703:
452:
675:
the Grímsvötn volcanic system and had very similar composition. Tephra assigned to the eruption has been analysed by several researchers and has composition that is Grímsvötn basaltic andesite with rarely Grímsvötn basalt. A total of three samples out of the several hundred in the literature had some tephra with Bárðarbunga basalt composition. It is unknown if this was due to contamination from pre-existing tephra layers in the ice that was overlying Gjálp or if the Bárðarbunga basalt was erupted together with the Grímsvötn basaltic andesite.
684:
438:
246:
221:
28:
674:
volcanism. Some scientists thought therefore that Gjálp could be an independent volcano. The bulk samples obtained shortly after the eruption ranged from basaltic andesite to basalt and were of distinctive Grímsvötn composition. Basaltic andesite from a 1887 eruption had been previously attributed to
522:
5.6 event took place on 29 September in the northern part of the Bárðarbunga caldera and its aftershock sequence propagated over the next two days in a linear fashion towards Grímsvötn. It is possible that the first large event was associated with a subglacial eruption within the Bárðarbunga caldera
645:
The newly formed tindar disappeared again completely under the glacier ice about 1 year later, but an identifiable ice cauldron remained until at least 2007. The tindar was a 6 km (3.7 mi) long ridge newly deposited to a height of 500 m (1,600 ft) above the pre-existing bedrock
288:
volcanic system. However not all the scientists were of this opinion, as seismic studies are consistent with a 10 km (6.2 mi) lateral dike intrusion at about 5 km (3.1 mi) depth from Bárðarbunga being the trigger event. This does not exclude a shallower secondary intrusion from
615:
drained first through the ice canyon and then disappeared into subglacial channels and run from there to the subglacial caldera lake of Grímsvötn. The subglacial channels were easily recognized, because continuous melting caused by the hot water from the eruption site initiated the formation of
607:
were built at each end and in the middle, but the eruption concentrated later on one of them where a 200–300 m (660–980 ft) wide crater came to light. After some time, an open ice canyon was built above the fissure. It had a length of about 3.5 km (2.2 mi) and was up to
918:
836:
Despite the extensive study the precise sequence of events during the eruption has not been conclusively determined as well as assignment to volcanic system. Several authorities have speculated on the following sequence of events given evolving volcanology theory in the last decade:
427:
1703:
876:
Maturing shallow magma pocket in either Bárðarbunga volcanic system or its Loki-Fögrufjöll subsystem (best location data on 192 peri-eruption seismic events with good location solutions only assigned two to Loki Ridge, but perhaps there is a magma pocket under the Loki
646:
with a volume of 0.7 km (0.17 cu mi). It is postulated that the original unconsolidated hyaloclastitic volcanic glass and tephra of the ridge could have by now undergone a process called palagonitization due to hydrothermal alteration, to
407:, a flank zone mostly under the eastern part of Vatnajökull. It is thought that due to climate change, Vatnajökull has lost about 10% of its mass since the end of the 19th century. Measurements showed an accentuated and even accelerating rate of
543:. There had been seismic studies that suggested an east west line of seismic activity in the Bárðarbunga volcanic system at the Loki Ridge intersected the eruption location, but the Loki Ridge was not seismically active during the eruption.
1370:
360:
can have thicknesses of up to 900 m (3,000 ft). Vatnajökull covered an area of 8.2 km (3.2 sq mi) in 1996, but it is retreating and measured just 8.1 km (3.1 sq mi) in 2007. The glacier is
718:(a sort of a meltwater tsunami including large blocks of ice and a high quantity of sediment). But it took some time to fill the subglacial lake of Grímsvötn in such a manner that the ice wall holding it back would break.
1176:
Konstantinou, K.I.; Utami, I.W.; Giannopoulos, D; Sokos, E. (2019). "A reappraisal of seismicity recorded during the 1996 Gjálp eruption, Iceland, in light of the 2014–2015 Bárðarbunga–Holuhraun lateral dike intrusion".
721:
Not before some weeks had passed after the eruption was terminated, did the expected jökulhlaup happen. This was from 4 to 7 November 1996. The melt water streamed mostly in subglacial channels and in the end under the
1418:
1082:
759:
At more or less the same place another eruption had taken place in the 1930s. It had also caused a jökulhlaup, but at the time, science could not yet analyse the events. That eruption stayed subglacial.
