196:
26:
541:
549:
440:
204:
629:, focused his research on developing a cholera vaccine, and produced an attenuated form of the bacterium. Risking his own life, on 18 July 1892, Haffkine performed the first human test on himself. To definitively test the vaccine, he needed an area where cholera was common to conduct large trials on humans and moved to India in 1894. After Haffkine's experiments in Calcutta showed promising results, he was asked by the owners of tea plantations in Assam to vaccinate their workers.
508:, Germany, was hit by a cholera epidemic. The main source of the outbreak were East European Jews, mainly from Imperial Russia, that were on their way to cross the Atlantic Ocean, trying to escape the appalling conditions, the 1891β1892 famine and cholera epidemic, and antisemitic restrictions (such as the expulsion of Jews from Moscow early in 1892) in their home country. Before they boarded, the emigrants were housed in special barracks, jointly financed by the city and the
493:
364:
520:
was fiercely contested, the infection of the city's water-supply was the main reason for the rapid spread of the cholera. Of those infected the case-mortality was about 50 per cent. The death rate of
Hamburg's total population of approximately 66,000 was 13.4 per cent according to the official statistics, but it may have even been higher.
531:
visited
Hamburg during the outbreak. In a piece dated 1891β1892, he points out the insufficient information in local newspapers about the outbreak, particularly regarding death figures. Twain criticizes how impoverished individuals were forcefully moved to pest houses where many perished unrecognized
519:
In just two months, 8,594 people died. According to other estimates nearly 10,000 people died and many more suffered the appalling symptoms of the disease. No other city in western Europe was as seriously affected in this wave of the pandemic, with an average of 140 per day. Although at the time it
474:
The approach of the
British administration in Egypt was determined more by concerns that trade out of Indian ports towards Britain risked to be quarantined, as well as economic concerns about spending on public health. The rapid spread of the disease and the perceived incompetence of the population
462:
and throughout the country in the summer and autumn, "notwithstanding cordons maintained with a degree of severity and cruelty almost unexampled". In the course of a few months, according to different estimates between 50,000 and 60,000 people died. The sources of the contamination most likely were
152:
on the Indian subcontinent, where it had been home for centuries. The fifth cholera pandemic would be known in Europe as the 'eastern plague'. A better insight in the disease and improved sanitation limited mortality largely in Europe and North
America, although some substantial outbreaks in Europe
618:
and was transmitted by exposure to the feces of an infected person, including through contaminated water supply. Koch's discoveries led to extensive research into water and wastewater treatment. The germ theory of cholera introduced new methods of protection against the disease, such as the use of
523:
In 1893 violent riots broke out, because the public objected to sanitary officers trying to enforce regulations for the prevention of spread of the disease. The crowd beat to death a sanitary officer and one of the policemen sent to protect them. Troops were called out and dispersed the crowd with
391:
and cholera in 1892 through
Hamburg. The main source of those epidemics were East European Jews, mainly from Imperial Russia, that tried to escape the appalling conditions, the 1891β1892 famine, and antisemitic restrictions (such as the expulsion of Jews from Moscow early in 1892) in their home
307:
The pandemic reappeared in 1891 and originated in Bengal when 60,000 Hindu pilgrims arrived at a small village to celebrate a bathing festival unknown to the authorities. The pilgrims caused new immense cholera outbreaks in northern India during 1891, with more than 580,000 cholera deaths in
395:
In Europe in 1892, the disease was alo prevalent in France. Germany and France were reinfected in 1893-94 but outbreaks did not reach epidemic levels. Latin
America again suffered attacks several times in the 1890s. Brazil was hit with cholera in 1893β95, mainly along the railway in the
532:
and unceremoniously buried. Twain said that people were "snatched from their homes to the pest houses", where "a good many of them ... die unknown and are buried so". He expresses disappointment at the global, and specifically
American, lack of awareness concerning cholera.
479:
by the
British administration, favouring British shareholders in Egyptian and Indian companies and shipping lines, contributed to the lack of effective measures to combat the 1883 epidemic. Containing the epidemic was further complicated by European prejudices influenced by
116:
had not been able to spread to western Europe until the 19th century, faster and improved modes of modern transportation, such as steamships and railways, reduced the duration of the journey considerably and facilitated the transmission of cholera and other
148:, with its increased military presence and economic exchanges multiplied the connections both inside Asia and between Asia and Europe. Therefore, cholera for the first time could spread significantly outside its original source
602:
was convened in Rome by the
Italian government following the reappearance of cholera. At the conference, with 28 government delegations present, the British delegation successfully blocked any "theoretical discussion on the
236:(Arabia), with its yearly influx of Muslim pilgrims a notorious transmission hub for cholera, was hit during both these years. Further eastward outbreaks occurred in China (also in 1883), and in Japan, followed by the
263:, and other cities, affecting 10,000 people all over France. In 1885, some of the same areas were again infected. Italian migrant workers brought cholera from France to Italy, with a serious outbreak in the city of
580:
was the source of cholera. He performed autopsies of almost 100 bodies, and found in each bacterial infection. He identified the same bacteria from water tanks, linking the source of the infection. Koch isolated
387:, the main exit and entry points for cross Atlantic emigration from Europe to the United States, were hit by serious cholera outbreaks in 1892. New York, the busiest port of the U.S. was hit by a combination of
215:
In 1881, the cholera bacterium spread both East and West, and eventually reached Europe and Latin
America. From its endemic origin in the Ganges Delta in West Bengal, there was a virulent outbreak in the
304:, prevented cholera outbreaks in Great Britain and the United States. However, the disease reached Latin America with serious outbreaks in 1886 (Argentina), 1887 (Chile), and 1888 (Argentina and Chile).
