2439:
with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. Discontinuous technology allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated, and finally vacuum is pulled. SSV run at partial atmospheres (typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure) in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry versus species found in North
America). RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources.
2359:
allowed to return to room temperature over a few hours to a day. The cycle is then repeated, each time the latent heat in the wood is removed through the water content in the wood sublimating and/or evaporating and condensing on the sides of the container and in the cold trap. The cycles are repeated until the moisture content of the wood is at a pre-determined acceptable level. Instead of cycling the wood in the chamber, heat can be added to the wood at a rate that matches the rate of sublimation of ice in the wood to water vapor, which is deposited on the inside of the chamber or in the cold trap. An advantage of freeze drying wood is that the form of the wood is maintained, and shrinkage does not typically occur. Shrinkage will occur over time after the wood is freeze dried, but this typically will not cause defects in the wood.
886:
to $ 2,000 per cubic metre or more with drying and processing. However, currently used conventional drying processes often result in significant quality problems from cracks, both externally and internally, reducing the value of the product. For example, in
Queensland (Anon, 1997), on the assumption that 10% of the dried softwood is devalued by $ 200 per cubic metre because of drying defects, saw millers are losing about $ 5 million a year. In Australia, the loss could be $ 40 million a year for softwood and an equal or higher amount for hardwood. Thus, proper drying under controlled conditions prior to use is of great importance in timber use, in countries where climatic conditions vary considerably at different times of the year.
756:
pressure within wood, desorption takes place. The largest-sized capillaries, which are full of water at the time, empty first. Vapour pressure within the wood falls as water is successively contained in smaller capillaries. A stage is eventually reached when vapour pressure within the wood equals vapour pressure in the ambient space above the wood, and further desorption ceases. The amount of moisture that remains in the wood at this stage is in equilibrium with water vapour pressure in the ambient space, and is termed the equilibrium moisture content or EMC (Siau, 1984). Because of its hygroscopicity, wood tends to reach a moisture content that is in equilibrium with the relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air.
951:
vessels. The lateral permeability and transverse flow is often very low in hardwoods. The vessels in hardwoods are sometimes blocked by the presence of tyloses and/or by secreting gums and resins in some other species, as mentioned earlier. The presence of gum veins, the formation of which is often a result of natural protective response of trees to injury, is commonly observed on the surface of sawn boards of most eucalypts. Despite the generally higher volume fraction of rays in hardwoods (typically 15% of wood volume), the rays are not particularly effective in radial flow, nor are the pits on the radial surfaces of fibres effective in tangential flow (Langrish and Walker, 1993).
122:
1025:(1994). Though the agreement between the moisture-content profiles predicted by the diffusion model based on moisture-content gradients is better at lower moisture contents than at higher ones, there is no evidence to suggest that there are significantly different moisture-transport mechanisms operating at higher moisture contents for this timber. Their observations are consistent with a transport process that is driven by the total concentration of water. The diffusion model is used here based on this empirical evidence that the moisture-content gradient is a driving force for drying this type of impermeable timber.
1089:
drying kiln is the dry-bulb temperature (usually denoted by Tg), which is the temperature of a vapour-gas mixture determined by inserting a thermometer with a dry bulb. On the other hand, the wet-bulb temperature (TW) is defined as the temperature reached by a small amount of liquid evaporating in a large amount of an unsaturated air-vapour mixture. The temperature sensing element of this thermometer is kept moist with a porous fabric sleeve (cloth) usually put in a reservoir of clean water. A minimum air flow of 2 m/s is needed to prevent a zone of stagnant damp air formation around the sleeve (Walker
2443:
plant costs) involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the "drying system". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying.
790:
the growth rings. Shrinkage from the pith outwards, or radially, is usually considerably less than tangential shrinkage, while longitudinal (along the grain) shrinkage is so slight as to be usually neglected. The longitudinal shrinkage is 0.1% to 0.3%, in contrast to transverse shrinkages, which is 2% to 10%. Tangential shrinkage is often about twice as great as in the radial direction, although in some species it is as much as five times as great. The shrinkage is about 5% to 10% in the tangential direction and about 2% to 6% in the radial direction (Walker
198:
760:
604:
947:, 2000). Moisture in wood moves within the wood as liquid or vapour through several types of passageways, based on the nature of the driving force, (e.g. pressure or moisture gradient), and variations in wood structure (Langrish and Walker, 1993), as explained in the next section on driving forces for moisture movement. These pathways consist of cavities of the vessels, fibres, ray cells, pit chambers and their pit membrane openings, intercellular spaces and transitory cell wall passageways.
1010:, is accompanied by a gradient of chemical potential under isothermal conditions. Moisture will redistribute itself throughout the wood until its chemical potential is uniform throughout, resulting in a zero potential gradient at equilibrium (Skaar, 1988). The flux of moisture attempting to achieve the equilibrium state is assumed to be proportional to the difference in its chemical potential, and inversely proportional to the path length over which the potential difference acts (Keey
960:
with which fluids are transported through a porous solid under the influence of some driving forces, e.g. capillary pressure gradient or moisture gradient. It is clear that solids must be porous to be permeable, but it does not necessarily follow that all porous bodies are permeable. Permeability can only exist if the void spaces are interconnected by openings. For example, a hardwood may be permeable because there is intervessel pitting with openings in the membranes (Keey
4545:
1006:
unsaturated air or wood below the fibre saturation point influences the drying of wood. Equilibrium will occur at the equilibrium moisture content (as defined earlier) of wood when the chemical potential of water in the wood becomes equal to that in the surrounding air. The chemical potential of sorbed water is a function of wood moisture content. Therefore, a gradient of wood moisture content (between surface and centre), or more specifically of water
2421:
a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges.
1108:
resulting from the reduction of the moisture content in the surface layers when the relative humidity of air is reduced. The relative humidity is usually expressed on a percentage basis. For drying, the other essential parameter related to relative humidity is the absolute humidity, which is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air (kg of water per kg of dry air). However, its influenced by the amount of water in the heated air.
2216:
229:
25:
2062:
781:
location. For example, according to the
Australian Standard for Timber Drying Quality (AS/NZS 4787, 2001), the EMC is recommended to be 10–12% for the majority of Australian states, although extreme cases are up to 15 to 18% for some places in Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia and Tasmania. However, the EMC is as low as 6 to 7% in dry centrally heated houses and offices or in permanently air-conditioned buildings.
4555:
4565:
1115:
However, a higher drying rate is not always desirable, particularly for impermeable hardwoods, because higher drying rates develop greater stresses that may cause the timber to crack or distort. At very low fan speeds, less than 1 m/s, the air flow through the stack is often laminar flow, and the heat transfer between the timber surface and the moving air stream is not particularly effective (Walker
820:
290:
higher moisture content. This core will then begin to dry and shrink. However, any shrinkage is resisted by the already 'set' shell. This leads to reversed stresses; compression stresses on the shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening. Case-hardened may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released by
189:), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100 °C exhaust
370:
2354:
about 10 times the energy that is taken through evaporation of water by heat. In practice, freeze drying of wood can be accomplished by placing room temperature wood in a vacuum chamber that can be chilled to -30 degrees C or lower, evacuating the chamber to a few millibars, and at the same time cooling the chamber to a freezing temperature. The
964:, 2000). If these membranes are occluded or encrusted, or if the pits are aspirated, the wood assumes a closed-cell structure and may be virtually impermeable. The density is also important for impermeable hardwoods because more cell-wall material is traversed per unit distance, which offers increased resistance to diffusion (Keey
2044:
materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1–2 mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.