590:. The eruption in October 1996 could push through this ice in about 30 hours and took place from 30 September to 13 October 1996. The eruption fissure had a length of 6–7 km (3.7–4.3 mi).
642:
During the two weeks of eruption, volcanic activity thawed no less than 3 km (0.72 cu mi) of ice, and this continued to a lesser extent for some time after the end of the eruption.
1529:
1454:
1635:
Zellmer, G.F.; Rubin, K.H.; Grönvold, K.; Jurado-Chichay, Z. (2008). "On the recent bimodal magmatic processes and their rates in the Torfajökull–Veidivötn area, Iceland".
726:
44:
1671:
695:
415:
production), because the "pot lid" formed by the glaciers and their weight will be absent in the future, and eruption frequency could increase as a consequence.
412:
250:
1371:"Glacio‐isostatic deformation around the Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland, induced by recent climate warming: GPS observations and finite element modeling"
555:
1053:
975:
Jarosch, A.; Gudmundsson, M.T.; Högnadóttir, T.; Axelsson, G. (2008). "Progressive cooling of the hyaloclastite ridge at Gjálp, Iceland, 1996–2005".
707:
408:
460:
1316:
Einarsson, P.; Brandsdottir, Bryndis; Gudmundsson, Magnus Tumi; Bjornsson, Helgi; Gronvold, Karl; Sigmundsson, Freysteinn (2 September 1997).
539:
migration to the eruption site though on a smaller scale. This could mean that the volcano is part of the fissure system of Bárðarbunga, not
340:
central volcano of the Bárðarbunga volcanic system which has the Loki Ridge extending west-east which has been assigned historically to the
744:
including two bridges and some communication installations. Luckily, the road had been closed before the flood so that nobody was injured.
855:
This intercepted an almost primed maturing Grímsvötn magma pocket (that may have had some active Grímsvötn basalt magma input at the time)
403:, ie. under Vatnajökull. "More than 80 eruptions occurred during the last 800 years in Vatnajökull." There is also the much less active
867:
Deep basaltic Bárðarbunga intrusion on far side of Bárðarbunga system into maturing shallower magma pocket shared with Grímsvötn system
528:
631:, but fell back into the canyon. The quantity of eruption products stayed more or less the same the whole time which was explained by
1238:"The 1996 eruption at Gjálp, Vatnajkull ice cap, Iceland: efficiency of heat transfer, ice deformation and subglacial water pressure"
356:
glacier which covered the location at time of eruption had a thickness of 500–600 m (1,600–2,000 ft). In other places the
108:
1800:
1610:
A reappraisal of seismicity recorded during the 1996 Gjalp eruption in
Iceland using modern seismological methods. PhD dissertation
702:
546:
Another possibility is that Bárðarbunga magma entered a portion the magmatic system of Grímsvötn and started the eruption by this
1810:
1785:
813:
1608:
1317:
769:
603:
In the beginning, a 2–4 km (1.2–2.5 mi) long N–S trending depression was formed above the fissure, with time three
843:
This intercepted a maturing Grímsvötn magma pocket (that may have had some active Grímsvötn basalt magma input at the time)
1369:
Pagli, C.; Sigmundsson, F.; Lund, B.; Sturkell, E.; Geirsson, H.; Einarsson, P.; Árnadóttir, T.; Hreinsdóttir, S. (2007).
729:. There, to everybody's surprise, the water masses streamed in such a quantity that the whole glacier was lifted up.
751:
streamed up to 50–60,000 m/s (1,800–2,118,900 cu ft/s). The first estimates had been somewhat lower.
366:
510:
1482:
1795:
1269:
384:
1462:(Thesis) (in Icelandic). Jarðvísindadeild Háskóli Íslands. Leiðbeinendur Sigrún Hreinsdóttir, Erik Sturkell
616:
depressions on the ice surface. And so the scientists followed the melting path down to Grímsvötn caldera.