475:
were used to justify British control of Egypt, despite that Egypt's established pre-colonial national health system had been talked about with appreciation by European observers. However, the imposed
240:
in 1882β83. In the following years cholera in Asia hit China in 1888, 1890, and 1895; Japan in 1885, 1886, 1890, 1891, and 1895; Korea in 1888, 1890, 1891, and 1895; and the Philippines in 1888β89.
2968:
614:
Prior to this time, many physicians believed the disease was caused by direct exposure to the products of filth and decay. Koch helped establish that the disease was more specifically
619:
chemical disinfectants and heat to kill the bacillus (by boiling water, for instance). Better ways of treating patients were also developed to prevent cholera from spreading further.
290:
on the Mediterranean coast. But with a more virulent one at the end of 1885, with 160,000 cases and about 60,000 deaths. In 1890 there was another smaller outbreak. According to
360:, where morbidity was relatively minor. The official death toll for 1892 was 300,321. The epidemic faded during the winter and 42,250 cholera deaths were recorded in 1893.
2839:
400:, through ships carrying immigrants from Europe, Argentina in 1894β95, and Uruguay in 1895. The pandemic also reached the African continent, with outbreaks in 1893 (
3004:
607:
of cholera," despite Koch himself being one of the German delegates. Due to the failures in containing the disease, the conference reaffirmed the futility of a
512:
shipping company, that were built in the harbour. Conditions were often inadequate and communal latrines discharged their untreated excrement directly into the
195:
3116:
2882:
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Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca and Indian troops serving in the British army. French and German bacteriologists were sent to
2914:
2944:
2508:
1872:
1780:
156:
During this pandemic, there were significant scientific advances that improved the control of the disease. German microbiologist
118:
25:
568:
in 1883 to study the cholera epidemic and determine its cause. In August 1883, the German government sent a medical team led by
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2292:
2016:
1902:
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In the following years there were no new cholera outbreaks, but in 1899 it broke out again in many regions, leading to the
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1897:
1749:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
428:
271:. There were minor outbreaks in Italy in 1886-87 without causing epidemics. The outbreak provoked a poisoning "
122:
1313:
1096:
1048:
1013:
736:
732:
2820:
2736:
2338:
1290:
931:
713:
548:
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2496:
2490:
2399:
2086:
2081:
1852:
544:
Photograph of Koch (third from the right) and other members of the German Cholera Commission in Egypt, 1884
224:
in northwest India in the years 1881β82, with a very serious death rate. Other early outbreaks occurred in
3174:
3168:
2962:
2932:
2742:
2712:
2592:
2368:
2101:
1775:
1408:
1356:
1345:
1133:
947:
794:
757:
608:
1392:
1258:
1153:
1149:
1112:
959:
Cholera Invades Spain. Great Alarm at Madrid And In The Provinces. The Dread Disease Appears in Alicante
894:
778:
672:
3196:
2754:
2423:
2393:
1970:
1837:
1529:
283:
2478:
2141:
3146:
3128:
2115:
2075:
1990:
1754:
1630:
1075:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 262β267, see page 265, para 3.
133:
had identified religious pilgrimages to be "the most powerful of all causes" of cholera and again
3152:
3056:
3050:
2417:
2350:
2332:
2156:
2067:
476:
439:
3098:
3044:
2858:
2449:
2435:
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2062:
592:
169:
3080:
3038:
2616:
2049:
1563:
1487:
1466:
1199:
301:
144:
In addition, the growing colonial rule of the British in India, and France's colonial war in
99:
in the 19th century. The endemic origin of the pandemic, as had its predecessors, was in the
2687:
2484:
2429:
2344:
588:
509:
165:
8:
2920:
2550:
2315:
2268:
2262:
2042:
1228:
1445:
1424:
2901:
2808:
2556:
2387:
2356:
2149:
1916:
1508:
1065:
839:
814:
615:
417:
292:
3158:
2639:
2304:
2241:
2122:
2006:
1965:
1535:
1514:
1493:
1472:
1451:
1430:
1204:
866:
844:
622:
565:
424:, Tripolitania, and French West Africa), 1895 (Morocco and Egypt), and 1896 (Egypt).