1421:) which are the radial, tangential and longitudinal dimensions respectively, in inches, with the longitudinal dimension divided by ten because water diffuses about 10 times more rapidly in the longitudinal direction (along the grain) than in the lateral dimensions. The solution to the above equation is:
1946:
2353:
of the material. Heat is typically added slowly to the material to allow the water contained in the wood to sublimate directly into vapor, and be deposited on the sides of the vacuum chamber or in the cold trap through which the chamber is evacuated. Freeze drying through sublimation typically takes
921:
Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and
780:
To minimize the changes in wood moisture content or the movement of wooden objects in service, wood is usually dried to a moisture content that is close to the average EMC conditions to which it will be exposed. These conditions vary for interior uses compared with exterior uses in a given geographic
2420:
Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to
2156:
Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to
1206:
The rate at which wood dries depends upon a number of factors, the most important of which are the temperature, the dimensions of the wood, and the relative humidity. Simpson and
Tschernitz have developed a simple model of wood drying as a function of these three variables. Although the analysis was
1063:
The successful control of drying defects in a drying process consists in maintaining a balance between the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface and the rate of outward movement of moisture from the interior of the wood. The way in which drying can be controlled will now be explained. One
789:
Shrinkage and swelling may occur in wood when the moisture content is changed (Stamm, 1964). Shrinkage occurs as moisture content decreases, while swelling takes place when it increases. Volume change is not equal in all directions. The greatest dimensional change occurs in a direction tangential to
755:
substance. It has the ability to take in or give off moisture in the form of vapour. Water contained in wood exerts vapour pressure of its own, which is determined by the maximum size of the capillaries filled with water at any time. If water vapour pressure in the ambient space is lower than vapour
2438:
Newer wood drying technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates
2358:
of the ice in the wood will come out through the water vapor, which will condense as ice on the inside of the chamber. After a few hours under vacuum and freezing conditions, the chamber is returned to normal pressure, the wood removed and bagged in plastic to keep water from condensing on it, and
1028:
Differences in moisture content between the surface and the centre (gradient, the chemical potential difference between interface and bulk) move the bound water through the small passageways in the cell wall by diffusion. In comparison with capillary movement, diffusion is a slow process. Diffusion
889:
Drying, if carried out promptly after felling of trees, also protects timber against primary decay, fungal stain and attack by certain kinds of insects. Organisms, which cause decay and stain, generally cannot thrive in timber with a moisture content below 20%. Several, though not all, insect pests
885:
Drying timber is one method of adding value to sawn products from the primary wood processing industries. According to the
Australian Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation (FWPRDC), green sawn hardwood, which is sold at about $ 350 per cubic metre or less, increases in value
872:
Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a
2446:
The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and
2312:
Immersion in running water quickly removes sap and then the wood is air dried. "...it reduces the elasticity and durability of the wood and also makes it brittle." But there are competing perspectives, e.g., "Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, states, that timber for the
2106:
Significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kilns and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and
2076:
Chamber drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. With kiln drying, as is the case with air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying,
1993:
the moisture content of the wood at equilibrium is about 7.4%. The time to reduce the lumber from 85% moisture content to 25% moisture content is then about 4.5 days. Higher temperatures will yield faster drying times, but they will also create greater stresses in the wood due because the moisture
881:
has been noted for the high anti-shrink or anti-swell efficiency (ASE) attainable without damage to wood. However, acetylation of wood has been slow to be commercialised due to the cost, corrosion and the entrapment of the acetic acid in wood. There is an extensive volume of literature relating to
377:
The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the
2110:
Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber companies. A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are successively varied according to the type of timber being
1088:
If the relative humidity is kept constant, the higher the temperature, the higher the drying rate. Temperature influences the drying rate by increasing the moisture holding capacity of the air, as well as by accelerating the diffusion rate of moisture through the wood. The actual temperature in a
1055:
The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up
1046:
m long, 250 mm in width and 43 mm in thickness. If the boards are quartersawn, then the width will be in the radial direction whereas the thickness will be in tangential direction, and vice versa for plain-sawn boards. Most of the moisture is removed from wood by lateral movement during
959:
The available space for air and moisture in wood depends on the density and porosity of wood. Porosity is the volume fraction of void space in a solid. The porosity is reported to be 1.2 to 4.6% of dry volume of wood cell wall (Siau, 1984). On the other hand, permeability is a measure of the ease
876:
It is probably impossible to completely eliminate dimensional change in wood, but elimination of change in size may be approximated by chemical modification. For example, wood can be treated with chemicals to replace the hydroxyl groups with other hydrophobic functional groups of modifying agents
615:
When green wood dries, free water from the cell lumina, held by the capillary forces only, is the first to go. Physical properties, such as strength and shrinkage, are generally not affected by the removal of free water. The fibre saturation point (FSP) is defined as the moisture content at which
289:
Case hardening describes lumber or timber that has been dried too rapidly. Wood initially dries from the shell (surface), shrinking the shell and putting the core under compression. When this shell is at a low moisture content it will 'set' and resist shrinkage. The core of the wood is still at a
2442:
Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire
2069:
The process of artificial or 'oven' drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be achieved directly, using natural gas and/or electricity, or indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers. Solar energy is also an option. In the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative
1114:
Drying time and timber quality depend on the air velocity and its uniform circulation. At a constant temperature and relative humidity, the highest possible drying rate is obtained by rapid circulation of air across the surface of wood, giving rapid removal of moisture evaporating from the wood.
1107:
of air is defined as the partial pressure of water vapour divided by the saturated vapour pressure at the same temperature and total pressure (Siau, 1984). If the temperature is kept constant, lower relative humidities result in higher drying rates due to the increased moisture gradient in wood,
2142:
Air circulation is the means for carrying the heat to and the moisture away from all parts of a load. Forced circulation kilns are most common, where the air is circulated by means of fans or blowers, which may be installed outside the kiln chamber (external fan kiln) or inside it (internal fan
1041:
It is reported that the ratio of the longitudinal to the transverse (radial and tangential) diffusion rates for wood ranges from about 100 at a moisture content of 5%, to 2–4 at a moisture content of 25% (Langrish and Walker, 1993). Radial diffusion is somewhat faster than tangential diffusion.
767:
The EMC of wood varies with the ambient relative humidity (a function of temperature) significantly, to a lesser degree with the temperature. Siau (1984) reported that the EMC also varies very slightly with species, mechanical stress, drying history of wood, density, extractives content and the
2135:
Humidification is commonly accomplished by introducing live steam into the kiln through a steam spray pipe. In order to limit and control the humidity of the air when large quantities of moisture are being rapidly evaporated from the timber, there is normally a provision for ventilation of the
2121:
The chambers are generally built of brick masonry, or hollow cement-concrete slabs. Sheet metal or prefabricated aluminium in a double-walled construction with sandwiched thermal insulation, such as glass wool or polyurethane foams, are materials that are also used in some modern timber ovens.
2428:
Dehumidification kilns are very similar to conventional kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat is primarily supplied by an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule where the heat
2412:
Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber
2039:
Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic
1005:
is explained here since it is the true driving force for the transport of water in both liquid and vapour phases in wood (Siau, 1984). The Gibbs free energy per mole of substance is usually expressed as the chemical potential of that substance (Skaar, 1933). The chemical potential of water in
968:, 2000). Hence lighter woods, in general, dry more rapidly than do the heavier woods. The transport of fluids is often bulk flow (momentum transfer) for permeable softwoods at high temperature while diffusion occurs for impermeable hardwoods (Siau, 1984). These mechanisms are discussed below.