747:
The volume of melt water produced by this eruption was around 4 km (0.96 cu mi). Over the
83:
1530:"Volcanoes beneath Vatnajökull, Iceland. Evidence from radio echo sounding, earthquakes and jökulhlaups"
1222:
The tephra layer formed in the 1996 eruption of Gjálp: Dispersal and volume. Magister
Scientiarum thesis
1039:"Volcanoes beneath Vatnajökull, Iceland: Evidence from radio echo-sounding, earthquakes and jökulhlaups"
1038:
395:
boundary in
Iceland), responsible for the highest number of eruptions after deglaciation and with the
140:
514:
1780:
1560:
1225:(Thesis). Faculty of Earth Science School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland.
1270:"Will subglacial rhyolite eruptions be explosive or intrusive? Some insights from analytical models"
1805:
1775:
1147:
1015:
1737:
1790:
1152:
1020:
509:
5+) had taken place in the central volcano Bárðarbunga just before the eruption and proved to be
234:(dark half-moon indentation), to the north of it Gjálp, and to the north of Gjálp the completely
1815:
1237:
1236:
Gudmundsson, Magnús T.; Sigmundsson, Freysteinn; Björnsson, Helgi; Högnadóttir, Thordís (2004).
404:
714:
In the beginning, scientists presumed that the eruption would be followed immediately by a big
506:
325:
is to be found in the northwest corner of Vatnajökull ice cap more or less halfway between the
451:
418:
The region of the Gjálp fissures is part of this active East
Volcanic Zone under Vatnajökull.
917:
Björnsson, H.; Rott, H.; Gudmundsson, S.; Fischer, A.; Siegel, A.; Gudmundsson, M.T. (2001).
485:
1648:
1644:
1494:
1329:
1186:
984:
933:
733:
688:
341:
284:. Its present form resulted from an eruption series in 1996 and it is probably part of the
157:
37:
732:
In the end, the water sprang up from under the glacier edge and the flood covered most of
8:
784:
650:, a consolidated rock more resistant to erosion, but it is unknown if this has happened.
383:
Parts of two volcanic zones of
Iceland are placed under Vatnajökull, ie. the very active
319:
298:
211:
fissure swarms. Clicking on the image enables fll window and mouse-over with more detail.
88:
1559:
Schmidt, P.; Lund, B.; Hieronymus, C.; Maclennan, J.; Árnadóttir, T.; Pagli, C. (2013).
1498:
1333:
1190:
988:
937:
48:
883:
Bárðarbunga volcanic system triggered into subaerial eruption 30 September 1996 onwards
774:
620:
265:
235:
1506:
996:
864:
Subglacial eruption at north western part of Bárðarbunga
Caldera on 29 September 1996
852:
Tectonic interaction along a fault that propagated from Bárðarbunga towards Grímsvötn
748:
659:
547:
481:
445:
362:
1652:
1580:
1572:
1502:
1390:
1382:
1337:
1284:
1249:
1194:
992:
941:
806:
789:
663:
662:
which surprised the scientists as these more evolved rocks are neither typical for
579:
400:
329:
322:
239:
91:
41:
683:
817:
636:
563:
464:
392:
326:
1561:"Effects of present‐day deglaciation in Iceland on mantle melt production rates"
1656:
1288:
1198:
1142:
1010:
945:
779:
723:
692:
667:
594:
559:
540:
377:
333:
285:
228:
1672:"Propagation of a subglacial flood wave during the initiation of a jôkulhlaup"
1253:
587:
551:
535:
drop in Bárðarbunga central volcano in that eruption, and postulate a similar
496:
380:
from the 13th to the end of the 19th century and since then it is retreating.
353:
278:
224:
102:
1769:
737:
628:
471:
456:
270:
123:
110:
840:
Deep basaltic primary intrusion from Bárðarbunga system on 29 September 1996
715:
437:
302:
153:
33:
794:
632:
624:
604:
441:
396:
1235:
176:
Geological map of subglacial Gjálp ridge (violet outline). Shading shows:
1386:
1315:
502:
370:
297:
The eruption was of importance, because it was for the first time that a
1585:
1395:
809:
Subglacial lakes and jökulhlaups in
Iceland. Global and Planetary Change
1736:
Gudmundsson, M.T.; Larsen, G.; Höskuldsson, Á.; Gylfason, Á.G. (2008).