176:
397:
268:
3140:
2274:
2229:
2180:
1934:
1556:
1510:
Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892
979:
834:
826:
497:
484:
that discredited the understanding by "Orientals" of health, science, and hygiene.
368:
300:
measures for ships and immigrants based on the findings of the British physician,
2724:
2280:
2235:
2208:
2092:
2056:
1960:
1671:
1635:
1598:
583:
450:
In late June 1883, the first cases of cholera in Egypt, recently occupied by the
329:
296:
in 1890, cholera had swept away about 120,000 of the inhabitants in the country.
109:
60:
2216:
2021:
1980:
1229:"A Tale of Two Contagions: Science, Imperialism, and the 1883 Cholera in Egypt"
974:
626:
357:
173:
130:
576:) India, where there was a more severe outbreak. He soon found that the river
251:) Further westward cholera outbreaks occurred in April 1884 in the naval base
3190:
3134:
2286:
2129:
1944:
1656:
1060:
830:
384:
313:
203:
247:
and in the course of a few months, tens of thousands of victims died. (SeeΛ
1929:
1676:
1661:
1651:
401:
388:
100:
71:
848:
492:
3110:
2298:
1975:
1939:
1697:
1666:
591:
to explain how bacteria caused disease. His work helped to establish the
572:. As the outbreak in Egypt declined, he was transferred to Calcutta (now
569:
481:
363:
345:
321:
237:
168:
to explain how bacteria caused disease. His work helped to establish the
157:
104:
75:
32:
1489:
Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present
2675:
2523:
2011:
1468:
The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History
528:
513:
464:
459:
297:
256:
145:
2171:
1447:
Death in Hamburg: Society and politics in the cholera years, 1830-1910
1985:
1681:
333:
598:
Not everyone agreed with Koch's findings. On 20 May 1885, the sixth
3030:
2176:
2172:
604:
455:
287:
229:
141:
pilgrimages were an important factor in the spread of the disease.
113:
1357:
Cholera Riot In Hamburg; Sanitary Officers Again Attacked By A Mob
1579:
573:
557:
553:
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413:
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180:
149:
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138:
1064:
444:
421:
349:
309:
260:
244:
233:
225:
134:
467:
in 1883 to study the disease and determine its cause. (See:
39:(standing) investigating cholera outbreak in Bombay, India.
341:
208:
1548:
95:(1881β1896) was the fifth major international outbreak of
867:"Waldemar Haffkine: The vaccine pioneer the world forgot"
211:. The sick bay where patients with cholera were treated.
458:
on the Mediterranean coast and rapidly spread in the
316:. The disease continued westward in 1892, across the
1375:
A tramp abroad. Following the equator: other travels
320:(with 75,000 cholera deaths), and raged on through
504:From mid-August to mid-September 1892 the city of
1513:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
1471:. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
815:"Robert Koch and the cholera vibrio: a centenary"
3188:
865:Gunter, Joel; Pandey, Vikas (11 December 2020).
564:French and German bacteriologists were sent to
3162:
2157:
1564:
1377:. New York: Library of America. p. 1145.
380:
190:
864:
812:
1124:
1122:
1120:
860:
858:
769:
767:
765:
748:
746:
744:
663:
661:
659:
657:
655:
653:
487:
340:. Cholera's penetration in Russia began at
248:
2164:
2150:
1571:
1557:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1247:
1087:
1085:
1039:
1037:
936:
723:
721:
24:
2345:"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico
1534:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1381:
1350:
1281:
1279:
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1174:
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986:
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952:
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889:
887:
838:
704:
702:
700:
434:
1531:Naples in the time of cholera, 1884-1911
1429:. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
1397:
1334:
1318:
1255:Naples in the time of cholera, 1884-1911
1138:
1117:
1101:
1059:
1002:
855:
783:
775:Naples in the time of cholera, 1884-1911
762:
741:
698:
696:
694:
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690:
688:
686:
684:
682:
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669:Naples in the time of cholera, 1884-1911
650:
547:
539:
491:
468:
438:
362:
348:. The disease spread upstream along the
202:
194:
184:
1527:
1295:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1082:
1034:
718:
199:The spread of cholera in Europe in 1884
3189:
2017:Cholera Monument Grounds and Clay Wood
1506:
1422:
1372:
1272:
1053:
915:
884:
808:
806:
804:
802:
535:
454:in 1882, occurred in the port city of
2412:Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty
2145:
1552:
1464:
1443:
1310:Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence
1287:Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence
1093:Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence
1045:Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence
928:Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence
710:Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence
677:
1485:
1226:
1211:
286:, with a minor outbreak starting in
255:, France, with smaller outbreaks in
799:
37:Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer
13:
14:
3223:
1227:Rose, Christopher (25 May 2020).
900:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
600:International Sanitary Conference
127:International Sanitary Conference
3117:encephalitis lethargica epidemic
443:EgyptΛ 1883 Cholera epidemic in
2895:Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis
2192:List of epidemics and pandemics
1366:
639:Cholera outbreaks and pandemics
232:in 1882. The Islamic holy city
611:in the fight against cholera.
172:. In 1892, the Russian-French
1:
2220:
1389:Naples in the time of cholera
944:Naples in the time of cholera
644:
275:" directed primarily against
1822:1992 (AerolΓneas Argentinas)
975:The Cholera Epidemic of 1884
332:which suffered a staggering
324:and claimed 60,000 lives in
282:The pandemic also spread to
7:
2102:Love in the Time of Cholera
1888:2022β2024 (Southern Africa)
1578:
1492:. New York: Facts on File.
1450:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
1181:The Cholera Cases In Brazil
1025:The Cholera In Buenos Ayres
895:"Cholera's seven pandemics"
632:
338:Russian famine of 1891β1892
10:
3228:
3005:2024 Latin American dengue
2785:Western African meningitis
2599:Pacific Northwest smallpox
1528:Snowden, Frank M. (1995).
1444:Evans, Richard J. (1987).
1416:
516:flowing through the city.
477:anti-contagionist policies
429:1899β1923 cholera pandemic
191:The spread of the pandemic
123:1863β1875 cholera pandemic
3029:
2705:
2626:
2611:Buenos Aires yellow fever
2531:
2522:
2509:Philadelphia yellow fever
2479:Great Plague of Marseille
2473:Great Northern War plague
2467:Iceland smallpox epidemic
2459:
2380:
2325:
2314:
2251:
2207:
2200:
2187:
2034:
1999:
1953:
1915:
1830:
1809:
1763:
1717:
1710:
1690:
1644:
1626:
1619:
1593:
1586:
813:Howard-Jones, N. (1984).
496:1892 Cholera outbreak in
367:1892 Cholera outbreak in
336:rate, exacerbated by the
207:1892 Cholera outbreak in
81:
67:
55:
45:
23:
18:
3175:Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic
3169:Mpox (clade II) outbreak
3129:Seventh cholera pandemic
2116:The Horseman on the Roof
1631:Oral rehydration therapy
1486:Kohn, George C. (2001).
1426:Plagues in World History
1165:Defenses Against Cholera
831:10.1136/bmj.288.6414.379
791:Plagues in World History
754:Plagues in World History
488:1892 outbreak in Hamburg
381:1892 outbreak in Hamburg
35:(on the microscope) and
3212:1890s disease outbreaks
3207:1880s disease outbreaks
3087:Fourth cholera pandemic
3069:Second cholera pandemic
2915:Γquateur province Ebola
2503:North American smallpox
2418:Great Plague of Seville
1848:2009 (Papua New Guinea)
1507:Markel, Howard (1999).
1373:Blount, Roy K. (2010).
1269:(1883, vol. 2), p. 159.
1263:The Progress of Cholera
1072:Encyclopædia Britannica
819:British Medical Journal
3202:19th-century epidemics
3105:Sixth cholera pandemic
3093:Fifth cholera pandemic
3075:Third cholera pandemic
3063:First cholera pandemic
3045:Second plague pandemic
2605:Barcelona yellow fever
2450:Great Plague of Vienna
2436:Great Plague of London
2406:Massachusetts smallpox
1771:1832 (Lord Wellington)
1010:The Burdens of Disease
729:The Burdens of Disease
593:germ theory of disease
561:
545:
501:
447:
435:1883 outbreak in Egypt
372:
249:1883 outbreak in Egypt
212:
200:
179:, developed a cholera
170:germ theory of disease
93:fifth cholera pandemic
31:German microbiologist
19:Fifth cholera pandemic
3081:Third plague pandemic
3039:First plague pandemic
2833:Western African Ebola
2743:Chikungunya outbreaks
2695:Malaysian Nipah virus
2563:Great Plains smallpox
2050:Memories and Vagaries
1786:1849-1850 (Tennessee)
1423:Aberth, John (2011).
552:Haffkine during anti-
551:
543:
495:
442:
366:
269:AugustβSeptember 1884
206:
198:
3141:Russian flu pandemic
2883:Angolan yellow fever
2634:San Francisco plague
2587:Broad Street cholera
2485:Great Plague of 1738
1925:Chicago cholera myth
1873:2018β2019 (Zimbabwe)
1817:1913 (Romanian Army)
1465:Hayes, J.N. (2009).