950:
Movement of water takes place in these passageways in any direction, longitudinally in the cells, as well as laterally from cell to cell until it reaches the lateral drying surfaces of the wood. The higher longitudinal permeability of sapwood of hardwood is generally caused by the presence of
2043:
The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in
2201:
A dehumidification chamber can be an unvented system (closed loop) or a partially vented system which uses a heat pump to condense moisture from the air using the cold side of the refrigeration process (evaporator.) The heat thus gathered is sent to the hot side of the refrigeration process
2128:
Heating is usually carried out by steam heat exchangers and pipes of various configurations (e.g. plain, or finned (transverse or longitudinal) tubes) or by large flue pipes through which hot gases from a wood-burning furnace are passed. Only occasionally is electricity or gas employed for
1072:
The external drying conditions (temperature, relative humidity and air velocity) control the external boundary conditions for drying, and hence the drying rate, as well as affecting the rate of internal moisture movement. The drying rate is affected by external drying conditions (Walker
360:
is much less than that of softwood, making it more difficult to dry. Although there are about a hundred times more species of hardwood trees than softwood trees, the ability to be dried and processed faster and more easily makes softwood the main supply of commercial wood nowadays.
2291:
Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month, a feat that was previously thought to be impossible.
1093:, 1993). Since air passes over the wet sleeve, water is evaporated and cools the wet-bulb thermometer. The difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, the wet-bulb depression, is used to determine the relative humidity from a standard hygrometric chart (Walker
2147:
Throughout the process, it is necessary to keep close control of the moisture content using a moisture meter system in order to reduce over-drying and allow operators to know when to pull the charge. Preferably, this in-kiln moisture meter will have an auto-shutoff feature.
1097:, 1993). A higher difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures indicates a lower relative humidity. For example, if the dry-bulb temperature is 100 °C and wet-bulb temperature 60 °C, then the relative humidity is read as 17% from a hygrometric chart.
302:
Wood is divided, according to its botanical origin, into two kinds: softwoods, from coniferous trees, and hardwoods, from broad-leaved trees. Softwoods are lighter and generally simple in structure, whereas hardwoods are harder and more complex. However, in
Australia,
193:, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood.
2048:
Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln
2416:
Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry 1-inch-thick (25 mm) green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%.
2287:
While conventional drying uses warm, dry air to skim water off the surface, vacuum kilns can boil water from within the wood. This enables a good vacuum kiln to dry very thick wood very quickly. It is possible to dry 12/4 Red Oak fresh off the saw to 7% in 11 days.
2280:
Low ambient pressure does lower the boiling point of water but the amount of energy required to convert the liquid to vapor is the same. Savings come from not being required to heat a huge building and not being required to vent the heat while lowering humidity.
2202:(condenser) to re-heat the air and returns this drier and warmer air inside the kiln. Fans blow the air through the piles as in a normal kiln. These kilns traditionally operate from 100 °F to 160 °F and use about half the energy of a conventional kiln.
934:, 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content.
776:
Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes.
2070:
humidity and air circulation creates variable conditions to achieve specific drying profiles. To achieve this, the timber is stacked in chambers that are fitted with equipment to control atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and circulation rate (Walker
2424:
Most softwood lumber kilns operate below 115 °C (239 °F) temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below 80 °C (176 °F). Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed 60 °C (140 °F).
1042:
Although longitudinal diffusion is most rapid, it is of practical importance only when short pieces are dried. Generally the timber boards are much longer than in width or thickness. For example, a typical size of a green board used for this research was 6
2467:
1910.265(f)(3)(ii)(a): If operating procedures require access to kilns, kilns shall be provided with escape doors that operate easily from the inside, swing in the direction of exit, and are located in or near the main door at the end of the passageway.
988:
Capillary forces determine the movements (or absence of movement) of free water. It is due to both adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion is the attraction between water to other substances and cohesion is the attraction of the molecules in water to each other.
992:
As wood dries, evaporation of water from the surface sets up capillary forces that exert a pull on the free water in the zones of wood beneath the surfaces. When there is no longer any free water in the wood capillary forces are no longer of importance.
178:
until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the
512:
2759:
Anon. (1997). Timber markets, home and away: Australian growers capitalising on international demand. Pie, Newsletter of
Australia's International and National Primary Industries and Energy (PIE) R&D Organisations. Volume 7 (Summer Issue):
388:
The bulk of water contained in the cell lumina is only held by capillary forces. It is not bound chemically and is called free water. Free water is not in the same thermodynamic state as liquid water: energy is required to overcome the
1171:
These timbers show a moderate tendency to crack and split during seasoning. They can be seasoned free from defects with moderately rapid drying conditions (i.e. a maximum dry-bulb temperature of 85 °C can be used). Examples are
2192:
Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules.
1746:
616:
free water should be completely gone, while the cell walls are saturated with bound water. In most types of woods, the fibre saturation point is at 25 to 30% moisture content. Siau (1984) reported that the fibre saturation point
1119:, 1993). The low effectiveness (externally) of heat transfer is not necessarily a problem if internal moisture movement is the key limitation to the movement of moisture, as it is for most hardwoods (Pordage and Langrish, 1999).
2111:
dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness, including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and split.
1033:, 2000). Furthermore, moisture migrates slowly due to the fact that extractives plug the small cell wall openings in the heartwood. This is why sapwood generally dries faster than heartwood under the same drying conditions.
2276:
These kilns can be the fastest to dry and most efficient with energy usage. In a vacuum, water boils at a lower temperature. In addition to increased speed, a vacuum kiln can also produce an improved quality in the wood.
1186:
These woods can be rapidly seasoned to be free from defects even by applying high temperatures (dry-bulb temperatures of more than 100 °C) in industrial kilns. If not dried rapidly, they may develop discolouration
913:
Dry wood generally works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber (although there are exceptions; for instance, green wood is often easier to turn than dry wood). Paints and finishes last longer on dry
2375:
Defects from uneven drying, resulting in the rupture of the wood tissue, such as checks (surface, end and internal), end splits, honey-combing and case hardening. Collapse, often shown as corrugation, or so-called
2321:
Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speeds the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage "… but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber."
2313:
joiner's use is best put in water for some time, and afterwards dried; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying; but, he adds, 'where strength is required it ought not to be put in water.'"
1509:
2367:
Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural problems such as knots (Desch and
Dinwoodie, 1996). There are two types of drying defects, although some defects involve both causes:
2778:
Doe, P.D., Oliver, A.R. and Booker, J.D. (1994). A Non-Linear Strain and
Moisture Content Model of Variable Hardwood Drying Schedules. Proc. 4th IUFRO International Wood Drying Conference, Rotorua, New Zealand.
2098:
The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60 °C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air
942:
The driving force of moisture movement is chemical potential. However, it is not always easy to relate chemical potential in wood to commonly observable variables, such as temperature and moisture content (Keey
2040:
conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and
Dinwoodie, 1996).
1998:
will be larger. For firewood, this is not an issue but for woodworking purposes, high stresses will cause the wood to crack and be unusable. Normal drying times to obtain minimal seasoning checks (cracks) in
2380:
of the wood surface, may also occur (Innes, 1996). Collapse is a defect that results from the physical flattening of fibres to above the fibre saturation point and is thus not a form of shrinkage anisotropy.
