280: 9141: 9069: 9053: 8935: 8885: 8842: 8812: 8702: 8666: 8646: 8592: 8531: 8523: 8447: 8437: 8390: 8332: 8314: 8262: 8244: 8186: 8146: 8118: 8071: 8021: 7967: 7918: 7838: 7830: 7754: 7746: 7690: 7636: 7587: 7577: 7497: 7489: 7444: 7436: 7366: 7327: 7288: 7219: 7170: 7162: 7123: 7068: 7021: 6918: 6872: 6854: 6776: 6735: 6719: 6667: 6651: 6643: 6586: 6551: 6523: 6443: 6191: 6181: 6132: 6122: 6103:"Disturbance and the dynamics of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef (1995–2009)" 6075: 5891: 5844: 5797: 5754: 5706: 5647: 5581: 5522: 5463: 5392: 5384: 5331: 5288: 5202: 5192: 5136: 5000: 4988: 4950: 4892: 4842: 4832: 4788: 4760: 4756: 4627: 4617: 4451: 4443: 4393: 4348: 4332: 4285: 4245: 4214: 4115: 4004: 3942: 3905: 3889: 3810: 3802: 3628: 3581: 3493: 3483: 3464:"Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders" 3448: 3428: 3382: 3374: 3247: 3196: 3159: 3120: 3088: 3047: 3000: 2963: 2863: 2853: 2798: 2756: 2703: 2645: 2635: 2586: 2576: 2528: 2481: 2234: 2216: 2151: 2081: 1944: 1936: 1848: 1767: 1757: 1726: 1120:

experienced a severe mass bleaching in 2010 which affected 70% of the coral in the

1104: 856: 676: 287: 9260: 9238:

Economic valuation and policy priorities for sustainable management of coral reefs

9007: 8955: 5585: 3300:"Protect Yourself, Protect The Reef! The impacts of sunscreens on our coral reefs" 1037:, with the 2015–16 bleaching displaying the unprecedented severity in the record. 10093: 10063: 9766: 9711: 9512: 9284: 8994: 7582: 7009: 6859: 6476: 6127: 5966:"The unprecedented coral bleaching disaster at the Great Barrier Reef, explained" 5335: 5292: 5269:"Geochemical Consequences of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Coral Reefs" 5024: 4837: 4692: 4397: 4254: 3562:"Nutrient enrichment can increase the susceptibility of reef corals to bleaching" 2640: 2485: 1883:"The United Nations just released a warning that the Great Barrier Reef is dying" 1226: 1046: 476: 335: 276: 71: 9479:"Corals are bleaching in every corner of the ocean, threatening its web of life" 8075: 7727:"Rapid Coral Decay Is Associated with Marine Heatwave Mortality Events on Reefs" 7315: 7276: 7199: 7150: 7025: 6699: 5330:. Coral Reefs of the World. Vol. 8. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 517–533. 3877: 621: 10078: 9846: 9791: 9595: 9214:. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 16 October 2009. 9146: 9129: 8846: 8816: 8385:

Cornwall, Warren (13 May 2020). "Lab-evolved algae could protect coral reefs".

8025: 7354: 7331: 7292: 7223: 7166: 7103: 7048: 6804:"Almost 75% of Japan's biggest coral reef has died from bleaching, says report" 6723: 6166:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

5924:. In Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds.). 5639: 4431: 4336: 3946: 3893: 3730:. In Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds.). 3683:. In Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds.). 3632: 3561: 3468:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3462:

Anthony KR, Kline DI, Diaz-Pulido G, Dove S, Hoegh-Guldberg O (November 2008).

2802: 2760: 2059:"Spatial and temporal patterns of mass bleaching of corals in the Anthropocene" 1994:"Mass coral bleaching hits the Great Barrier Reef for the second year in a row" 1059: 1050: 776: 706: 309: 280: 247: 207: 203: 166: 162: 106: 87: 79: 9261:"Coral restoration: Socio-ecological perspectives of benefits and limitations" 8295:"Future reef decalcification under a business-as-usual CO 2 emission scenario" 8098: 7972: 7947: 7750: 7694: 7640: 7370: 7314:

Pratchett, Morgan S.; McWilliam, Michael J.; Riegl, Bernhard (20 April 2020).

7127: 7072: 6922: 6765:"Bleaching in Vertically Distributed Corals in Amitori Bay of Iriomote Island" 6764: 6647: 6527: 6079: 5651: 5140: 4992: 4709:"Endangered Coral Reefs Die as Ocean Temperatures Rise and Water Turns Acidic" 3432: 3200: 3004: 2858: 2833: 2777:

De, Kalyan; Nanajkar, Mandar; Mote, Sambhaji; Ingole, Baban (1 January 2023).

2581: 2556: 1948: 1304:

to high temperature, and can live within the reefs. In 2010, researchers from

1247:. Furthermore, surveys done in 1999 and 2000 showed a near total mortality of 691: 10118: 10031: 9751: 9701: 9590: 9565: 9490: 9339: 9307: 9292: 9155: 9065: 8328: 8258: 8198: 8130: 8083: 8033: 7981: 7932: 7768: 7702: 7378: 7339: 7300: 7231: 7184: 7135: 7080: 7033: 6930: 6868: 6788: 6780: 6731: 6663: 6600: 6535: 6162:"The 27-year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes" 5593: 5216: 4641: 4506:"Coral bleaching: Fourth global mass stress episode underway - US scientists" 4465: 4344: 4228: 3901: 3640: 3608: 3593: 2877: 2810: 2778: 2332: 2230: 2165: 1781: 1511: 1480: 1406: 1377:

at elevated temperatures for 4 years, increasing their thermal tolerance for

1333: 1202: 1034: 788: 665: 657: 598: 590: 586: 302: 199: 177: 75: 9331: 9245: 9178:"New DNA study suggests coral reef biodiversity is seriously underestimated" 9006:

US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

8394: 8319: 8249: 7726: 7679:"A role for bacterial experimental evolution in coral bleaching mitigation?" 7678: 6503: 6186: 4447: 3488: 3277: 2982: 2707: 2450:

US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

2221: 2085: 1852: 1613:

US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

1016:, of the Democratic party. A chemical deemed toxic in SB-2571 is the ' 10044: 9861: 9636: 9628: 9580: 9547: 9347: 9083: 9057: 8947: 8854: 8658: 8604: 8545: 8527: 8461: 8442: 8361:"Scientists successfully develop 'heat resistant' coral to fight bleaching" 8346: 8276: 8138: 8041: 7852: 7834: 7776: 7710: 7601: 7511: 7458: 7440: 7088: 6886: 6833:

Freeman, Lauren A.; Kleypas, Joan A.; Miller, Arthur J. (5 December 2013).

6749: 6681: 6608: 6564: 6543: 6205: 6146: 5903: 5766: 5637: 5601: 5300: 5264: 5148: 4904: 4856: 4362: 4297: 4127: 4044: 4016: 3824: 3507: 3440: 3396: 2885: 2818: 2715: 2659: 2600: 2517:"Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs" 2361: 2248: 2173: 2093: 1956: 1860: 1800: 1436: 1410: 1374: 1181: 800: 661: 361: 343: 258: 130: 8190: 5825:"Disease and Immunity in Caribbean and Indo-pacific Zooxanthellate Corals" 1828: 989:, there was still a considerable amount of bleaching in 2019. On Oahu and 771: 10037: 9826: 9761: 9575: 9560: 9555: 9504: 8097:

Grottoli, Andréa G.; Rodrigues, Lisa J.; Palardy, James E. (April 2006).

7617:"Susceptibility of central Red Sea corals during a major bleaching event" 5207: 4955: 4930: 4656:"The Hidden Coral Crisis: Loss of Fish Diversity After Bleaching Strikes" 3585: 1796:"Coral bleaching on Great Barrier Reef worse than expected, surveys show" 1515: 1314: 1300: 1270: 1121: 973: 513:, researchers discovered that higher temperatures and elevated levels of 464: 460: 223: 126:

themselves. However, the majority of coral without zooxanthellae starve.