1235:. Harvard Law School
1200:Nos tempos do cΓ³lera
993:The Cholera In Spain
510:Hamburg America Line
129:convened in 1866 in
121:. During the fourth
3047:(1348β19th century)
2975:New Zealand measles
2803:Darfur yellow fever
2646:LA pneumonic plague
2263:Plague of Justinian
2043:Mastro-don Gesualdo
2035:Cultural depictions
1893:2023 (South Africa)
1858:2012 (Sierra Leone)
1801:1854 (Broad Street)
965:, September 3, 1884
625:, a Russian-French
536:Scientific advances
500:, disinfection team
469:Scientific advances
328:, and then reached
243:In 1883 it reached
185:Scientific advances
119:infectious diseases
3057:Influenza pandemic
3051:Influenza pandemic
2999:Bangsamoro measles
2981:Singaporean dengue
2945:Pacific NW measles
2939:Philippine measles
2927:Madagascar measles
2909:Kerala Nipah virus
2902:Saudi Arabian MERS
2815:Singaporean dengue
2761:Zimbabwean cholera
2731:Singaporean dengue
2575:Copenhagen cholera
2557:Groningen epidemic
2351:Influenza pandemic
2333:Influenza pandemic
1903:2023β2024 (Zambia)
1863:2014β2015 (Africa)
1363:, October 11, 1893
1361:The New York Times
1208:, 1 September 2002
1185:The New York Times
1171:, January 22, 1894
1169:The New York Times
1031:, December 1, 1886
1029:The New York Times
997:The New York Times
983:, October 30, 1884
963:The New York Times
562:
546:
502:
448:
418:French West Africa
375:The busy ports of
373:
293:The New York Times
213:
201:
3197:Cholera pandemics
3184:
3183:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3020:
2957:Kuala Koh measles
2871:South Korean MERS
2859:Polio declaration
2847:Madagascar plague
2779:Gujarat hepatitis
2767:Madagascar plague
2719:Midwest monkeypox
2670:Yugoslav smallpox
2640:Manchurian plague
2581:Stockholm cholera
2518:
2517:
2305:Sweating sickness
2293:Japanese smallpox
2242:Plague of Cyprian
2181:disease outbreaks
2139:
2138:
2030:
2029:
2007:Broad Street Pump
1966:Waldemar Haffkine
1911:
1910:
1868:2016β2022 (Yemen)
1791:1853 (Copenhagen)
1706:
1705:
1615:
1614:
1541:978-0-585-13106-1
1478:978-0-8135-4612-4
1436:978-0-7425-5705-5
1205:Folha de S. Paulo
1187:, January 9, 1895
825:(6414): 379β381.
623:Waldemar Haffkine
566:Alexandria, Egypt
379:in Germany (SeeΛ
177:Waldemar Haffkine
89:
88:
3219:
3164:
2951:New York measles
2905:
2865:Indian swine flu
2853:Odisha hepatitis
2843:
2797:Pakistani dengue
2749:Pakistani dengue
2698:
2664:WrocΕaw smallpox
2617:Hong Kong plague
2551:Caragea's plague
2529:
2528:
2446:
2339:Mexican smallpox
2323:
2322:
2275:Plague of Sheroe
2230:Plague of Athens
2225:
2222:
2205:
2204:
2166:
2159:
2152:
2143:
2142:
2076:The Painted Veil
1951:
1950:
1935:Cholera Hospital
1878:2020 (Bengaluru)
1796:1853 (Stockholm)
1781:1833 (Lexington)
1715:
1714:
1691:Fluoroquinolones
1624:
1623:
1591:
1590:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1524:
1520:978-0-80186180-2
1503:
1482:
1461:
1440:
1411:
1405:Death in Hamburg
1401:
1395:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1370:
1364:
1354:
1348:
1342:Death in Hamburg
1338:
1332:
1326:Death in Hamburg
1322:
1316:
1306:
1293:
1283:
1270:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1233:Islamic Law Blog
1224:
1209:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1178:
1172:
1162:
1156:
1142:
1136:
1130:Death in Hamburg
1126:
1115:
1105:
1099:
1089:
1080:
1079:
1068:
1057:
1051:
1041:
1032:
1022:
1016:
1006:
1000:
990:
984:
972:
966:
956:
950:
940:
934:
924:
913:
912:
910:
908:
891:
882:
881:
879:
877:
862:
853:
852:
842:
810:
797:
787:
781:
771:
760:
750:
739:
725:
716:
706:
675:
665:
609:cordon sanitaire
527:American author
524:fixed bayonets.