980:, 2000). These are discussed here, including capillary action, which is a mechanism for free water transport in permeable softwoods. Total pressure difference is the driving force during wood vacuum drying.
2478:. Pits shall be well ventilated, drained, and lighted, and shall be large enough to safely accommodate the kiln operator together with operating devices such as valves, dampers, damper rods, and traps.
1629:
1325:
611:
markings on a wood pallet indicate KD: kiln-dried, HT: heat treated, and DB: debarked. Essentially all wood packaging material that is exported to an IPPC member state must have a stamp such as this.
2087:
This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital sits for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing, operating and maintaining an industrial kiln is expensive.
1135:
These woods are slow and difficult to dry if the final product is to be free from defects, particularly cracks and splits. Examples are heavy structural timbers with high density such as ironbark (
2102:
If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months.
2432:
Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive.
2122:
However, brick masonry chambers, with lime and (mortar) plaster on the inside and painted with impermeable coatings, are used widely and have been found to be satisfactory for many applications.
710:
1064:
of the most successful ways of wood drying or seasoning would be kiln drying, where the wood is placed into a kiln compartment in stacks and dried by steaming, and releasing the steam slowly.
2081:
Timber can be dried to any desired low moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.
976:
Three main driving forces used in different version of diffusion models are moisture content, the partial pressure of water vapour, and the chemical potential of water (Skaar, 1988; Keey
419:
molecules in the cell wall. The hydroxyl groups are negatively charged. Because water is a polar liquid, the free hydroxyl groups in cellulose attract and hold water by hydrogen bonding.
2338:
Electrical seasoning involves running an electric current through the lumber causing heat to be generated and drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality.
2829:
Pordage, L.J. and Langrish, T.A.G. (1999). Simulation of the effect of air velocity in the drying of hardwood timber. Drying Technology - An International Journal, 17(1&2):237-256.
1060:, 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding).
1419:
730:
strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);
1680:
444:
1715:
641:
2844:
Rowell, R.M. (1991). Chemical Modification of Wood. In: Hon, D.N.-S and Shiraishi, N. (eds), Wood and Cellulosic Chemistry. pp. 703–756. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
569:
542:
1959:, the saturation vapor pressure of water is found to be about 192 mmHg (25.6 kPa). The time constant for drying a 1-inch-thick (25 mm) red oak board at 150
1989:
days, which is the time required to reduce the moisture content to 1/e = 37% of its initial deviation from equilibrium. If the relative humidity is 0.50, then using the
1987:
2384:
The standard organizations in Australia and New Zealand (AS/NZS 4787, 2001) have developed a standard for timber quality. The five measures of drying quality include:
907:
Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type preservatives.
1559:
1539:
1348:
1246:
910:
In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material should be dried to a certain moisture content for the appropriate reactions to occur.
1941:{\displaystyle t=-\tau \,\ln \left({\frac {M-M_{e}}{M_{0}-M_{e}}}\right)={\frac {-L^{n}}{a+bp_{\text{sat}}(T)}}\,\ln \left({\frac {M-M_{e}}{M_{0}-M_{e}}}\right)}
2435:
In 1949 a Chicago company introduced a wood drying kiln that used infrared lamps that they claimed reduced the standard drying time from 14 days to 45 minutes.
2464:
1910.265(f)(3)(i)(c): Adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling.
4438:
2157:
ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.
591:, 1993). The equation can also be expressed as a fraction of the mass of the water and the mass of the oven dry wood rather than a percentage. For example,
2823:
Langrish, T.A.G. and Walker, J.C.F. (1993). Transport Processes in Wood. In: Walker, J.C.F. Primary Wood Processing. Chapman and Hall, London. pp121–152.
2349:
is accomplished by lowering the pressure in a chamber containing the wood to a few millibars, while lowering the temperature of the chamber to below the
2811:
Innes, T. (1996). Improving Seasoned Hardwood Timber Quality with Particular Reference to Collapse. PhD Thesis. University of Tasmania, Australia. 172p.
2868:
Walker, J.C.F., Butterfield, B.G., Langrish, T.A.G., Harris, J.M. and Uprichard, J.M. (1993). Primary Wood Processing. Chapman and Hall, London. 595p.
2330:
Salt seasoning is the submersion of wood in a solution of urea, sodium nitrate, all of which act as dehydrating agents. Then the wood is air dried.
720:(2000) use a different definition of the fibre saturation point (equilibrium moisture content of wood in an environment of 99% relative humidity).
2304:
with a high-temperature fan and either vents or a condensing system. Solar kilns are slower and variable due to the weather, but are low cost.
1427:
1188:
2874:
Wu, Q. (1989). An Investigation of Some Problems in Drying of Tasmanian Eucalypt Timbers. M.Eng. Sc. Thesis, University of Tasmania. 237p.
2713:
4428:
2782:
Haque, M.N. (1997). The Chemical Modification of Wood with Acetic Anhydride. MSc Dissertation. The University of Wales, Bangor, UK. 99p.
2865:
Strumillo, C. and Kudra, T. (1986). Drying: Principles, Applications and Design. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York. 448p.
2775:
Desch, H.E. and Dinwoodie, J.M. (1996). Timber: Structure, Properties, Conversion and Use. 7th ed. Macmillan Press Ltd., London. 306p.
2667:
608:
2859:
Standard Australia (2000). Timber - Classification into Strength Groups. Australian/New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS) 2878. Sydney. 36p.
2817:
Kollmann, F.F.P. and Cote, W.A.J. (1968). Principles of Wood Science and Technology. I. Solid Wood. Springer-Verlag, New York. 592p.
1021:, 2000). The diffusion model using the moisture content gradient as a driving force was applied successfully by Wu (1989) and Doe
1567:
1262:
2920:
2862:
Standard Australia (2001). Timber - Assessment of Drying Quality. Australian/New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS) 4787. Sydney. 24p.
2518:
438:
The moisture content of wood is calculated as the mass change as a proportion of the dry mass, by the formula (Siau, 1984):
2409:
A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency.
2826:
Panshin, A.J. and de Zeeuw, C. (1970). Textbook of Wood Technology. Volume 1, Third Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 705 p.
2593:
89:
4413:
1207:
done for red oak, the procedure may be applied to any species of wood by adjusting the constant parameters of the model.
649:
61:
2458:
1910.265(f)(3)(i)(a): Main kiln doors shall be provided with a method of holding them open while kiln is being loaded.
2164:
Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.
2084:
The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.
4558:
4443:
2802:
2263:
1165:). They require considerable protection and care against rapid drying conditions for the best results (Bootle, 1994).
1017:
The gradient in chemical potential is related to the moisture content gradient as explained in above equations (Keey
859:
276:
108:
2372:
Defects from shrinkage anisotropy, resulting in warping: cupping, bowing, twisting, crooking, spring and diamonding.
2245:
258:
4418:
723:
Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:
68:
830:
2188:
Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use.
4423:
2471:
1910.265(f)(3)(ii)(b): Escape doors shall be of adequate height and width to accommodate an average size man.
2241:
1128:
The timbers are classified as follows according to their ease of drying and their proneness to drying degrade:
254:
46:
2702:
Basic civil engineering: for B.E. / B.Tech first year courses of various universities including M.D.U. and K.U
1361:
4433:
4143:
3161:
357:
75:
727:
volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);
4568:
3770:
2772:
Bootle, K.R. (1994). Wood in Australia: Types, Properties and Uses. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Sydney. 443p.