8939: 8714: 8650: 8166: 8122: 7946:

Enríquez, Susana; Méndez, Eugenio R.; Iglesias -Prieto, Roberto (2005).

7759: 7175: 6769:

Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. B3 (Ocean Engineering)

6049: 4632: 4456: 4432:"Climate change impacts on mesophotic regions of the Great Barrier Reef" 3815: 2868: 2591: 1940: 1911: 1829:"Recovery of an Isolated Coral Reef System Following Severe Disturbance" 1772: 1551: 1324:

and apoptosis of gastrodermis cells in the host coral. The reduction in

10103: 10088: 10011: 10001: 9991: 9706: 9684: 9666: 9651: 9641: 9539: 8225:"Ocean acidification affects coral growth by reducing skeletal density" 7556:

Riegl BM, Bruckner AW, Rowlands GP, Purkis SJ, Renaud P (31 May 2012).

6447: 5849: 5824: 5197: 5172: 4412: 4219: 3360: 3252: 3227: 3164: 3139: 3093: 3068: 3052: 3027: 2968: 2943: 1570: 1566: 1544: 1533: 1455: 1418: 1393: 1329: 1296: 1083: 1021: 1017: 994: 816: 722: 681: 369: 357: 347: 192: 185: 8418:"Heat-evolved microalgal symbionts increase coral bleaching tolerance" 7923: 7502: 7316:"Contrasting shifts in coral assemblages with increasing disturbances" 7197: 6655: 6065: 4896: 3959: 3806: 3663: 3378: 2614:

Nir O, Gruber DF, Shemesh E, Glasser E, Tchernov D (15 January 2014).

1008:

In May 2018, Hawaii passed the bill "SB-2571", banning the vending of

871:, which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing 736: 541: 540:

longest and most destructive coral bleaching event was because of the

10083: 7394:"South Florida corals dying in "unprecedented" bleaching and disease" 5998:

Climate change and the Great Barrier Reef: a vulnerability assessment

5779: 5711: 5686: 5359:

Anthony KR, Maynard JA, Diaz-Pulido G, Mumby PJ, Marshall PA, Cao L,

4622: 4605: 1762: 1745: 1744:

Hall-Spencer, Jason M.; Thorndyke, Mike; Dupont, Sam (October 2015).

1371: 1350: 1325: 1071: 1013: 1009: 812: 808: 804: 796: 792: 768:

could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years.

688:

lost revenue from tourism, will result in enormous economic effects.

610: 373: 327: 315: 266: 242:

Healthy coral at left, and bleached, but still living, coral at right

188: 8987: 8057: 4977: 3607:

Baker, Andrew C.; Glynn, Peter W.; Riegl, Bernhard (December 2008).

2533: 2516: 9771: 9619: 9609: 9585: 6159: 6038:. Queensland Government Department of Natural Resources and Mines. 6032:

Global Climate Change and Coral Bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef

4008: 1151: 1117: 1096: 1079: 829: 559: 531: 472: 468: 322: 211: 195: 7149:

Saponari, L.; Dehnert, I.; Galli, P.; Montano, S. (4 March 2021).

5365:"Ocean acidification and warming will lower coral reef resilience" 4375: 3772:"Great Barrier Reef Has Third Major Bleaching Event in Five Years" 815:

found in personal care products. In a study done by Zhong et al.,

578:

In April 2024 a 4th global coral bleaching event was confirmed by

525: 150: 9871: 9656: 7274: 2831: 2554: 2270:"What is Coral Bleaching and What Causes It – Fight For Our Reef" 2129: 1526: 1519: 1145:, while less frequent but stronger disturbances primarily impact 1141: 1100: 1055: 602: 553: 351: 238: 8573: 4532:

German Ocean Foundation (Deutsche meeresstiftung) & Statista

3363:"Sunscreens cause coral bleaching by promoting viral infections" 2675: 173: 49: 9896: 9603: 7899:"Blue light regulation of host pigment in reef-building corals" 6500: 6160:

De'ath G, Fabricius KE, Sweatman H, Puotinen M (October 2012).

5863: 3559: 3409: 1496: 1495:

Example of a Marine Protected Area sign on Rarotonga Island in

1320:

Increased sea surface temperature leads to the thinning of the

1234: 1221:

The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the

953: 867:, multiplies, and produces both heat-stable and heat-sensitive 834: 730: 594: 122:

corals bleach only when water temperatures exceed ~35 °C.

8867: 8415: 7945: 7046: 6001:. Townsville, Qld.: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 5928:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 507–40. 5358: 3734:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 211–72. 3028:"Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation" 1518:, which allows multiple species of fish to thrive and deplete 968:

observed the first mass bleaching event, and attributed it to

733:

to identify from these photos the health status of the corals.

376:

ingredients that are nonbiodegradable and can wash off of skin

9674: 9535: 8628: 7868:"Can Corals Adapt to Climate Change and Ocean Acidification?" 6762: 6697: 5916: 4872: 4579:"Heat Stress Is Plunging the World's Coral Reefs Into Crisis" 3875: 3792: 2910:(Press release). The University of Queensland. 6 April 2007. 1341: 1075: 872: 868: 859:-containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral. 780:

A major coral bleaching event took place on this part of the

227: 83: 66: 9034:"Attenuating effects of ecosystem management on coral reefs" 8682: 8099:"Heterotrophic plasticity and resilience in bleached corals" 7816: 6239:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. 5063: 4310: 3687:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–22. 90:, and as the water temperature rises, they begin to produce 9466: 9031: 8500: 8007: 7555: 7148: 7007: 6629: 5169: 5118: 3722: 3660:

Chapter 3: Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and Their Services

3461: 2941: 2056: 1743: 1655:"CORAL BLEACHING – A REVIEW OF THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES" 1345:

sustain itself, the structures often begin to decay due to

990: 977: 692:

Monitoring coral bleaching and reef sea surface temperature

486:(IPCC) as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems. 306: 8917: 7204:

Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography

6440:

Coral reef condition: A status report for U.S. coral reefs

6379:"Hawaii coral reefs stabilizing following bleaching event" 6349:"Coral Bleaching Has Ravaged Half of Hawaii's Coral Reefs" 6028: 4603: 4553:"Infographic: The Extent of Global Coral Bleaching Events" 4429: 3137: 3069:"Bleaching of the coral Oculina patagonica by Vibrio AK-1" 9679: 9258: 9099:"Study finds marine protected areas can help coral reefs" 7422: 7246:"As sea temperatures rise, Thailand sees coral bleeching" 6953:"More than 60% of Maldives' coral reefs hit by bleaching" 6835:"Coral Reef Habitat Response to Climate Change Scenarios" 6101:

Osborne K, Dolman AM, Burgess SC, Johns KA (March 2011).

6100: 5684: 4738: 3960:

Chumkiew S, Jaroensutasinee M, Jaroensutasinee K (2011).

3066: 1191:

were particularly susceptible to thermal stress, whereas

1107:

projects, alongside natural challenges such as diseases.

295: 9128:

Good, Alexandra M.; Bahr, Keisha D. (12 February 2021).

8832: 8096: 7101: 6296:"Rapidly warming ocean a threat to Hawaiian coral reefs" 4266: 3725:"Ch 4. Ecosystems, their properties, goods and services" 2194: 1826: 1399: 9441:. Vol. 1. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press. pp. 8476:"Probiotics help lab corals survive deadly heat stress" 7677:

Maire, Justin; van Oppen, Madeleine J.H. (March 2022).

7614: 7313: 6437: 4813:"A Global Estimate of the Number of Coral Reef Fishers" 4098:

Albright R (December 2017). "Can We Save the Corals?".

2613: 1914:"Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals" 772:

Coral bleaching due to photoinhibition of zooxanthellae

700:(NOAA) monitors for bleaching "hot spots", areas where 497:

With the increase of coral bleaching events worldwide,

8164: 7896: 7723: 7615:

Furby KA, Bouwmeester J, Berumen ML (4 January 2013).

6508:

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

5822: 2366:

Coral Reefs and Climate Change: Science and Management

847:, causing this effect by attacking the zooxanthellae. 9306:

Darling, Emily S.; Côté, Isabelle M. (2 March 2018).