1576:
1220:
741:
647:
524:
480:
by some geologists, in a zone of known former eruptions. Predominantly
444:
merging to form an ice canyon at the glacier covered
Colombian volcano
373:
161:
1341:
550:. Bárðarbunga is known for such tendencies, as its magma mingled with
974:
612:
245:
1735:
220:
1616:(Thesis) (in Chinese). National Central University, Taiwan (國立中央大學)
1456:
Landris á Vatnajökulssvæðinu metið með GPS landmælingum. BS ritgerð
873:
Inconsistent with current compositional and seismic evidence base:
575:
337:
1634:
1175:
369:. As a consequence it has been advancing and retreating since the
60:
597:
583:
532:
431:
411:
uplift. This could lead to increased magma production (so called
357:
281:
274:
231:
916:
849:
Another alternative explanation for the observations could be:
671:
484:
was erupted to a volume of 0.45 km (0.11 cu mi)
476:
426:
1558:
536:
289:
Grímsvötn being important in the subaerial eruption itself.
1368:
919:"Glacier–volcano interactions deduced by SAR interferometry"
870:
Which was triggered into eruption 30 September 1996 onwards
858:
Which was triggered into eruption 30 September 1996 onwards
846:
Which was triggered into eruption 30 September 1996 onwards
497:
Precursors and possible connection between volcanic systems
388:
27:
470:
The Gjálp eruption formed in about two weeks a subglacial
1318:"Center of Icelandic Hotspot experiences Volcanic Unrest"
861:
Less consistent with the compositional studies evidence:
554:
magma at least three times in the past which resulted in
1676:
Hydrological
Sciences-Journal-des Sciences Hydrologiques
365:, lies in lower elevations and is therefore sensible to
183:
subglacial terrain above 1,100 m (3,600 ft),
1416:
1267:
740:, destroying on its way large parts of the main road
1417:
Thordarson, Thorvaldur; Höskuldsson, Ármann (2008).
1268:
Tuffen, Hugh; McGarvie, D.W.; Gilbert, J.S. (2007).
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
305:
could be observed and analyzed by modern technique.
880:
Bárðarbunga
Caldera priming event 29 September 1996
376:. Its last advance took place during the so called
1527:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1076:
1074:
1036:
569:
1205:
658:The eruptive products consisted of predominantly
523:a couple of days before the Gjálp eruption. The
301:under a thick ice cover as well as the connected
1767:
1704:"Understanding jökulhlaups: from tale to theory"
593:The location is some kilometers to the north of
1160:
1071:
1032:
1030:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
1452:
1218:
977:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
582:under 550–700 m (1,800–2,300 ft) of
190:seismically active areas between 1995 to 2007,
1483:"Subglacial lakes and jökulhlaups in Iceland"
970:
968:
966:
964:
962:
1565:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1375:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1322:Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union
1080:
1027:
899:
1669:
578:took place at a some kilometers long known
1528:Björnsson, Helgi; Einarsson, Páll (1990).
959:
754:
26:
1701:
1584:
1480:
1448:
1446:
1394:
515:
227:: In the western part to be seen are the
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
701:
682:
450:
436:
425:
244:
219:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
491:
1768:
1443:
347:
249:Icelandic rift zones and Vatnajökull:
1606:
1453:Friðriksdóttir, Hildur María (2017).
1355:
1123:
1037:Björnsson, H.; Einarsson, P. (1990).
770:List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland
678:
608:500 m (1,600 ft) in width.
461:Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system
264:
1302:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
653:
313:
1637:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
706:Parts of the destroyed bridge over
430:This kind of eruption, but under a
13:
1419:"Postglacial volcanism in Iceland"
1083:"Seismicity in Iceland: 1994–2007"
1059:from the original on 20 March 2023
1003:
800:
14:
1827:
1219:Jóngeirsdóttir, Irma Gná (2022).
1100:
511:precursors of the eruptive events
253:(no. 4) crossing its western part
997:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.10.012
566:by the end of the 15th century.
336:. It is also to the west of the
1801:Subglacial volcanoes of Iceland
1729:
1694:
1663:
1628:
1600:
1551:
1520:
1474:
1410:
1260:
1229:
1129:Vegavísir um jarðfræði Íslands.