2767:
2237:
1990:
1219:
746:
250:
42:
2729:
2850:
Sjostrom, E. (1993). Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications. Academic Press Limited, London. 293p.
507:{\displaystyle {\text{moisture content}}={\frac {m_{\text{g}}-m_{\text{od}}}{m_{\text{od}}}}\times 100\%}
2095:
In air drying, there is little control over the drying conditions, so drying rates cannot be controlled.
893:
In addition to the above advantages of drying timber, the following points are also significant (Walker
57:
3620:
1649:
2814:
Keey, R.B., Langrish, T.A.G. and Walker, J.C.F. (2000). Kiln-Drying of Lumber. Springer, Berlin. 326p.
2052:
Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood.
4594:
4589:
4448:
4367:
3586:
2913:
210:
2871:
Wise, L.E. and Jahn, E.C. (1952). Wood Chemistry. Vol 2. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. 1343p.
2624:
1693:
619:
2226:
1180:) and other timbers of medium density (Bootle, 1994), which are potentially suitable for furniture.
837:
547:
239:
520:
170:
When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in
3800:
2948:
2943:
2534:
Mantanis, G.I.; Young, R.A.; Rowell, R.M. (1994). "Swelling of wood: Part 1. Swelling in water".
2461:
1910.265(f)(3)(i)(b): Counterweights on vertical lift doors shall be boxed or otherwise guarded.
2230:
1683:
243:
35:
1966:
768:
direction of sorption in which the moisture change takes place (i.e. adsorption or desorption).
16:
Also known as seasoning, which is the reduction of the moisture content of wood prior to its use
4525:
3606:
3576:
3571:
3277:
1007:
733:
571:
is its oven dry mass (the attainment of constant mass generally after drying in an oven set at
121:
736:, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP.
3591:
3440:
3302:
3214:
2611:
2508:
1137:
930:
Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker
393:. Furthermore, free water may contain chemicals, altering the drying characteristics of wood.
213:
with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture.
2569:
4599:
4548:
4453:
4337:
4228:
3722:
3402:
3382:
3322:
2906:
2841:
Rowell, R.M. (1983). Chemical modification of wood. Forest Product Abstract, 6(12):363-382.
2833:
Rasmussen, E.F. (1988). Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (ed.).
2170:
Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.
1544:
1541:
is the initial moisture content. It was found that for red oak lumber, the "time constant"
1517:
1333:
1224:
1142:
1067:
8:
4178:
4173:
3707:
3692:
3672:
3667:
3543:
3425:
1956:
807:
the features of the cell wall structure such as microfibril angle modifications and pits;
82:
2300:
A solar kiln is a cross between kiln drying and air drying. These kilns are generally a
4236:
3746:
3682:
3307:
3262:
3034:
2994:
1717:
measured in mmHg, the following values of the constants were found for red oak lumber.
1050:
1002:
2884:
2090:
In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.
197:
4530:
4387:
4218:
4198:
3785:
3528:
3252:
3094:
2892:
2798:
2763:
2551:
2514:
1150:
1104:
373:
Wood after being coated with a layer of water, with reflectivity similar to a puddle.
2820:
Kumar, S. (1994). Chemical modification of wood. Wood and Fiber Sci., 26(2):270-280.
1358:
and has units of time. The typical wood dimension is roughly the smallest value of (
643:(kg/kg) is dependent on the temperature T (°C) according to the following equation:
4188:
4163:
4138:
4108:
3765:
3347:
3242:
3009:
2786:
2543:
2173:
Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn)
1191:) and mould on the surface. Examples are softwoods and low density timbers such as
1029:
is the generally suggested mechanism for the drying of impermeable hardwoods (Keey
878:
141:
2388:
moisture content gradient and presence of residual drying stress (case-hardening);
1056:
because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey
882:
the chemical modification of wood (Rowell, 1983, 1991; Kumar, 1994; Haque, 1997).
4520:
4133:
4069:
3843:
3563:
3533:
3493:
3407:
3109:
2487:
2350:
1173:
390:
220:). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole.
2847:
Siau, J.F. (1984). Transport processes in wood. Springer-Verlag, New York. 245p.
917:
The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying.
836:
The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
4499:
4489:
4397:
4357:
4153:
4148:
4113:
4064:
4039:
4029:
4019:
3833:
3596:
3292:
3114:
3099:
3084:
2984:
2284:
Since all free water can be removed at below 115 °F, quality is improved.
901:
Dried timber is lighter, and the transportation and handling costs are reduced.
841:
603:
312:
2856:
Stamm, A. J. (1964). Wood and Cellulose Science. Ronald Press, New York. 509p.
1210:
Simply put, the model assumes that the rate of change of the moisture content
801:
the alternation of late wood and early wood increments within the annual ring;
759:
595:(oven dry basis) expresses the same moisture content as 59% (oven dry basis).
4604:
4583:
4469:
4362:
4332:
4034:
4004:
3999:
3989:
3936:
3790:
3775:
3737:
3687:
3677:
3430:
3387:
3144:
3069:
3019:
2979:
2974:
2794:
2555:
2346:
1193:
804:
the influence of wood rays on the radial direction (Kollmann and Cote, 1968);
412:
400:
4282:
4277:
4213:
4168:
4158:
4123:
4054:
4049:
4009:
3981:
3916:
3901:
3838:
3810:
3754:
3750:
3742:
3412:
3392:
3129:
3104:
3089:
3049:
3014:
426:
4504:
4494:
4208:
4193:
4059:
4044:
3994:
3941:
3906:
3848:
3795:
3727:
3468:
3184:
3134:
2929:
2355:
190:
171:
2853:
Skaar, C. (1988). Wood Water Relations. Springer-Verlag, New York. 283p.
877:(Stamm, 1964). Among all the existing processes, wood modification with
4392:
4347:
4128:
4074:
4024:
4014:
3966:
3956:
3911:
3853:
3818:
3758:
3513:
3503:
3498:
3362:
3317:
3166:
3079:
3044:
2547:
2301:
1068:
Influence of temperature, relative humidity and rate of air circulation
904:
Dried timber is stronger than green timber in most strength properties.
752:
206:
2730:"1910.265 - Sawmills. | Occupational Safety and Health Administration"
2007:
inch or 4/4 lumber) Red Oak ranges from 22 to 30 days, and in 8/4, (50
1504:{\displaystyle {\frac {M-M_{e}}{M_{0}-M_{e}}}=e^{-{\frac {t}{\tau }}}}
4327:
4297:
4292:
4183:
4118:
3961:
3946:
3921:
3732:
3712:
3657:
3647:
3581:
3553:
3488:
3124:
3059:
3004:
2999:
2989:
2176:
Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.
1158:
408:
325:
2215:
1051:
Reasons for splits and cracks during timber drying and their control
403:. The attraction of wood for water arises from the presence of free
228:
24:
4307:
4287:
3931:
3896:
3632:
3508:
3435:
3377:
3342:
3337:
3234:
3153:
3064:
3029:
3024:
2061:
1995:
404:
329:
328:
such as pine are typically much lighter and easier to process than
186:
175:
2182:
Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.