9005: 8165:

McCook, L.; Jompa, J.; Diaz-Pulido, G. (1 May 2001).

4413:"The 1997–1998 Mass Bleaching Event Around the World" 4313:"Functional consequences of Palaeozoic reef collapse" 2449: 1612: 1552:

Cost benefit analysis of reducing loss of coral reefs

8685:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

8292: 8222: 7471: 6899: 6832: 4143: 2776: 507:

In a study conducted on the Hawaiian mushroom coral

3221: 3107: 482:This problem was already identified in 2007 by the 9430: 9387: 9385: 8064:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 7014:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 5559: 5325: 5027:. Proc 10th Int Coral Reef Symp. 1. pp. 1783–1793. 3138:Jones RJ, Muller J, Haynes D, Schreiber U (2003). 3113:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 2355: 1124:. Between 30% and 95% of the bleached coral died. 791:are a type of dinoflagellate that live within the 340:elevated sea levels due to global warming (Watson) 5736: 5088: 4928: 4778: 4378:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4247:Coral Reef Resilience and Resistance to Bleaching 2321:"The Great Barrier Reef: a catastrophe laid bare" 799:with their host. They are also part of the genus 10116: 9096: 5685:Kushmaro A, Loya Y, Fine M, Rosenberg E (1996). 3067:Kushmaro A, Rosenberg E, Fine M, Loya Y (1997). 1539: 645: 475:, have recently undergone mass mortalities from 9382: 8794: 8299:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8229:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5994: 4436:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3924: 3606: 3178: 2942:Saxby T, Dennison WC, Hoegh-Guldberg O (2003). 2736: 2368:. : American Geophysical Union. pp. 1–18. 2201:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1155:demonstrates rapid regrowth in such instances. 999:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 939:Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef 698:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 396: 101:The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising 7676: 4929:Liu G, Strong AE, Skirving W (15 April 2003). 2511: 1527:Local impacts and solutions to coral bleaching 1103:industry and coastal construction, as well as 956:temperatures high enough to induce bleaching. 9723:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs 9520: 5732: 5730: 5633: 5631: 4810: 4240: 4238: 4192: 2452:"How does climate change affect coral reefs?" 746: 389:being exposed to oil or other chemical spills 270:Bleached coral—partially overgrown with algae 9472:Current global map of bleaching alert areas. 4935:Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 4686:Death of coral reefs could devastate nations 4257:, "IUCN: The World Conservation Union", 2006 4040:"Coral bleaching event is longest on record" 3994: 2783:Environmental Science and Pollution Research 9305: 9008:"Where are marine protected areas located?" 5328:Coral Reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific 4811:Teh LS, Teh LC, Sumaila UR (19 June 2013). 4244:Gabriel D. Grinmsditch and Rodney V. Salm, 4139: 4137: 1116:was a more severe bleaching event in 2010. 718:have been reported to be bleached or dead. 165:will affect coral reef ecosystems, through 9534: 9527: 9513: 6471: 6469: 5988: 5823:Sutherland KP, Porter J, Torres C (2004). 5727: 5628: 4235: 3966:Walailak Journal of Science and Technology 2935: 2393: 2022: 9467:Global information system on coral reefs. 9391: 9308:"Seeking resilience in marine ecosystems" 9145: 9073: 8696: 8535: 8451: 8441: 8336: 8318: 8266: 8248: 7971: 7922: 7842: 7758: 7591: 7581: 7518: 7501: 7448: 7174: 6876: 6858: 6739: 6693: 6691: 6671: 6590: 6195: 6185: 6136: 6126: 5885: 5848: 5710: 5687:"Bacterial infection and coral bleaching" 5396: 5206: 5196: 4954: 4846: 4836: 4631: 4621: 4455: 4410: 4352: 4218: 4147:A Reef Manager's Guide to Coral Bleaching 4037: 3962:"Impact of Global Warming on Coral Reefs" 3909: 3814: 3497: 3487: 3386: 3251: 3163: 3092: 3051: 2967: 2867: 2857: 2697: 2649: 2639: 2590: 2580: 2532: 2480:. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 405–419. 2394:Zandonella, Catherine (2 November 2016). 2360:, Jonathan T. Phinney, William Skirving, 2238: 2220: 2155: 1771: 1761: 1486: 1470: 725:of coral reefs transects and AI-assisted 535:coral with normal coral in the background 484:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 27:Phenomenon where coral expel algae tissue 9127: 8707:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711 8384: 8053: 8051: 7391: 6477:"Hawaii SB2571 | 2018 | Regular Session" 6024: 6022: 5040:. coral.aoml.noaa.gov. 19 October 2006. 4155:Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 4134: 4097: 3953: 3769: 3669: 2926: 1490: 1435: 1429:damaging changes. One study by Bellwood 1361: 1281: 855:, which then become able to adhere to a 775: 762:Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future 735: 632: 620: 524: 520: 265: 257: 237: 172: 157: 149: 136: 8790: 8788: 8786: 8288: 8286: 8218: 8216: 8160: 8158: 8156: 8010:"Coral bleaching: the role of the host" 8003: 8001: 7999: 7865: 7672: 7670: 7053:Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 6801: 6466: 5957: 5263: 5228: 5226: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 3847:"Coral Reefs Could Be Gone in 30 Years" 3531:"How Do Oil Spills Affect Coral Reefs?" 2772: 2770: 2478:Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition 1392:In 2021, researchers demonstrated that 418:. The reason given is: 6th IPCC report. 14: 10117: 9802:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 9428: 9406:from the original on 21 September 2015 9240:. Sweden: World Fish Center. c. 2004. 8913: 8911: 8909: 8907: 8828: 8826: 8758: 8678: 8676: 8624: 8622: 8620: 8618: 8616: 8614: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8563: 8561: 8559: 8557: 8555: 7789: 7655:from the original on 29 September 2018 7352: 7256:from the original on 29 September 2018 6963:from the original on 29 September 2018 6688: 6298:. The University of Queensland. 2015. 5963: 5114: 5112: 5012: 5010: 4924: 4922: 4868: 4866: 4260: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4067: 3918: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3025: 2914:from the original on 13 September 2016 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2475: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2351: 2349: 2318: 2274:Australian Marine Conservation Society 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 1712: 1667:from the original on 29 December 2009. 1233:The most prevalent coral in the reefs 918:. The reason given is: 2022 bleaching. 9954:Environmental issues with coral reefs 9508: 9476: 8048: 6454:from the original on 28 November 2020 6419:from the original on 29 November 2020 6359:from the original on 15 December 2018 6302:from the original on 7 September 2015 6019: 5910: 5541:from the original on 28 November 2020 5500: 5482:from the original on 20 November 2020 5441: 4806: 4804: 4802: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4734: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4174:from the original on 13 February 2014 3312:from the original on 13 February 2013 2730: 2507: 2505: 2431:from the original on 20 December 2020 1974:from the original on 12 November 2020 1678: 1676: 1674: 1649: 1647: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1639: 1637: 1635: 1608: 1606: 1604: 1400:Recovery and macroalgal regime shifts 1205:, a 2016 survey of large corals from 896: 822: 9438:Encyclopedia of environmental issues 8797:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 8783: 8283: 8213: 8153: 7996: 7878:from the original on 1 December 2017 7667: 7524: 6389:from the original on 24 January 2019 6346: 6227: 5678: 5232: 5223: 3927:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 3751:from the original on 11 October 2017 3704:from the original on 13 January 2018 3675: 3613:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 2985:Journal of Ocean University of China 2767: 2740:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 1737: 1706: 1694:from the original on 18 October 2020 1479:efforts include microfragmentation, 1370:10 clonal strains of a common coral 900: 883:had not been identified as of 2011. 