498:Hamburg, Germany
369:Hamburg, Germany
344:, a port on the
228:in 1881, and in
28:
16:
15:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3187:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3017:
2900:
2838:
2821:Swansea measles
2773:Bolivian dengue
2701:
2693:
2682:Indian smallpox
2652:Croydon typhoid
2622:
2514:
2455:
2441:
2376:
2317:
2310:
2281:Plague of Amwas
2254:
2247:
2236:Antonine Plague
2223:
2196:
2183:
2170:
2140:
2135:
2093:The Seventh Sin
2057:Death in Venice
2026:
1995:
1991:Henry Whitehead
1961:Gaspard Goyrand
1949:
1907:
1898:2023 (Zimbabwe)
1843:2008 (Zimbabwe)
1826:
1805:
1759:
1702:
1686:
1672:Chloramphenicol
1640:
1611:
1599:Vibrio cholerae
1582:
1577:
1542:
1521:
1500:
1479:
1458:
1437:
1419:
1414:
1402:
1398:
1386:
1382:
1371:
1367:
1355:
1351:
1339:
1335:
1323:
1319:
1307:
1296:
1284:
1273:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1236:
1225:
1212:
1197:(in Portuguese)
1196:
1195:
1191:
1179:
1175:
1163:
1159:
1143:
1139:
1127:
1118:
1106:
1102:
1090:
1083:
1066:"Cholera"
1058:
1054:
1042:
1035:
1023:
1019:
1007:
1003:
999:, June 20, 1890
991:
987:
973:
969:
957:
953:
941:
937:
925:
916:
906:
904:
893:
892:
885:
875:
873:
863:
856:
811:
800:
788:
784:
772:
763:
751:
742:
726:
719:
707:
678:
666:
651:
647:
635:
584:Vibrio cholerae
556:vaccination in
538:
490:
437:
371:, hospital ward
330:Imperial Russia
193:
162:Vibrio cholerae
110:Vibrio cholerae
61:Vibrio cholerae
56:Bacteria strain
41:
40:
12:
11:
5:
3225:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3172:
3166:
3156:
3150:
3149:(1981βpresent)
3144:
3138:
3132:
3126:
3120:
3114:
3108:
3102:
3096:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3060:
3054:
3048:
3042:
3035:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3002:
3001:(2023βpresent)
2996:
2993:Jamaica dengue
2990:
2984:
2978:
2972:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2898:
2892:
2889:Yemeni cholera
2886:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2844:
2840:DR Congo Ebola
2836:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2776:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2545:Maltese plague
2542:
2539:Ottoman plague
2535:
2533:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2506:
2500:
2497:Persian Plague
2494:
2491:Russian plague
2488:
2482:
2476:
2470:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2447:
2443:Maltese plague
2439:
2433:
2427:
2424:Maltese plague
2421:
2415:
2409:
2403:
2400:Italian plague
2397:
2394:Maltese plague
2391:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2366:
2363:Maltese plague
2360:
2354:
2348:
2342:
2336:
2329:
2327:
2320:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2308:
2302:
2296:
2290:
2284:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2259:
2257:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2217:Hittite plague
2213:
2211:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2154:
2146:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2126:
2119:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2089:
2084:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2053:
2046:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1981:Filippo Pacini
1978:
1973:
1971:George Johnson
1968:
1963:
1957:
1955:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1921:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1883:2022 (Lebanon)
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1834:
1832:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1824:
1819:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1721:
1719:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1594:
1588:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1540:
1525:
1519:
1504:
1498:
1483:
1477:
1462:
1456:
1441:
1435:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1396:
1380:
1365:
1349:
1333:
1317:
1294:
1271:
1246:
1210:
1189:
1173:
1157:
1137:
1116:
1100:
1081:
1063:, ed. (1911).
1061:Chisholm, Hugh
1052:
1033:
1017:
1001:
985:
967:
951:
935:
914:
883:
854:
798:
782:
761:
740:
717:
676:
648:
646:
643:
642:
641:
634:
631:
627:bacteriologist
537:
534:
489:
486:
452:British Empire
436:
433:
398:ParaΓba Valley
358:St. Petersburg
312:, Bengal, and
192:
189:
174:bacteriologist
131:Constantinople
87:
86:
83:
79:
78:
69:
68:First outbreak
65:
64:
57:
53:
52:
47:
43:
42:
30:
29:
21:
20:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3224:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3161:(2019βpresent
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3135:Hong Kong flu
3133:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2963:Tonga measles
2961:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2934:
2933:Samoa measles
2931:
2928:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2791:Haiti cholera
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2755:Iraqi cholera
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2737:Indian dengue
2735:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2696:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2597:
2594:
2593:Guam smallpox
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2430:Naples Plague
2428:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2388:London plague
2386:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2373:
2370:
2369:London plague
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2357:London plague
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2313:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2287:Plague of 664
2285:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2250:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2162:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2144:
2132:
2131:
2130:The Ghost Map
2127:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1945:Cholera riots
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1853:2010s (Haiti)
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1657:Cotrimoxazole
1655:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1618:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1543:
1537:
1533:
1532:
1526:
1522:
1516:
1512:
1511:
1505:
1501:
1499:0-8160-4263-2
1495:
1491:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1463:
1459:
1457:0-19-822864-3
1453:
1449:
1448:
1442:
1438:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1410:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1391:, 1884-1911,
1390:
1384:
1376:
1369:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1193:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1131:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1067:
1062:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1015:
1011:
1005:
998:
994:
989:
982:
981:
976:
971:
964:
960:
955:
949:
946:, 1884-1911,
945:
939:
933:
929:
923:
921:
919:
903:. May 9, 2008
902:
901:
896:
890:
888:
872:
868:
861:
859:
850:
846:
841:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
809:
807:
805:
803:
796:
792:
786:
780:
776:
770:
768:
766:
759:
755:
749:
747:
745:
738:
734:
730:
724:
722:
715:
711:
705:
703:
701:
699:
697:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
683:
681:
674:
670:
664:
662:
660:
658:
656:
654:
649:
640:
637:
636:
630:
628:
624:
620:
617:
612:
610:
606:
601:
596:
594:
590:
587:and proposed
586:
585:
579:
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385:New York City
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314:Uttar Pradesh
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164:and proposed
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51:
48:
44:
38:
34:
27:
22:
17:
3092:
2987:Uganda Ebola
2706:21st century
2688:Surat plague
2658:NYC smallpox
2627:20th century
2532:19th century
2460:18th century
2381:17th century
2347:(1545, 1576)
2326:16th century
2269:Roman Plague
2238:(165β180 AD)
2232:(429β426 BC)
2179:and notable
2128:
2121:
2114:
2100:
2091:
2074:
2055:
2048:
2041:
1930:Cholera belt
1776:1832 (Sligo)
1755:1961βpresent
1744:
1677:Furazolidone
1662:Erythromycin
1652:Tetracycline
1597:
1530:
1509:
1488:
1467:
1446:
1425:
1404:
1399:
1388:
1383:
1374:
1368:
1360:
1352:
1341:
1336:
1325:
1320:
1309:
1286:
1266:
1254:
1249:
1237:. Retrieved
1232:
1203:
1192:
1184:
1176:
1168:
1160:
1145:
1140:
1129:
1108:
1103:
1092:
1076:
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1055:
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1028:
1020:
1009:
1004:
996:
988:
978:
970:
962:
954:
943:
938:
927:
905:. Retrieved
898:
874:. Retrieved
870:
822:
818:
790:
785:
774:
753:
728:
709:
668:
621:
613:
597:
582:
563:
560:, March 1894
526:
522:
518:
503:
473:
449:
426:
402:Tripolitania
394:
389:typhus fever
374:
306:
291:
281:
242:
214:
161:
155:
153:did happen.
143:
125:, the third
108:
107:. While the
101:Ganges Delta
92:
90:
72:Ganges Delta
59:
3177:(2023β2024)
3171:(2022β2023)
3155:(2009β2010)
3143:(1977β1979)
3137:(1968β1970)
3131:(1961β1975)
3125:(1957β1958)
3119:(1919β1930)
3113:(1918β1920)
3111:Spanish flu
3107:(1899β1923)
3101:(1889β1890)
3099:Russian flu
3095:(1881β1896)
3089:(1863β1879)
3083:(1855β1860)
3077:(1852β1860)
3071:(1829β1851)
3065:(1816β1826)
3059:(1557β1559)
2989:(2022β2023)
2977:(2019β2020)
2971:(2019β2020)
2969:DRC measles
2923:(2018β2020)
2891:(2016β2022)
2879:(2015β2016)
2835:(2013β2016)
2829:(2013β2014)
2827:Chikungunya
2793:(2010β2019)
2787:(2009β2010)
2769:(2008β2017)
2763:(2008β2009)
2727:(2003β2005)
2715:(2002β2004)
2697:(1998β1999)
2678:(1972β1973)
2642:(1910β1911)
2636:(1900β1904)
2601:(1862β1863)
2571:(1847β1848)
2565:(1837β1838)
2547:(1813β1814)
2541:(1812β1819)
2511:(1793β1798)
2505:(1780β1782)
2493:(1770β1772)
2481:(1720β1722)
2475:(1710β1712)
2469:(1707β1708)
2445:(1675β1676)
2438:(1665β1666)
2420:(1647β1652)
2414:(1633β1644)
2402:(1629β1631)
2371:(1592β1593)
2365:(1592β1593)
2359:(1563β1564)
2353:(1557β1559)
2307:(1485β1551)
2301:(1346β1353)
2299:Black Death
2224: 1330
2022:Duffy's Cut
1976:Robert Koch
1940:Cholera pit
1838:2007 (Iraq)
1698:Norfloxacin
1667:Doxycycline
1645:Antibiotics
1239:11 November
1146:Quarantine!
1109:Quarantine!