4484:
4479:
4372:
4342:
4302:
4246:
4100:
4079:
3971:
3926:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3858:
3828:
3823:
3697:
3601:
3538:
3483:
3372:
3327:
3282:
3204:
3194:
3179:
3074:
3054:
2594:"Importance of Thickness Variation in Kiln Drying Red Oak Lumber"
333:
2570:"The Shrinking and Swelling of Wood and Its Effect on Furniture"
356:). Because of hardwood's denser and more complex structure, its
4474:
4203:
3951:
3702:
3652:
3548:
3518:
3458:
3332:
3257:
3219:
3172:
3039:
2957:
2893:
Bois, Paul J.. "Handling, Drying, and Storing Heavy Oak Lumber"
2453:
416:
291:
157:
2898:
4352:
4261:
4256:
4241:
3662:
3453:
3446:
3417:
3397:
3367:
3352:
3312:
3297:
3287:
3272:
3267:
3247:
3224:
3199:
3119:
2756:
ABARE (2000). National Plantation Inventory, March, 2000. 4p.
2413:
packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln.
2107:
conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying.
2023:
Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:
1036:
352:. Once dried, both consist of approximately 12% of moisture (
2895:
U. S. Forest Products Laboratory technical bulletin #8 1978.
4251:
3780:
3717:
3642:
3523:
3478:
3473:
3209:
2953:
2704:., Haryana. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications, 2003. 85. Print.
1624:{\displaystyle \tau ={\frac {L^{n}}{a+bp_{\text{sat}}(T)}}}
217:
149:
145:
2791:
Understanding Wood: A Craftsman's Guide to Wood Technology
1320:{\displaystyle {\frac {dM}{dt}}=-{\frac {M-M_{e}}{\tau }}}
429:
is normally negligible at normal temperature and humidity.
369:
4377:
3868:
3637:
3463:
3357:
3189:
797:
Differential transverse shrinkage of wood is related to:
205:
For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used
2657:,. London: Macmillan and co., limited;, 1905. 8. Print.
2642:
Fine woodworking on wood and how to dry it: 41 articles
2429:
required may exceed the heat generated by the DH unit.
1218:
is proportional to how far the wood sample is from its
1123:
971:
2591:
771:
4439:
International Federation of Building and Wood Workers
2700:
Punmia, B.C., Ashok Kumar Jain, and Arun Kumar Jain.
1969:
1749:
1696:
1652:
1570:
1547:
1520:
1430:
1364:
1336:
1265:
1227:
652:
622:
550:
523:
447:
160:, whereas air drying is the more traditional method.
2769:
In: Springer Handbook of Wood Science and Technology
2688:. London: Longmans, Greene and Co., 1891. 390.Print.
2644:. Newtown, Conn.: Taunton Press, 1986. 86-89. Print.
216:
Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (
2533:
2077:conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:
1690:. For time measured in days, length in inches, and
705:{\displaystyle X_{\text{fsp}}=0.30-(T-20C)/1000K\;}
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1981:
1940:
1709:
1674:
1623:
1553:
1533:
1503:
1413:
1342:
1319:
1240:
925:
704:
635:
563:
536:
506:
4581:
2785:
996:
810:the chemical composition of the middle lamella.
740:
2527:
2914:
2325:
2316:
148:before its use. When the drying is done in a
2766:et al. (2023). Basics of wood drying. link:
2454:OSHA Standards regarding Dry Kiln Facilities
163:There are two main reasons for drying wood:
2599:. Corvallis, Oregon: Western Dry Kiln Clubs
2244:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2018:
364:
307:generally describes rain forest trees, and
257:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2921:
2907:
2592:Simpson, William; John Tschernitz (1979).
1037:Moisture movement directions for diffusion
954:
701:
2832:
2510:Industrial Heat Pump-Assisted Wood Drying
2264:Learn how and when to remove this message
2114:The main elements of chamber drying are:
2072:et al., 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996).
1876:
1762:
1392:
1378:
1248:, which is a function of the temperature
860:Learn how and when to remove this message
784:
598:
277:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
4429:Building and Wood Workers' International
2696:
2694:
2196:
2151:
2060:
2015:inch) it will range from 65 to 90 days.
1414:{\displaystyle L_{r},\,L_{t},\,L_{L}/10}
758:
602:
368:
196:
120:
2333:
937:
4582:
2447:high-temperature drying of softwoods.
2065:Large wood-drying kiln, used for maple
587:) for 24 hours as mentioned by Walker
2902:
2691:
2636:
2634:
2506:
763:Equilibrium moisture content in wood.
399:Bound water is bound to the wood via
4564:
2242:adding citations to reliable sources
2209:
1740:Solving for the drying time yields:
1124:Classification of timbers for drying
972:Driving forces for moisture movement
897:, 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996):
813:
425:Water in cell lumina in the form of
381:Wood contains water in three forms:
255:adding citations to reliable sources
222:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
4554:
4414:American Association of Woodturners
2684:Smith, Percy Guillemard Llewellyn.
2404:
1081:, 2000), as will now be described.
983:
922:timber companies around the world.
772:Moisture content of wood in service
433:
13:
2750:
2631:
2307:
1684:saturation vapor pressure of water
501:
201:Small firewood logs drying on-site
14:
4616:
4444:National Wood Carvers Association
2878:
2655:A manual of carpentry and joinery
2391:surface, internal and end checks;
2362:
1675:{\displaystyle p_{\text{sat}}(T)}
1350:is a function of the temperature
174:objects, it will absorb or expel
4563:
4553:
4544:
4543:
4419:Architectural Woodwork Institute
2400:discolouration caused by drying.
2341:
2214:
818:
378:degree to which wood is sealed.
297:
227:
23:
2928:
2722:
2707:
2507:Minea, Vasile (6 August 2018).
926:Mechanisms of moisture movement
890:can live only in green timber.
544:is the green mass of the wood,
34:needs additional citations for
4424:British Woodworking Federation
2686:Notes on building construction
2678:
2660:
2647:
2585:
2562:
2500:
2205:
2136:chamber in all types of kilns.
2056:
1870:
1864:
1710:{\displaystyle p_{\text{sat}}}
1669:
1663:
1615:
1609:
687:
672:
636:{\displaystyle X_{\text{fsp}}}
1:
4434:Caricature Carvers of America
2493:
2295:
2034:
1354:and a typical wood dimension
564:{\displaystyle m_{\text{od}}}
332:such as fruit tree wood. The
2837:. Hardwood Research Council.
2027:natural drying or air drying
1220:equilibrium moisture content
997:Moisture content differences
747:Equilibrium moisture content
741:Equilibrium moisture content
537:{\displaystyle m_{\text{g}}}
7:
2536:Wood Science and Technology
2481:
2167:The thickness of the lumber
1168:Moderately refractory woods
10:
4621:
2714:"Infrared Oven Dries Wood"
2326:Chemical or salt seasoning
2317:Boiling or steam seasoning
2179:Permissible drying degrade
1991:Hailwood-Horrobin equation
1982:{\displaystyle \tau =3.03}
744:
396:Bound or hygroscopic water
152:, the product is known as
4539:
4513:
4462:
4449:Society of Wood Engravers
4406:
4320:
4270:
4227:
4099:
4092:
3980:
3867:
3809:
3628:
3619:
3562:
3233:
3152:
3143:
2967:
2936:
2835:Dry Kiln Operators Manual
2513:. CRC Press. p. 25.
354:Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996
336:of softwoods ranges from
209:. Often, wood must be in
2019:Methods of drying timber
1201:
365:Wood–water relationships
1561:was well expressed as:
1132:Highly refractory woods
955:Moisture movement space
125:Air-drying timber stack
4526:Frameless construction
3607:Wood-plastic composite
2668:"451. Water Seasoning"
2619:Cite journal requires
2185:Intended use of timber
2118:Construction materials
2066:
1983:
1942:
1711:
1676:
1625:
1555:
1535:
1505:
1415:
1344:
1321:
1252:and relative humidity
1242:
785:Shrinkage and swelling
764:
734:electrical resistivity
706:
637:
612:
599:Fibre saturation point
565:
538:
508:
374:
344:, while hardwoods are
202:
126:
2197:Dehumidification kiln
2152:Kiln drying schedules
2064:
1984:
1943:
1712:
1677:
1626:
1556:
1554:{\displaystyle \tau }
1536:
1534:{\displaystyle M_{0}}
1506:
1416:
1345:
1343:{\displaystyle \tau }
1322:
1243:
1241:{\displaystyle M_{e}}
1214:with respect to time
1138:Eucalyptus paniculata
762:
707:
638:
606:
566:
539:
509:
372:
200:
185:When wood is burned (
124:
4454:Timber Framers Guild
3308:Australian Blackwood
2334:Electrical seasoning
2238:improve this section
1967:
1747:
1694:
1650:
1568:
1545:
1518:
1428:
1362:
1334:
1263:
1225:
1183:Non-refractory woods
1163:Lophostemon cofertus
1111:Air circulation rate
938:Moisture passageways
650:
620:
548:
521:
445:
251:improve this section
43:improve this article
4174:Hammer-headed tenon
3693:Janka hardness test
1957:Arden Buck equation
1951:For example, at 150
407:(OH) groups in the
3035:Japanese carpentry
2640:Multiple authors.
2548:10.1007/BF00192691
2067:
1979:
1938:
1707:
1672:
1646:are constants and
1621:
1551:
1531:
1501:
1411:
1340:
1317:
1238:
1003:chemical potential
765:
702:
633:
613:
561:
534:
504:
375:
203:
127:
4577:
4576:
4531:Green woodworking
4388:Wood preservation
4316:
4315:
4219:Tongue and groove
4199:Mortise and tenon
4088:
4087:
3786:Warrington hammer
3615:
3614:
3303:African Blackwood
3095:Segmented turning
2886:Drying Technology
2793:(2nd. ed.).
2787:Hoadley, R. Bruce
2717:Popular Mechanics
2520:978-0-429-87406-2
2274:
2273:
2266:
2030:artificial drying
1932:
1874:
1861:
1818:
1704:
1660:
1619:
1606:
1497:
1476:
1315:
1284:
1151:southern blue gum
1105:relative humidity
1100:Relative humidity
870:
869:
862:
660:
630:
558:
531:
493:
490:
479:
466:
451:
287:
286:
279:
119:
118:
111:
93:
4612:
4595:Timber seasoning
4590:Drying processes
4567:
4566:
4557:
4556:
4547:
4546:
4097:
4096:
3766:Thickness planer
3626:
3625:
3420:(lime, basswood)
3150:
3149:
3010:Chainsaw carving
2923:
2916:
2909:
2900:
2899:
2838:
2808:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2726:
2720:
2711:
2705:
2698:
2689:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2672:chestofbooks.com
2664:
2658:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2629:
2628:
2622:
2617:
2615:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2598:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2504:
2474:1910.265(f)(4):
2405:Wood-drying kiln
2269:
2262:
2258:
2255:
2249:
2218:
2210:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1962:
1954:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1917:
1916:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1888:
1875:
1873:
1863:
1862:
1859:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1803:
1802:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1774:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1588:
1587:
1578:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1540:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1490:
1477:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1461:
1460:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1432:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1401:
1388:
1387:
1374:
1373:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1316:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1293:
1285:
1283:
1275:
1267:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1045:
984:Capillary action
879:acetic anhydride
865:
858:
854:
851:
845:
822:
821:
814:
711:
709:
708:
703:
694:
662:
661:
658:
642:
640:
639:
634:
632:
631:
628:
594:
586:
584:
578:
576:
570:
568:
567:
562:
560:
559:
556:
543:
541:
540:
535:
533:
532:
529:
513:
511:
510:
505:
494:
492:
491:
488:
482:
481:
480:
477:
468:
467:
464:
457:
452:
450:moisture content
449:
434:Moisture content
391:capillary forces
351:
347:
343:
339:
282:
275:
271:
268:
262:
231:
223:
142:moisture content
134:seasoning lumber
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
4620:
4619:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4580:
4579:
4578:
4573:
4535:
4521:Frame and panel
4509:
4458:
4402:
4312:
4271:Surface piecing
4266:
4223:
4144:Crown of thorns
4084:
4070:Smoothing plane
3976:
3863:
3805:
3708:Milling machine
3611:
3572:Cross-laminated
3558:
3229:
3139:
3110:Spindle turning
3100:Shingle weaving
3070:Pallet crafting
2963:
2932:
2927:
2881:
2805:
2753:
2751:Further reading
2748:
2747:
2738:
2736:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2712:
2708:
2699:
2692:
2683:
2679:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2652:
2648:
2639:
2632:
2620:
2618:
2609:
2608:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2586:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2488:Shakes (timber)
2484:
2456:
2450:
2407:
2365:
2344:
2336:
2328:
2319:
2310:
2308:Water seasoning
2298:
2270:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2235:
2219:
2208:
2199:
2154:
2139:Air circulation
2059:
2037:
2021:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1952:
1925:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1858:
1854:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1827:
1811:
1807:
1798:
1794:
1793:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1773:
1769:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1701:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1686:at temperature
1657:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1603:
1599:
1589:
1583:
1579:
1577:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1525:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1469:
1465:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1444:
1440:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1403:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1379:
1369:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1292:
1276:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1232:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1204:
1174:Sydney blue gum
1126:
1070:
1053:
1043:
1039:
999:
986:
974:
957:
940:
928:
866:
855:
849:
846:
835:
829:has an unclear
823:
819:
787:
774:
749:
743:
690:
657:
653:
651:
648:
647:
627:
623:
621:
618:
617:
601:
593:0.59 kg/kg
592:
582:
580:
574:
572:
555:
551:
549:
546:
545:
528:
524:
522:
519:
518:
487:
483:
476:
472:
463:
459:
458:
456:
448:
446:
443:
442:
436:
367:
349:
345:
341:
337:
300:
283:
272:
266:
263:
248:
232:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4618:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4575:
4574:
4572:
4571:
4561:
4551:
4540:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4517:
4515:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4500:Quarter sawing
4497:
4492:
4490:Wood splitting
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4410:
4408:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4398:Wood finishing
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4358:Paint stripper
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4324:
4322:
4318:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4274:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4233:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4105:
4103:
4094:
4090:
4089:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4065:Shoulder plane
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4040:Moulding plane
4037:
4032:
4030:Japanese plane
4027:
4022:
4020:Grooving plane
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3986:
3984:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3873:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3834:Flooring clamp
3831:
3826:
3821:
3815:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3791:Winding sticks
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3771:Timber-framing
3768:
3763:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3629:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3597:Particle board
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3577:Glue laminated
3574:
3568:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3239:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3158:
3156:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3115:Timber framing
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3085:Relief carving
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2985:Bush carpentry
2982:
2977:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2951:
2946:
2940:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2926:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2890:
2880:
2879:External links
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
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2827:
2824:
2821:
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2809:
2803:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2721:
2706:
2690:
2677:
2659:
2653:Riley, J. W..