400: 115:United Nations Environment Programme 8904: 8823: 8759:Coffey, Donavyn (31 January 2019). 8673: 8611: 8552: 7353:Brandt, M. 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Australia and New Zealand" 5245:from the original on 6 August 2011 4799: 4767: 4723: 3976:from the original on 6 August 2016 3770:Davidson, Jordan (25 March 2020). 3541:from the original on 24 April 2018 3354: 3342:from the original on 24 March 2014 3268:"Coral Mortality and African Dust" 2908:"Reef 'at risk in climate change'" 2502: 2111:from the original on 28 April 2019 2035:from the original on 18 April 2017 2023:Galimberti, Katy (18 April 2017). 2004:from the original on 13 March 2017 1671: 1632: 1601: 1563:Convention on Biological Diversity 129:Normally, coral polyps live in an 25: 10141: 9477:Ajasa, Amudalat (15 April 2024). 9460: 9218:from the original on 7 March 2018 9188:from the original on 7 March 2018 9097:U. of Queensland (14 June 2018). 8988:https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14901 8835:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8740:from the original on 10 June 2020 8014:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 7798:from the original on 7 March 2014 7392:Fleshler, David (24 April 2016). 5802:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.02.037 5666:from the original on 23 July 2021 5616:from the original on 23 July 2021 5307:from the original on 23 July 2021 5097:from the original on 7 March 2014 5044:from the original on 16 July 2011 4715:. 5 December 2012. Archived from 4666:from the original on 26 June 2020 4528:"State of the Oceans 2024 report" 4120:10.1038/scientificamerican0118-42 3367:Environmental Health Perspectives 1169: 82:that are commonly referred to as 9997:International Coral Reef Society 9837:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System 9618: 9354: 9299: 9252: 9230: 9200: 9170: 9121: 9090: 9025: 8999: 8980: 8971: 8962: 8890:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01204.x 8861: 8771:from the original on 3 June 2020 8752: 8727: 8721: 8494: 8468: 8409: 8378: 8353: 8090: 7939: 7890: 7859: 7823:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 7810: 7783: 7717: 7608: 7549: 7465: 7429:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 7416: 7404:from the original on 7 June 2017 7385: 7346: 7307: 7268: 7238: 7191: 7142: 7095: 7040: 7001: 6975: 6945: 6893: 6826: 6795: 6756: 6623: 6571:Science of the Total Environment 6558: 6494: 6431: 6401: 6371: 6340: 6328:from the original on 30 May 2017 6314: 6288: 6276:from the original on 8 June 2020 6258: 6221: 6212: 6153: 6094: 6059: 5995:Johnson JE, Marshall PA (2007). 5896:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01148.x 5857: 5816: 5773: 5759:10.1046/j.1462-2920.2002.00302.x 5527:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00895.x 5468:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00895.x 5389:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02364.x 5233:Lang, Susan (13 December 2007). 5070:from the original on 12 May 2015 4193:Baird, Ah; Marshall, Pa (2002). 1893:from the original on 9 June 2017 1808:from the original on 29 May 2017 1731:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00415.x 1713:Turley, Carol (September 2011). 1366:In 2020, scientists reported to 1174: 1028: 972:. In 2014 and 2015, a survey in 905: 891: 710:event, that corresponded to the 405: 283:), or reduced water temperatures 48: 36: 9928:Stony coral tissue loss disease 9399:. Copenhagen Consensus Center. 9392:Markandya A (21 October 2014). 8597:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.06.011 7494:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.038 6592:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139030 6347:Kahn, Brian (8 November 2017). 6246:from the original on 7 May 2017 5553: 5494: 5435: 5405: 5352: 5319: 5257: 5163: 5082: 5056: 5030: 4971: 4793:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.011 4701: 4684:Skoloff, Brian (26 March 2010) 4678: 4648: 4597: 4571: 4545: 4520: 4498: 4472: 4423: 4404: 4369: 4304: 4290:10.1016/j.marenvres.2011.10.008 4186: 4038:McDermott, Amy (22 June 2016). 4031: 3988: 3869: 3839: 3786: 3763: 3716: 3600: 3553: 3455: 3403: 3324: 3292: 3260: 3215: 3172: 3131: 3101: 3060: 3019: 2976: 2900: 2825: 2607: 2469: 2443: 2413: 2319:Slezak, Michael (6 June 2016). 2312: 2287: 2188: 2157:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.03.001 2123: 2050: 2016: 1986: 1523:from extreme bleaching events. 1454:(2015) studied 21 reefs around 1237:in 1998 was the lettuce coral, 1065: 184:The corals that form the great 7903:Marine Ecology Progress Series 5964:Plumer, Brad (31 March 2016). 5829:Marine Ecology Progress Series 5064:"Pro-opinion of NOAA Hotspots" 4761:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.04.012 4199:Marine Ecology Progress Series 3853:. 23 June 2017. Archived from 3305:. U.S. National Park Service. 3232:Marine Ecology Progress Series 3144:Marine Ecology Progress Series 3073:Marine Ecology Progress Series 3032:Marine Ecology Progress Series 2948:Marine Ecology Progress Series 2521:Marine and Freshwater Research 1905: 1875: 1820: 1788: 1264: 650:According to Brian Skoloff of 226:, which will be taken over by 13: 1: 9857:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 9103:biological-sciences.uq.edu.au 7866:Climatewire, Lauren Morello. 7108:Biodiversity and Conservation 5586:10.1016/j.aquatox.2019.105295 5417:Lexico Dictionaries | English 4697:The Christian Science Monitor 4270:Marine Environmental Research 3535:response.restoration.noaa.gov 2299:Great Barrier Reef Foundation 1594: 1540:Economic value of coral reefs 1328:and gastrodermis is seen via 653:The Christian Science Monitor 646:Economic and political impact 551:Large coral colonies such as 332:extreme low tide and exposure 275:increased water temperature ( 9285:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.11.014 7583:10.1371/journal.pone.0038396 6860:10.1371/journal.pone.0082404 6128:10.1371/journal.pone.0017516 5970:Vox Energy & Environment 5336:10.1007/978-94-017-7499-4_18 5293:10.1126/science.284.5411.118 4838:10.1371/journal.pone.0065397 4398:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.09.028 3125:10.1016/0022-0981(89)90109-3 2932:Anthony, K. 2007; Berkelmans 2641:10.1371/journal.pone.0084968 2486:10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_23 1255: 1127: 886: 863:then penetrates the coral's 729:with open source tools like 671:Coral reefs provide various 457:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 453:warming ocean surface waters 449:El Niño-Southern Oscillation 397:Trends due to climate change 382:due to elevated levels of CO 7: 9882:Southeast Asian coral reefs 8076:10.1016/j.jembe.2008.06.032 7026:10.1016/j.jembe.2017.09.006 5549:– via Online Library. 