830:
619:Though the eruption was mostly
570:Formation of the tindar volcano
1134:
687:Memorial of the jökulhlaup on
627:was not expelled far from the
1:
1811:Volcanic eruptions in Iceland
1786:East Volcanic Zone of Iceland
1738:"Volcanic hazards in Iceland"
1507:10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00130-3
892:
527:study sees a parallel to the
292:
1143:"Grímsvötn:Eruptive history"
308:
7:
1670:Jóhannesson, Tomas (2002).
1487:Global and Planetary Change
1179:Pure and Applied Geophysics
1081:Jakobsdóttir, S.S. (2008).
763:
10:
1832:
1657:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.02.026
1289:10.3189/172756407782282534
1199:10.1007/s00024-019-02387-x
1131:Reykjavík 2015, p. 280-281
946:10.3189/172756501781832520
421:
1702:Björnsson, Helgi (2010).
1481:Björnsson, Helgi (2002).
1254:10.1007/s00445-003-0295-9
1157:Retrieved 29 August 2020.
670:, both more connected to
172:
168:
149:
139:
97:
82:
74:
66:
56:
25:
20:
1148:Global Volcanism Program
1016:Global Volcanism Program
823:
710:river on Skeiðarársandur
459:ridges (tindars) of the
262:Icelandic pronunciation:
1649:2008E&PSL.269..388Z
1153:Smithsonian Institution
1021:Smithsonian Institution
755:Former eruption in 1938
1127:Snæbjörn Guðmundsson:
711:
699:
467:
448:
434:
254:
242:
204:central volcanoes and
21:1996 eruption of Gjálp
1711:Journal of Glaciology
926:Journal of Glaciology
705:
686:
454:
440:
429:
248:
223:
124:64.53333°N 17.41667°W
1796:Subglacial eruptions
1607:Utami, I.W. (2018).
1387:10.1029/2006JB004421
1277:Annals of Glaciology
1242:Bulletin Volcanology
816:31 July 2021 at the
492:The eruption in 1996
405:Öraefi Volcanic Belt
1499:2003GPC....35..255B
1334:1997EOSTr..78..369E
1191:2019PApGe.177.2579K
989:2008JVGR..170..218J
938:2001JGlac..47...58B
785:Subglacial eruption
529:2014–2015 eruptions
474:ridge, also called
348:Vatnajökull ice cap
299:subglacial eruption
164:partially destroyed
129:64.53333; -17.41667
120: /
1577:10.1002/jgrb.50273
775:Subglacial volcano
712:
700:
679:Jökulhlaup in 1996
513:. In particular a
468:
449:
435:
413:decompression melt
385:East Volcanic Zone
273:ridge (tindar) in
255:
251:East Volcanic Zone
243:
1342:10.1029/97EO00237
811:35 (2002) 255–271
807:Helgi Björnsson:
698:in the background
660:basaltic andesite
654:Eruption products
556:bimodal eruptions
482:basaltic andesite
446:Nevado del Tolima
327:central volcanoes
314:Eruption location
266:[ˈcaul̥p]
218:
217:
70:30 September 1996
51:in the background
1823:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1742:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1708:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1643:(3–4): 388–398.
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1615:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1588:
1571:(7): 3366–3379.
1555:
1549:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1478:
1472:
1471:
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1423:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1405:
1403:
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1366:
1353:
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1350:
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1313:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1274:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1216:
1203:
1202:
1185:(6): 2579–2595.
1173:
1158:
1156:
1138:
1132:
1125:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1078:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1058:
1043:
1034:
1025:
1024:
1007:
1001:
1000:
983:(3–4): 218–229.
972:
957:
956:
954:
952:
923:
914:
886:
834:
696:Svínafellsjökull
520:
409:glacio-isostatic
367:climatic changes
323:eruption fissure
268:
263:
210:
208:
203:
201:
196:
194:
189:
187:
182:
180:
135:
134:
132:
131:
130:
125:
121:
118:
117:
116:
113:
92:fissure eruption
42:piedmont glacier
32:Gjálp eruption:
30:
18:
17:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1806:VEI-3 eruptions
1776:1996 in Iceland
1766:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1753:
1751:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1718:
1706:
1699:
1695:
1685:
1683:
1668:
1664:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1589:
1556:
1552:
1542:
1540:
1525:
1521:
1511:
1509:
1479:
1475:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1451:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1421:
1415:
1411:
1401:
1399:
1367:
1356:
1346:
1344:
1328:(35): 369–375.