1077:1892β1895.β
876:14 December
570:Robert Koch
482:Orientalism
346:Caspian Sea
322:Afghanistan
238:Philippines
158:Robert Koch
105:West Bengal
76:West Bengal
33:Robert Koch
3191:Categories
2921:Kivu Ebola
2676:London flu
2123:Contagious
2012:Cefn Golau
1346:pp. 292-93
1267:The Lancet
1261:, quoting
1134:pp. 279-82
737:pp. 180-86
645:References
616:contagious
589:postulates
529:Mark Twain
514:Elbe river
465:Alexandria
460:Nile Delta
298:Quarantine
257:Marseilles
166:postulates
146:Indo-China
3153:Swine flu
3123:Asian flu
3041:(541β767)
3010:Argentina
2295:(735β737)
2289:(664β689)
2283:(638β639)
2277:(627β628)
2265:(541β542)
2255:classical
2244:(250β266)
2177:epidemics
2173:Pandemics
2087:2006 film
2082:1934 film
2000:Memorials
1986:John Snow
1750:1899β1923
1745:1881β1896
1740:1863β1875
1735:1846β1860
1730:1826β1837
1725:1817β1824
1718:Pandemics
1711:Outbreaks
1682:Virstatin
1620:Treatment
1387:Snowden,
1253:Snowden,
1113:pp. 88-90
1097:p. 283-84
942:Snowden,
773:Snowden,
667:Snowden,
420:), 1894 (
392:country.
352:to reach
334:morbidity
302:John Snow
160:isolated
85:1881β1896
3159:COVID-19
3147:HIV/AIDS
2725:Bird flu
1587:Bacteria
1144:Markel,
1107:Markel,
871:BBC News
789:Aberth,
752:Aberth,
633:See also
605:etiology
558:Calcutta
456:Damietta
288:Alicante
230:Thailand
183:. (See:
114:bacteria
2209:Ancient
1917:History
1636:Vaccine
1580:Cholera
1417:Sources
1403:Evans,
1340:Evans,
1324:Evans,
1128:Evans,
1008:Hayes,
849:6419937
840:1444283
727:Hayes,
574:Kolkata
554:cholera
506:Hamburg
414:Morocco
410:Algeria
406:Tunisia
383:), and
377:Hamburg
277:Gypsies
181:vaccine
150:habitat
97:cholera
50:Cholera
46:Disease
3053:(1510)
3031:Global
3012:(2024)
2995:(2023)
2983:(2020)
2965:(2019)
2959:(2019)
2953:(2019)
2947:(2019)
2941:(2019)
2935:(2019)
2929:(2018)
2917:(2018)
2911:(2018)
2904:(2018)
2897:(2017)
2885:(2016)
2873:(2015)
2867:(2015)
2861:(2014)
2855:(2014)
2849:(2014)
2842:(2014)
2823:(2013)
2817:(2013)
2811:(2012)
2805:(2012)
2799:(2011)
2781:(2009)
2775:(2009)
2757:(2007)
2751:(2006)
2745:(2006)
2739:(2006)
2733:(2005)
2721:(2003)
2690:(1994)
2684:(1974)
2672:(1972)
2666:(1963)
2660:(1947)
2654:(1937)
2648:(1924)
2619:(1894)
2613:(1871)
2607:(1870)
2595:(1856)
2589:(1854)
2583:(1853)
2577:(1853)
2569:Typhus
2559:(1829)
2553:(1813)
2524:Modern
2499:(1772)
2487:(1738)
2452:(1679)
2432:(1656)
2426:(1655)
2408:(1633)
2396:(1623)
2390:(1603)
2341:(1520)
2335:(1510)
2318:modern
1954:People
1605:El Tor
1538:
1517:
1496:
1475:
1454:
1433:
1409:p. 267
1330:p. vii
1314:p. 136
1308:Kohn,
1285:Kohn,
1091:Kohn,
1049:p. 151
1043:Kohn,
1014:p. 147
980:Nature
948:p. 104
926:Kohn,
907:14 May
847:
837:
795:p. 102
758:p. 105
733:p. 136
708:Kohn,
578:Ganges
416:, and
354:Moscow
326:Persia
318:Punjab
273:phobia
265:Naples
253:Toulon
222:Lahore
218:Punjab
139:Muslim
2316:Early
2271:(590)
2253:Post-
2201:Local
2068:opera
1831:2000s
1810:1900s
1764:1800s
1393:p. 85
1291:p. 83
1259:p. 83
1154:p. 18
1150:p. 11
932:p. 82
779:p. 62
714:p. 15
673:p. 59
445:Cairo
422:Sudan
350:Volga
310:Assam
284:Spain
261:Paris
245:Egypt
234:Mecca
226:Korea
135:Hindu
82:Dates
2877:Zika
2809:MERS
2713:SARS
2108:film
2063:film
1536:ISBN
1515:ISBN
1494:ISBN
1473:ISBN
1452:ISBN
1431:ISBN
1241:2023
909:2020
878:2020
845:PMID
356:and
342:Baku
220:and
209:Baku
137:and
91:The
2226:BC)
835:PMC
827:doi
823:288
267:in
103:in
74:in
3193::
2221:c.
2175:,
1407:,
1359:,
1344:,
1328:,
1312:,
1297:^
1289:,
1274:^
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1111:,
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