4781:Global Environmental Change 3332:"Coral Reef Safe Sunscreen" 2425:NOAA National Ocean Service 1582: 1110: 1090: 839:are the bleaching agent of 233: 10: 10146: 9842:New Caledonia barrier reef 9422: 9147:10.1007/s42452-021-04319-8 8847:10.1016/j.tree.2010.07.011 8817:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003 8761:"What Is Coral Bleaching?" 8026:10.1016/j.tree.2008.09.005 7952:Limnology and Oceanography 7332:10.1007/s00338-020-01936-4 7293:10.1007/s00338-022-02275-2 7224:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.04.018 7167:10.1007/s10750-021-04546-5 6724:10.1007/s00227-022-04091-2 6230:"Summary for policymakers" 5866:Environmental Microbiology 5739:Environmental Microbiology 4337:10.1038/s41598-022-05154-6 3947:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003 3894:10.1038/s41598-022-27207-6 3678:"Summary for policymakers" 3633:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003 2803:10.1007/s11356-022-22651-3 2761:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003 2421:"What is coral bleaching?" 1615:"What is coral bleaching?" 950:crown-of-thorns starfishes 936: 879:species capable of lysing 747:Changes in ocean chemistry 616: 436: 145: 18:2016 coral bleaching event 10130:Effects of climate change 10056: 10024: 9977: 9946: 9905: 9742: 9734:Spur and groove formation 9665: 9627: 9616: 9546: 8577:Marine Pollution Bulletin 7973:10.4319/lo.2005.50.4.1025 7751:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.077 7695:10.1016/j.tim.2021.07.006 7641:10.1007/s00338-012-0998-5 7474:Marine Pollution Bulletin 7371:10.1007/s00338-009-0548-y 7128:10.1007/s10531-016-1145-3 7073:10.1007/s10661-017-6120-2 6923:10.1007/s13146-013-0176-z 6903:Carbonates and Evaporites 6648:10.1038/s42003-018-0183-7 6528:10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7 6080:10.1007/s00338-003-0353-y 5652:10.1101/2019.12.19.882332 5141:10.1007/s00267-009-9295-7 5023:30 September 2018 at the 4993:10.1007/s00338-006-0193-7 4411:Wilkinson, C. P. (1998). 4153:. Townsville, Australia: 3433:10.1007/s10646-013-1161-y 3201:10.1007/s00227-006-0573-0 3005:10.1007/s11802-013-2014-2 2859:10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.055 2582:10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.055 2138:. Coral Reefs of Arabia. 2136:Marine Pollution Bulletin 1216: 1194:Stephanocoenia intersepta 1062:has died from bleaching. 1006:Hawaiian Sunscreen Policy 959: 914:This section needs to be 414:This section needs to be 9797:East African coral coast 6781:10.2208/jscejoe.73.i_881 5121:Environmental Management 4691:13 November 2012 at the 3851:National Geographic News 1684:"Corals and Coral Reefs" 1426:crown of thorns starfish 1295:In 2010, researchers at 1040: 966:University of Queensland 9332:10.1126/science.aas9852 9265:Biological Conservation 8730:"Scientist description" 8395:10.1126/science.abc7842 8320:10.1073/pnas.1302701110 8250:10.1073/pnas.1712806115 6187:10.1073/pnas.1208909109 5089:NOAA Coral Reef Watch. 4448:10.1073/pnas.2303336121 4253:28 October 2012 at the 3997:The American Naturalist 3489:10.1073/pnas.0804478105 3273:U. S. Geological Survey 2708:10.1126/science.1152509 2222:10.1073/pnas.1601910113 2086:10.1126/science.aan8048 1853:10.1126/science.1232310 1443:Pomacentrus moluccensis 1409:, or they experience a 702:sea surface temperature 386:caused by air pollution 279:, most commonly due to 92:reactive oxygen species 9964:Coral reef restoration 9058:10.1126/sciadv.aao5493 8528:10.1126/sciadv.abg3088 8443:10.1126/sciadv.aba2498 7835:10.1098/rspb.2010.0385 7794:. Penn State Science. 7683:Trends in Microbiology 7441:10.1098/rspb.2015.1985 6636:Communications Biology 1504:Marine Protected Areas 1500: 1487:Marine Protected Areas 1471:Rebuilding coral reefs 1447: 1440:The lemon damselfish ( 1288: 1162:and the other was the 983:The Nature Conservancy 797:symbiotic relationship 785: 743: 638: 630: 536: 366:octyl methoxycinnamate 271: 263: 243: 181: 170: 155: 142: 9959:Coral reef protection 9923:Skeletal eroding band 9729:Catlin Seaview Survey 9717:Census of Coral Reefs 9695:mesophotic coral reef 9435:. 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9324:2018Sci...359..986D 9277:2019BCons.229...14H 9184:. 2 November 2011. 9182:Smithsonian Insider 9134:SN Applied Sciences 9050:2018SciA....4.5493S 8940:10.1038/nature02691 8932:2004Natur.429..827B 8882:2006GCBio..12.1587B 8809:2008ECSS...80..435B 8734:National Geographic 8651:10.1038/nature14140 8643:2015Natur.518...94G 8589:2013MarPB..74..526A 8520:2021SciA....7.3088S 8434:2020SciA....6.2498B 8311:2013PNAS..11015342D 8305:(38): 15342–15347. 8241:2018PNAS..115.1754M 8183:2001CorRe..19..400M 8123:10.1038/nature04565 8115:2006Natur.440.1186G 8109:(7088): 1186–1189. 7964:2005LimOc..50.1025E 7915:2008MEPS..364...97D 7872:Scientific American 7743:2019CBio...29E2723L 7633:2013CorRe..32..505F 7574:2012PLoSO...738396R 7525:Alevizon, William. 7486:2016MarPB.104..198B 7216:2013DSRII..96...25S 7120:2016BiCon..25.1625M 7065:2017EMnAs.189..417F 6915:2014CarEv..29...73G 6851:2013PLoSO...882404F 6716:2022MarBi.169..104N 6583:2020ScTEn.733m9030W 6520:2016ArECT..70..265D 6385:. 24 January 2019. 6178:2012PNAS..10917995D 6119:2011PLoSO...617516O 6015:on 25 January 2014. 5878:2006EnvMi...8.2068R 5841:2004MEPS..266..273S 5794:2013Aquac.396..124S 5751:2002EnvMi...4..318R 5703:1996Natur.380..396K 5578:2019AqTox.21605295Z 5519:2005GCBio..11....1S 5501:Smith, D.J (2005). 5460:2005GCBio..11....1S 5442:Smith, D.J (2005). 5423:on 16 November 2020 5381:2011GCBio..17.1798A 5285:1999Sci...284..118K 5189:2023RemS...15.4077K 5133:2009EnMan..44....1M 4947:2003EOSTr..84..137L 4889:2015GCBio..21.3982W 4829:2013PLoSO...865397T 4753:2016EcoEc.128...33S 4719:on 12 October 2017. 4557:Statista Daily Data 4390:2017PPP...487..416Z 4329:2022NatSR..12.1386B 4282:2012MarER..73...32I 4211:2002MEPS..237..133B 4112:2017SciAm.318a..42A 4100:Scientific American 3939:2008ECSS...80..435B 3625:2008ECSS...80..435B 3578:2013NatCC...3..160W 3480:2008PNAS..10517442A 3425:2014Ecotx..23..175D 3244:1999MEPS..177...83J 3193:2007MarBi.151.1623A 3156:2003MEPS..251..153J 3085:1997MEPS..147..159K 3044:1990MEPS...62..185R 2997:2013JOUC...12...91M 2960:2003MEPS..248...85S 2850:2020CBio...30E2433B 2795:2023ESPR...30.7288D 2753:2008ECSS...80..435B 2690:2007Sci...318.1737H 2632:2014PLoSO...984968N 2573:2020CBio...30E2433B 2513:Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove 2213:2016PNAS..113.4416H 2148:2016MarPB.105..654S 2078:2018Sci...359...80H 1941:10.1038/nature21707 1933:2017Natur.543..373H 1845:2013Sci...340...69G 1347:ocean acidification 1306:Stanford University 1269:Coral in the south 1240:Agaricia tenuifolia 1223:Belize Barrier Reef 1182:Colpophyllia natans 976:Nature Preserve on 753:ocean acidification 500:National Geographic 494:year to 2 °C. 380:ocean acidification 356:pollutants such as 9933:White band disease 9918:Black band disease 9887:Tuvalu Archipelago 9867:Raja Ampat Islands 9807:Great Barrier Reef 9429:Watson ME (2011). 7790:LaJeunesse, Todd. 7537:on 6 December 2016 7435:(1822): 20151985. 6775:(2): I_881–I_886. 6448:10.25923/wbbj-t585 5850:10.3354/meps266273 5566:Aquatic Toxicology 5198:10.3390/rs15164077 4317:Scientific Reports 4220:10.3354/meps237133 4157:. pp. 78–79. 3882:Scientific Reports 3253:10.3354/meps177083 3165:10.3354/meps251153 3094:10.3354/meps147159 3053:10.3354/meps062185 3026:Rogers CS (1990). 