1314:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1272:
1265:
1261:
1234:
1230:
1217:
1206:
1174:
1161:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1126:
1101:
1085:
1079:
1072:
1062:
1060:
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835:
831:
826:
818:Wayback Machine
803:
801:Further reading
766:
757:
734:Skeiðarársandur
727:Skeiðarárjökull
689:Skeiðarársandur
681:
656:
572:
564:Landmannalaugar
519:
499:
494:
465:Landmannalaugar
424:
399:probably under
393:divergent plate
350:
342:Loki-Fögrufjöll
316:
311:
295:
261:
214:
213:
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206:
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199:
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185:
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158:Skeiðarársandur
128:
126:
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105:
78:13 October 1996
52:
45:Skeiðarárjökull
38:Skeiðarársandur
12:
11:
5:
1829:
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932:(156): 58–70.
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724:outlet glacier
693:outlet glacier
680:
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655:
652:
571:
568:
558:, e.g. of the
517:
498:
495:
493:
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455:Similar built
432:glacier shield
423:
420:
387:(connected to
378:Little Ice Age
358:glacier shield
349:
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315:
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282:glacier shield
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743:
739:
738:outwash plain
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630:
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617:
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605:ice cauldrons
601:
599:
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591:
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585:
581:
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567:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
544:
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530:
526:
525:seismological
521:
512:
508:
504:
489:
487:
483:
479:
478:
473:
472:hyaloclastite
466:
463:not far from
462:
458:
457:hyaloclastite
453:
447:
443:
442:Ice cauldrons
439:
433:
428:
419:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
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381:
379:
375:
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368:
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345:
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335:
331:
328:
324:
321:
306:
304:
300:
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283:
280:
276:
272:
271:hyaloclastite
267:
259:
252:
247:
241:
237:
233:
230:
226:
222:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
152:
148:
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142:
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104:
100:
96:
93:
90:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
62:
59:
55:
50:
46:
43:
39:
35:
29:
24:
19:
16:
1752:. Retrieved
1748:
1744:
1731:
1719:. Retrieved
1714:
1710:
1696:
1684:. Retrieved
1679:
1675:
1665:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1618:. Retrieved
1609:
1602:
1590:. Retrieved
1586:11568/500303
1568:
1564:
1553:
1541:. Retrieved
1537:
1533:
1522:
1510:. Retrieved
1490:
1486:
1476:
1464:. Retrieved
1455:
1433:. Retrieved
1429:
1425:
1412:
1400:. Retrieved
1396:11568/500513
1378:
1374:
1345:. Retrieved
1325:
1321:
1292:. Retrieved
1280:
1276:
1262:
1245:
1241:
1231:
1221:
1182:
1178:
1146:
1136:
1128:
1096:(1): 75–100.
1093:
1089:
1061:. Retrieved
1049:
1045:
1014:
1005:
980:
976:
949:. Retrieved
929:
925:
832:
808:
795:Ice cauldron
758:
746:
731:
720:
713:
657:
644:
641:
618:
610:
602:
592:
573:
545:
500:
475:
469:
417:
397:mantle plume
382:
351:
317:
296:
257:
256:
15:
1816:Jökulhlaups
1781:Bárðarbunga
1592:4 September
1493:: 255–271.
1052:: 147–168.