2969:10.3354/meps248085 2358:Ove Hoegh-Guldberg 1949:20.500.11937/52828 1719:Fish and Fisheries 1501: 1448: 1379:climate resilience 1289: 945:Great Barrier Reef 897:Great Barrier Reef 841:Oculina patagonica 823:Infectious disease 786: 782:Great Barrier Reef 744: 727:image segmentation 716:Great Barrier Reef 673:ecosystem services 639: 631: 627:Great Barrier Reef 625:Two images of the 607:Great Barrier Reef 537: 491:Great Barrier Reef 272: 264: 244: 182: 171: 156: 143: 119:Great Barrier Reef 103:ocean temperatures 10112: 10111: 10020: 10019: 9938:White pox disease 9787:Coral Sea Islands 9452:978-1-58765-735-1 9362:"Paris Agreement" 9318:(6379): 986–987. 7924:10.3354/meps07588 7829:(1696): 2925–34. 7161:(11): 2653–2666. 6959:. 8 August 2016. 6045:978-0-642-32220-3 6008:978-1-876945-61-9 5935:978-0-521-70597-4 5279:(5411): 118–120. 5239:Cornell Chronicle 4897:10.1111/gcb.13015 4662:. 10 April 2018. 4164:978-1-876945-40-4 3807:10.1111/gcb.15994 3741:978-0-521-70597-4 3694:978-0-521-70597-4 3379:10.1289/ehp.10966 2684:(5857): 1737–42. 2495:978-94-007-0114-4 2375:978-0-87590-359-0 2295:"Coral Bleaching" 2207:(16): 4416–4421. 2000:. 13 March 2017. 1927:(7645): 373–377. 1756:(10): 5592–5598. 1690:. 30 April 2018. 1688:Smithsonian Ocean 1477:coral restoration 1188:Diploria strigosa 935: 934: 845:Mediterranean Sea 510:Lobactis scutaria 445:ocean temperature 435: 434: 296:ultraviolet light 221:calcium carbonate 113:According to the 96:calcium carbonate 16:(Redirected from 10137: 10099:Deep-water coral 10074:Coral dermatitis 9975: 9974: 9690:Deep-water coral 9622: 9529: 9522: 9515: 9506: 9505: 9501: 9499: 9497: 9456: 9434: 9416: 9415: 9413: 9411: 9405: 9398: 9389: 9380: 9379: 9377: 9375: 9366: 9358: 9352: 9351: 9303: 9297: 9296: 9256: 9250: 9249: 9234: 9228: 9227: 9225: 9223: 9204: 9198: 9197: 9195: 9193: 9174: 9168: 9167: 9149: 9125: 9119: 9118: 9116: 9114: 9109:on 26 March 2023 9105:. Archived from 9094: 9088: 9087: 9077: 9038:Science Advances 9029: 9023: 9022: 9020: 9018: 9003: 8997: 8984: 8978: 8975: 8969: 8966: 8960: 8959: 8926:(6994): 827–33. 8915: 8902: 8901: 8865: 8859: 8858: 8830: 8821: 8820: 8792: 8781: 8780: 8778: 8776: 8756: 8750: 8749: 8747: 8745: 8725: 8719: 8718: 8700: 8680: 8671: 8670: 8626: 8609: 8608: 8571: 8550: 8549: 8539: 8508:Science Advances 8498: 8492: 8491: 8489: 8487: 8482:. 13 August 2021 8472: 8466: 8465: 8455: 8445: 8428:(20): eaba2498. 8422:Science Advances 8413: 8407: 8406: 8382: 8376: 8375: 8373: 8371: 8357: 8351: 8350: 8340: 8322: 8290: 8281: 8280: 8270: 8252: 8235:(8): 1754–1759. 8220: 8211: 8210: 8162: 8151: 8150: 8094: 8088: 8087: 8055: 8046: 8045: 8005: 7994: 7993: 7975: 7958:(4): 1025–1032. 7943: 7937: 7936: 7926: 7894: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7883: 7863: 7857: 7856: 7846: 7814: 7808: 7807: 7805: 7803: 7787: 7781: 7780: 7762: 7721: 7715: 7714: 7674: 7665: 7664: 7662: 7660: 7612: 7606: 7605: 7595: 7585: 7553: 7547: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7533:. Archived from 7531:Coral Reef Facts 7522: 7516: 7515: 7505: 7480:(1–2): 198–206. 7469: 7463: 7462: 7452: 7420: 7414: 7413: 7411: 7409: 7389: 7383: 7382: 7350: 7344: 7343: 7311: 7305: 7304: 7287:(5): 1337–1350. 7272: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7261: 7242: 7236: 7235: 7195: 7189: 7188: 7178: 7146: 7140: 7139: 7114:(9): 1625–1636. 7099: 7093: 7092: 7044: 7038: 7037: 7005: 6999: 6998: 6996: 6994: 6979: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6968: 6949: 6943: 6942: 6897: 6891: 6890: 6880: 6862: 6830: 6824: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6799: 6793: 6792: 6760: 6754: 6753: 6743: 6695: 6686: 6685: 6675: 6627: 6621: 6620: 6594: 6562: 6556: 6555: 6498: 6492: 6491: 6489: 6487: 6473: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6459: 6435: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6424: 6405: 6399: 6398: 6396: 6394: 6383:Associated Press 6375: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6364: 6344: 6338: 6337: 6335: 6333: 6318: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6292: 6286: 6285: 6283: 6281: 6262: 6256: 6255: 6253: 6251: 6245: 6234: 6225: 6219: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6199: 6189: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6140: 6130: 6098: 6092: 6091: 6063: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6048:. Archived from 6037: 6026: 6017: 6016: 6011:. Archived from 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5961: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5950: 5945:on 10 March 2009 5944: 5938:. Archived from 5923: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5889: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5734: 5725: 5724: 5714: 5712:10.1038/380396a0 5682: 5676: 5675: 5673: 5671: 5635: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5557: 5551: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5487: 5439: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5428: 5419:. Archived from 5409: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5375:(5): 1798–1808. 5361:Hoegh-Guldberg O 5356: 5350: 5349: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5267:(2 April 1999). 5261: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5250: 5230: 5221: 5220: 5210: 5200: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5116: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5102: 5086: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5034: 5028: 5014: 5005: 5004: 4975: 4969: 4968: 4958: 4926: 4917: 4916: 4870: 4861: 4860: 4850: 4840: 4808: 4797: 4796: 4776: 4765: 4764: 4736: 4721: 4720: 4705: 4699: 4682: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4671: 4652: 4646: 4645: 4635: 4625: 4623:10.3390/d3030424 4601: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4549: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4515: 4513: 4502: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4459: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4356: 4308: 4302: 4301: 4264: 4258: 4242: 4233: 4232: 4222: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4173: 4152: 4141: 4132: 4131: 4095: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4035: 4029: 4028: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3818: 3801:(4): 1332–1341. 3790: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3750: 3729: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3703: 3682: 3673: 3667: 3656: 3645: 3644: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3557: 3551: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3527: 3512: 3511: 3501: 3491: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3390: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3328: 3322: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3311: 3304: 3296: 3290: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3276:. Archived from 3264: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3224:Hoegh-Guldberg O 3219: 3213: 3212: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3167: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3109:Hoegh-Guldberg O 3105: 3099: 3098: 3096: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3023: 3017: 3016: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2971: 2939: 2933: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2871: 2861: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2789:(3): 7288–7302. 2774: 2765: 2764: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2701: 2673: 2664: 2663: 2653: 2643: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2594: 2584: 2552: 2539: 2538: 2536: 2509: 2500: 2499: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2391: 2380: 2379: 2353: 2344: 2343: 2341: 2339: 2316: 2310: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2291: 2285: 2284: 2282: 2280: 2266: 2253: 2252: 2242: 2224: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2159: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2110: 2063: 2054: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2040: 2020: 2014: 2013: 2011: 2009: 1990: 1984: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1973: 1918: 1909: 1903: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1879: 1873: 1872: 1824: 1818: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1792: 1786: 1785: 1775: 1765: 1763:10.3390/w7105592 1741: 1735: 1734: 1710: 1704: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1680: 1669: 1668: 1666: 1659: 1651: 1630: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1610: 1278:Coral adaptation 1149:. Consequently, 1105:land reclamation 1020:' (also banned; 930: 927: 921: 909: 908: 901: 857:beta-galactoside 677:consumer surplus 477:marine heatwaves 430: 427: 421: 409: 408: 401: 288:solar irradiance 277:marine heatwaves 254:List of triggers 52: 40: 21: 10145: 10144: 10140: 10139: 10138: 10136: 10135: 10134: 10115: 10114: 10113: 10108: 10094:Coralline algae 10064:Artificial reef 10052: 10025:Symbiotic algae 10016: 9973: 9969:Reef resilience 9942: 9913:Coral bleaching 9901: 9767:Andros, Bahamas 9738: 9712:Coral reef fish 9661: 9623: 9614: 9542: 9533: 9495: 9493: 9483:Washington Post 9463: 9453: 9425: 9420: 9419: 9409: 9407: 9403: 9396: 9390: 9383: 9373: 9371: 9364: 9360: 9359: 9355: 9304: 9300: 9257: 9253: 9236: 9235: 9231: 9221: 9219: 9206: 9205: 9201: 9191: 9189: 9176: 9175: 9171: 9126: 9122: 9112: 9110: 9095: 9091: 9044:(5): eaao5493. 9030: 9026: 9016: 9014: 9004: 9000: 8995:Wayback Machine 8985: 8981: 8976: 8972: 8967: 8963: 8916: 8905: 8866: 8862: 8831: 8824: 8793: 8784: 8774: 8772: 8765:livescience.com 8757: 8753: 8743: 8741: 8726: 8722: 8698:10.1.1.489.8717 8681: 8674: 8627: 8612: 8572: 8553: 8499: 8495: 8485: 8483: 8474: 8473: 8469: 8414: 8410: 8383: 8379: 8369: 8367: 8359: 8358: 8354: 8291: 8284: 8221: 8214: 8163: 8154: 8095: 8091: 8056: 8049: 8006: 7997: 7944: 7940: 7895: 7891: 7881: 7879: 7864: 7860: 7815: 7811: 7801: 7799: 7788: 7784: 7731:Current Biology 7722: 7718: 7675: 7668: 7658: 7656: 7613: 7609: 7554: 7550: 7540: 7538: 7523: 7519: 7470: 7466: 7421: 7417: 7407: 7405: 7390: 7386: 7351: 7347: 7312: 7308: 7273: 7269: 7259: 7257: 7244: 7243: 7239: 7196: 7192: 7147: 7143: 7100: 7096: 7045: 7041: 7006: 7002: 6992: 6990: 6989:. 8 August 2016 6981: 6980: 6976: 6966: 6964: 6951: 6950: 6946: 6898: 6894: 6831: 6827: 6817: 6815: 6800: 6796: 6761: 6757: 6696: 6689: 6628: 6624: 6563: 6559: 6499: 6495: 6485: 6483: 6475: 6474: 6467: 6457: 6455: 6436: 6432: 6422: 6420: 6413:dlnr.hawaii.gov 6407: 6406: 6402: 6392: 6390: 6377: 6376: 6372: 6362: 6360: 6345: 6341: 6331: 6329: 6320: 6319: 6315: 6305: 6303: 6294: 6293: 6289: 6279: 6277: 6270:dlnr.hawaii.gov 6264: 6263: 6259: 6249: 6247: 6243: 6232: 6226: 6222: 6217: 6213: 6172:(44): 17995–9. 6158: 6154: 6099: 6095: 6064: 6060: 6052: 6046: 6035: 6027: 6020: 6009: 5993: 5989: 5979: 5977: 5962: 5958: 5948: 5946: 5942: 5936: 5921: 5915: 5911: 5887:10.1.1.627.6120 5872:(12): 2068–73. 5862: 5858: 5821: 5817: 5778: 5774: 5735: 5728: 5683: 5679: 5669: 5667: 5636: 5629: 5619: 5617: 5558: 5554: 5544: 5542: 5499: 5495: 5485: 5483: 5440: 5436: 5426: 5424: 5411: 5410: 5406: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5324: 5320: 5310: 5308: 5262: 5258: 5248: 5246: 5231: 5224: 5168: 5164: 5117: 5110: 5100: 5098: 5087: 5083: 5073: 5071: 5062: 5061: 5057: 5047: 5045: 5038:"NOAA Hotspots" 5036: 5035: 5031: 5025:Wayback Machine 5015: 5008: 4976: 4972: 4941:(15): 137–141. 4927: 4920: 4883:(11): 3982–94. 4871: 4864: 4809: 4800: 4777: 4768: 4737: 4724: 4707: 4706: 4702: 4693:Wayback Machine 4683: 4679: 4669: 4667: 4654: 4653: 4649: 4602: 4598: 4588: 4586: 4585:. 16 April 2024 4577: 4576: 4572: 4562: 4560: 4551: 4550: 4546: 4536: 4534: 4526: 4525: 4521: 4511: 4509: 4508:. 15 April 2024 4504: 4503: 4499: 4489: 4487: 4486:. 15 April 2024 4478: 4477: 4473: 4428: 4424: 4409: 4405: 4374: 4370: 4309: 4305: 4265: 4261: 4255:Wayback Machine 4243: 4236: 4191: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4165: 4150: 4142: 4135: 4096: 4065: 4055: 4053: 4036: 4032: 3993: 3989: 3979: 3977: 3958: 3954: 3923: 3919: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3858: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3791: 3787: 3777: 3775: 3768: 3764: 3754: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3727: 3721: 3717: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3680: 3674: 3670: 3657: 3648: 3605: 3601: 3558: 3554: 3544: 3542: 3529: 3528: 3515: 3474:(45): 17442–6. 3460: 3456: 3408: 3404: 3359: 3355: 3345: 3343: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3302: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3283: 3281: 3266: 3265: 3261: 3220: 3216: 3177: 3173: 3136: 3132: 3106: 3102: 3065: 3061: 3024: 3020: 2981: 2977: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2927: 2917: 2915: 2906: 2905: 2901: 2838:Current Biology 2830: 2826: 2775: 2768: 2735: 2731: 2699:10.1.1.702.1733 2674: 2667: 2612: 2608: 2561:Current Biology 2553: 2542: 2534:10.1071/MF99078 2510: 2503: 2496: 2474: 2470: 2460: 2458: 2448: 2444: 2434: 2432: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2404: 2402: 2392: 2383: 2376: 2354: 2347: 2337: 2335: 2317: 2313: 2303: 2301: 2293: 2292: 2288: 2278: 2276: 2268: 2267: 2256: 2193: 2189: 2128: 2124: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2072:(6371): 80–83. 2061: 2055: 2051: 2038: 2036: 2029:AccuWeather.com 2021: 2017: 2007: 2005: 1992: 1991: 1987: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1916: 1910: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1889:. 3 June 2017. 1887:The Independent 1881: 1880: 1876: 1839:(6128): 69–71. 1825: 1821: 1811: 1809: 1804:. 29 May 2017. 1794: 1793: 1789: 1742: 1738: 1711: 1707: 1697: 1695: 1682: 1681: 1672: 1664: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1633: 1623: 1621: 1611: 1602: 1597: 1585: 1554: 1542: 1529: 1489: 1473: 1402: 1364: 1280: 1267: 1258: 1227:Hurricane Mitch 1219: 1211:Fort Lauderdale 1177: 1172: 1160:Melinjo Islands 1130: 1113: 1093: 1068: 1047:Iriomote Island 1043: 1031: 962: 941: 931: 925: 922: 919: 910: 906: 899: 894: 889: 832:of the species 825: 774: 767: 759: 749: 694: 648: 619: 523: 441: 431: 425: 422: 419: 410: 406: 399: 385: 336:cyanide fishing 256: 236: 148: 80:dinoflagellates 63:Coral bleaching 60: 59: 58: 57: 56: 53: 45: 44: 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10143: 10133: 10132: 10127: 10110: 10109: 10107: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10086: 10081: 10079:Precious coral 10076: 10071: 10066: 10060: 10058: 10054: 10053: 10051: 10050: 10049: 10048: 10041: 10028: 10026: 10022: 10021: 10018: 10017: 10015: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9994: 9989: 9983: 9981: 9972: 9971: 9966: 9961: 9956: 9950: 9948: 9944: 9943: 9941: 9940: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9920: 9915: 9909: 9907: 9906:Coral diseases 9903: 9902: 9900: 9899: 9894: 9892:Virgin Islands 9889: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9839: 9834: 9829: 9824: 9819: 9814: 9809: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9792:Coral Triangle 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9748: 9746: 9740: 9739: 9737: 9736: 9731: 9726: 9719: 9714: 9709: 9704: 9699: 9698: 9697: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9671: 9669: 9663: 9662: 9660: 9659: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9633: 9631: 9625: 9624: 9617: 9615: 9613: 9612: 9606: 9600: 9599: 9598: 9593: 9583: 9578: 9573: 9568: 9563: 9558: 9552: 9550: 9544: 9543: 9532: 9531: 9524: 9517: 9509: 9503: 9502: 9474: 9469: 9462: 9461:External links 9459: 9458: 9457: 9451: 9424: 9421: 9418: 9417: 9381: 9353: 9298: 9251: 9229: 9199: 9169: 9120: 9089: 9024: 8998: 8979: 8970: 8961: 8903: 8876:(9): 1587–94. 