1011:"Grímsvötn"
790:Bárðarbunga
664:Bárðarbunga
588:Vatnajökull
586:ice within
552:Torfajökull
531:and to the
503:earthquakes
501:Some large
401:Bárðarbunga
371:Weichselian
354:Vatnajökull
330:Bárðarbunga
279:Vatnajökull
240:Bárðarbunga
238:caldera of
225:Vatnajökull
127: /
103:Vatnajökull
49:Öræfajökull
1770:Categories
1700:See also:
1526:See also:
1266:See also:
893:References
742:Hringvegur
716:jökulhlaup
708:Gígjukvísl
648:palagonite
574:The Gjálp
374:glaciation
320:subglacial
303:jökulhlaup
293:Importance
277:under the
236:subglacial
162:Hringvegur
154:Jökulhlaup
115:17°25′00″W
112:64°32′00″N
89:Subglacial
67:Start date
36:1996 over
34:Jökulhlaup
1791:Grímsvötn
1557:See eg.:
1512:31 August
1347:29 August
1294:30 August
1283:: 87–94.
1248:: 46–65.
1140:See also
780:Grímsvötn
668:Grímsvötn
635:into the
621:explosive
613:meltwater
595:Grímsvötn
560:Veiðivötn
548:intrusion
541:Grímsvötn
363:temperate
344:volcano.
334:Grímsvötn
309:Geography
286:Grímsvötn
229:Grímsvötn
197:calderas,
1754:8 August
1721:8 August
1686:8 August
1620:24 March
1543:8 August
1466:24 March
1435:24 March
1402:8 August
1063:25 March
1054:Archived
951:8 August
814:Archived
764:See also
736:glacial
672:basaltic
666:nor for
633:ice flow
576:eruption
338:Hamarinn
101:Western
98:Location
75:End date
1645:Bibcode
1495:Bibcode
1330:Bibcode
1187:Bibcode
985:Bibcode
934:Bibcode
598:caldera
584:glacier
580:fissure
562:and at
533:caldera
422:Geology
391:at the
389:rifting
275:Iceland
269:) is a
232:caldera
57:Volcano
1745:Jökull
1534:Jökull
1426:Jökull
1381:(B8).
1090:Jökull
1046:Jökull
877:Ridge)
749:sandur
637:crater
623:, the
477:tindar
209:
207:
202:
200:
195:
193:
188:
186:
181:
179:
150:Impact
40:, the
1741:(PDF)
1717:(200)
1707:(PDF)
1614:(PDF)
1460:(PDF)
1422:(PDF)
1273:(PDF)
1086:(PDF)
1057:(PDF)
1042:(PDF)
922:(PDF)
824:Notes
629:vents
537:magma
258:Gjálp
156:over
61:Gjálp
1756:2020
1723:2020
1688:2020
1622:2024
1594:2020
1545:2020
1514:2020
1468:2024
1437:2024
1404:2020
1349:2020
1296:2020
1065:2024
953:2020
611:The
352:The
332:and
318:The
84:Type
47:and
1682:(3)
1653:doi
1641:269
1581:hdl
1573:doi
1569:118
1503:doi
1391:hdl
1383:doi
1379:112
1338:doi
1285:doi
1250:doi
1195:doi
1183:177
993:doi
981:170
942:doi
625:ash
486:DRE
141:VEI
1772::
1749:58
1747:.
1743:.
1715:56
1713:.
1709:.
1680:47
1678:.
1674:.
1651:.
1639:.
1579:.
1567:.
1563:.
1538:40
1536:.
1532:.
1501:.
1491:35
1489:.
1485:.
1445:^
1430:58
1428:.
1424:.
1389:.
1377:.
1373:.
1357:^
1336:.
1326:78
1324:.
1320:.
1304:^
1281:45
1279:.
1275:.
1246:66
1244:.
1240:.
1207:^
1193:.
1181:.
1162:^
1151:.
1145:.
1102:^
1094:58
1092:.
1088:.
1073:^
1050:40
1048:.
1044:.
1029:^
1019:.
1013:.
991:.
979:.
961:^
940:.
930:47
928:.
924:.
901:^
691:,
639:.
600:.
488:.
160:,
1758:.
1725:.
1690:.
1659:.
1655::
1647::
1624:.
1596:.
1583::
1575::
1547:.
1516:.
1505::
1497::
1470:.
1439:.
1406:.
1393::
1385::
1351:.
1340::
1332::
1298:.
1287::
1256:.
1252::
1201:.
1197::
1189::
1155:.
1067:.
1023:.
999:.
995::
987::
955:.
944::
936::
518:w
516:M
507:M
505:(
260:(
145:3
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