8860: 8841:(11): 633–42. 8822: 8803:(4): 435–471. 8782: 8751: 8720: 8672: 8637:(7537): 94–7. 8610: 8551: 8493: 8467: 8408: 8377: 8352: 8282: 8212: 8177:(4): 400–417. 8152: 8089: 8047: 7995: 7938: 7889: 7858: 7809: 7782: 7716: 7689:(3): 217–228. 7666: 7627:(2): 505–513. 7607: 7548: 7517: 7464: 7415: 7384: 7365:(4): 911–924. 7345: 7326:(3): 783–793. 7306: 7267: 7237: 7190: 7141: 7094: 7039: 7000: 6974: 6944: 6892: 6845:(12): e82404. 6825: 6794: 6755: 6704:Marine Biology 6687: 6622: 6557: 6514:(2): 265–288. 6493: 6465: 6430: 6400: 6370: 6339: 6313: 6287: 6257: 6220: 6211: 6152: 6093: 6058: 6044: 6018: 6007: 5987: 5956: 5934: 5909: 5856: 5815: 5772: 5726: 5677: 5627: 5552: 5493: 5434: 5404: 5363:(1 May 2011). 5351: 5344: 5318: 5265:Kleypas, J. A. 5256: 5222: 5177:Remote Sensing 5162: 5108: 5081: 5055: 5029: 5006: 4987:(3): 695–701. 4970: 4918: 4862: 4798: 4766: 4722: 4700: 4677: 4647: 4616:(3): 424–452. 4596: 4570: 4544: 4519: 4497: 4471: 4422: 4403: 4368: 4303: 4259: 4234: 4185: 4163: 4133: 4063: 4030: 4009:10.1086/286181 3987: 3952: 3917: 3868: 3838: 3785: 3762: 3740: 3715: 3693: 3668: 3646: 3619:(4): 435–471. 3599: 3572:(2): 160–164. 3552: 3513: 3454: 3402: 3353: 3336:badgerbalm.com 3323: 3291: 3259: 3214: 3187:(5): 1623–31. 3181:Marine Biology 3171: 3130: 3119:(3): 279–303. 3100: 3059: 3018: 2975: 2934: 2925: 2899: 2824: 2766: 2747:(4): 435–471. 2729: 2665: 2606: 2540: 2501: 2494: 2468: 2442: 2412: 2381: 2374: 2362:Joanie Kleypas 2345: 2311: 2286: 2254: 2187: 2142:(2): 654–659. 2122: 2049: 2015: 1985: 1904: 1874: 1819: 1787: 1736: 1725:(3): 352–354. 1705: 1670: 1631: 1599: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1591: 1584: 1581: 1553: 1550: 1541: 1538: 1528: 1525: 1488: 1485: 1472: 1469: 1401: 1398: 1363: 1360: 1279: 1276: 1266: 1263: 1257: 1254: 1218: 1215: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1170:Atlantic Ocean 1168: 1129: 1126: 1112: 1109: 1092: 1089: 1067: 1064: 1051:Ryukyu Islands 1042: 1039: 1030: 1027: 1026: 1025: 961: 958: 933: 932: 913: 911: 904: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 824: 821: 773: 770: 765: 757: 748: 745: 707:remote sensing 693: 690: 647: 644: 618: 615: 599:global economy 522: 519: 433: 432: 413: 411: 404: 398: 395: 394: 393: 390: 387: 383: 377: 372:: four common 354: 341: 338: 333: 330: 325: 319: 313: 299: 284: 281:global warming 255: 252: 248:global warming 235: 232: 208:carbon dioxide 204:photosynthesis 167:sea level rise 163:Climate change 147: 144: 107:climate change 88:photosynthetic 55:Bleached coral 54: 47: 46: 42: 35: 34: 33: 32: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10142: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10122: 10120: 10105: 10102: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10090: 10087: 10085: 10082: 10080: 10077: 10075: 10072: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10061: 10059: 10055: 10047: 10046: 10042: 10040: 10039: 10035: 10034: 10033: 10032:Zooxanthellae 10030: 10029: 10027: 10023: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10002:Project AWARE 10000: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9984: 9982: 9980: 9979:Organizations 9976: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9951: 9949: 9945: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9924: 9921: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9910: 9908: 9904: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9847:Ningaloo Reef 9845: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9813: 9810: 9808: 9805: 9803: 9800: 9798: 9795: 9793: 9790: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9752:List of reefs 9750: 9749: 9747: 9745: 9744:Coral regions 9741: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9724: 9720: 9718: 9715: 9713: 9710: 9708: 9705: 9703: 9700: 9696: 9693: 9692: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9672: 9670: 9668: 9664: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9648: 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4742: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4681: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4584: 4583:Bloomberg.com 4580: 4574: 4559:. 7 June 2024 4558: 4554: 4548: 4533: 4529: 4523: 4507: 4501: 4485: 4481: 4475: 4467: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4426: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4372: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4307: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4263: 4256: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4241: 4239: 4230: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4170: 4166: 4160: 4156: 4149: 4148: 4140: 4138: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4094: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4051: 4047: 4046: 4041: 4034: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4003:(3): 447–59. 4002: 3998: 3991: 3975: 3972:(2): 111–29. 3971: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3933:(4): 435–71. 3932: 3928: 3921: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3872: 3857:on 7 May 2019 3856: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3773: 3766: 3747: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3726: 3719: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3676:IPCC (2007). 3672: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3653: 3651: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3509: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3419:(2): 175–91. 3418: 3414: 3413:Ecotoxicology 3406: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3357: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3308: 3301: 3295: 3280:on 2 May 2012 3279: 3275: 3274: 3269: 3263: 3254: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3218: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3126: 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789:Zooxanthellae 784:in Australia. 783: 778: 769: 763: 754: 742: 738: 734: 732: 728: 724: 719: 717: 713: 708: 703: 699: 689: 685: 683: 678: 674: 669: 667: 663: 659: 658:domino effect 655: 654: 643: 635: 628: 623: 614: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 591:Pacific coast 588: 583: 581: 576: 574: 568: 564: 562: 561: 556: 555: 549: 545: 543: 534: 533: 527: 518: 516: 512: 511: 505: 502: 501: 495: 492: 487: 485: 480: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 440: 429: 417: 412: 403: 402: 391: 388: 381: 378: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 353: 349: 346:from African 345: 342: 339: 337: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 320: 317: 314: 311: 308: 304: 303:sedimentation 300: 297: 293: 289: 285: 282: 278: 274: 273: 268: 260: 251: 249: 240: 231: 229: 225: 222: 216: 213: 209: 205: 201: 200:zooxanthellae 197: 194: 190: 187: 179: 178:Zooxanthellae 175: 168: 164: 160: 152: 139: 135: 132: 131:endosymbiotic 127: 123: 120: 116: 111: 108: 104: 99: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 76:zooxanthellae 73: 68: 64: 51: 43:Healthy coral 39: 30: 19: 10045:Symbiodinium 10043: 10036: 9947:Conservation 9912: 9862:Pulley Ridge 9721: 9629:Octocorallia 9548:Hexacorallia 9494:. 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