2646:
2630:
2621:|journal=
2584:
2561:
2526:
2519:
2498:
2497:
2495:
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2406:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2382:
2381:
2373:
2364:
2363:Drying defects
2361:
2351:eutectic point
2343:
2340:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2318:
2315:
2309:
2306:
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2204:
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2168:
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2162:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2132:Humidification
2130:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2082:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2050:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2020:
2017:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1955:°F, using the
1949:
1948:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1882:
1879:
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2347:Freeze drying
2342:Freeze drying
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2223:This section
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2016:
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1194:Pinus radiata
1190:
1185:
1182:
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1152:
1148:
1147:E. pillularis
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1129:
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1080:
1077:, 1993; Keey
1076:
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827:This section
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809:
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379:
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362:
359:
355:
346:450 kg/m
342:700 kg/m
338:350 kg/m
335:
331:
327:
323:
321:
318:
314:
310:
306:
298:Types of wood
295:
293:
281:
278:
270:
260:
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246:
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241:
236:This section
234:
230:
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113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
58:"Wood drying"
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
4382:
4338:Heat bending
4283:Edge banding
4055:Router plane
4050:Rebate plane
4010:Finger plane
3741:
3445:
3439:
3419:
3413:Lignum vitae
3171:
3165:
3130:Wood carving
3105:Shipbuilding
3090:Root carving
3050:Log building
3015:Chip carving
2885:
2834:
2790:
2737:. Retrieved
2734:www.osha.gov
2733:
2724:
2716:
2709:
2701:
2685:
2680:
2671:
2662:
2654:
2649:
2641:
2612:cite journal
2601:. Retrieved
2587:
2576:. Retrieved
2564:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2509:
2502:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2397:distortions;
2383:
2378:washboarding
2377:
2366:
2345:
2337:
2329:
2320:
2311:
2299:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2260:
2251:
2236:Please help
2224:
2200:
2191:
2155:
2146:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2042:
2038:
2022:
1950:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1687:
1643:
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1635:
1633:
1513:
1355:
1351:
1329:
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1249:
1215:
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1205:
1192:
1177:
1162:
1154:
1146:
1136:
1127:
1116:
1094:
1090:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1040:
1030:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1016:
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1000:
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987:
977:
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949:
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894:
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888:
884:
875:
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856:
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791:
788:
779:
775:
766:
750:
722:
717:
715:
614:
588:
516:
437:
427:water vapour
380:
376:
358:permeability
353:
324:
319:
316:
308:
304:
301:
288:
273:
264:
249:Please help
237:
215:
204:
182:Wood burning
162:
153:
137:
133:
129:
128:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
4600:Woodworking
4559:WikiProject
4505:Rift sawing
4495:Flat sawing
4383:Wood drying
4060:Scrub plane
4045:Razee plane
3995:Block plane
3849:Mitre clamp
3796:Wood scribe
3747:Combination
3489:Purpleheart
3185:Douglas fir
3135:Woodturning
2968:Occupations
2930:Woodworking
2719:, July 1949
2356:latent heat
2254:August 2014
2206:Vacuum kiln
2161:The species
2057:Kiln drying
1963:°F is then
1155:E. globulus
1085:Temperature
850:August 2014
753:hygroscopic
313:Sclerophyll
211:equilibrium
191:temperature
172:woodworking
167:Woodworking
130:Wood drying
4584:Categories
4514:Techniques
4463:Conversion
4393:Wood stain
4321:Treatments
4109:Birdsmouth
4075:Spokeshave
4025:Jack plane
4015:Fore plane
3854:Pipe clamp
3819:Band clamp
3743:Carpenters
3564:Engineered
3514:Rubberwood
3363:Eucalyptus
3167:Calocedrus
3080:Pyrography
3045:Kohlrosing
2779:203-210pp.
2739:2019-11-07
2603:2008-11-15
2578:2024-06-23
2494:References
2302:greenhouse
2296:Solar kiln
2035:Air drying
1189:blue stain
1178:E. saligna
842:footnoting
751:Wood is a
385:Free water
317:Eucalyptus
311:describes
267:April 2024
156:timber or
154:kiln-dried
99:April 2019
69:newspapers
4303:Parquetry
4298:Oystering
4293:Marquetry
4134:Butterfly
3801:Workbench
3733:Sandpaper
3713:Mitre box
3658:Drawknife
3648:Burnisher
3633:Abrasives
3582:Hardboard
3243:Afromosia
3125:Whittling
3075:Parquetry
3060:Marquetry
3005:Certosina
3000:Carpentry
2990:Cabinetry
2937:Overviews
2764:Avramidis
2556:0043-7719
2394:collapse;
2225:does not
1971:τ
1919:−
1894:−
1881:
1831:−
1805:−
1780:−
1767:
1760:τ
1757:−
1730:= 0.00142
1572:τ
1549:τ
1495:τ
1487:−
1463:−
1438:−
1338:τ
1313:τ
1299:−
1290:−
1159:brush box
1143:blackbutt
1014:, 2000).
873:minimum.
794:, 1993).
679:−
670:−
585:4 °F
577:2 °C
502:%
496:×
470:−
409:cellulose
330:hardwoods
326:Softwoods
315:species (
238:does not
4549:Category
4328:Adhesive
4308:Purfling
4288:Intarsia
4229:Profiles
4154:Dovetail
4093:Geometry
3932:Hand saw
3917:Crosscut
3902:Circular
3897:Chainsaw
3844:Holdfast
3509:Rosewood
3441:American
3436:Mahogany
3408:Jelutong
3378:Hornbeam
3343:Cocobolo
3338:Chestnut
3253:Andiroba
3065:Millwork
3030:Intarsia
3025:Fretwork
3020:Ébéniste
2949:Glossary
2789:(2000).
2482:See also
2129:heating.
1996:gradient
1724:= 0.0575
1047:drying.
1008:activity
838:citation
405:hydroxyl
309:hardwood
305:softwood
187:firewood
176:moisture
4569:Commons
4485:Whipsaw
4480:Sawmill
4373:Varnish
4368:Thermal
4343:Lacquer
4278:Binding
4247:Chamfer
4114:Biscuit
4080:Surform
3972:Whipsaw
3942:Keyhole
3927:Fretsaw
3907:Compass
3892:Bucksaw
3882:Bandsaw
3877:Backsaw
3859:Sawbuck
3829:F-clamp
3824:C-clamp
3698:Jointer
3602:Plywood
3554:Zebrano
3494:Ovankol
3459:Meranti
3447:African
3418:Linden
3373:Hickory
3328:Cedrela
3323:Camphor
3318:Bubinga
3313:Boxwood
3293:Bilinga
3278:Avodire
3195:Juniper
3180:Cypress
3055:Luthier
2944:History
2889:journal
2246:removed
2231:sources
2125:Heating
2099:drying.
2049:drying.
2011:mm or 2
1682:is the
914:timber.
334:density
259:removed
244:sources
83:scholar
4475:Hewing
4214:Splice
4169:Halved
4164:Groove
4159:Finger
4139:Coping
4124:Bridle
4101:Joints
3982:Planes
3967:Veneer
3957:Scroll
3952:Ripsaw
3937:Jigsaw
3912:Coping
3811:Clamps
3738:Square
3728:Shaper
3723:Router
3703:Mallet
3678:Gimlet
3653:Chisel
3549:Willow
3539:Walnut
3529:Totara
3519:Sapele
3484:Poplar
3469:Padauk
3431:Merbau
3403:Jarrah
3388:Imbuia
3383:Idigbo
3348:Cumaru
3333:Cherry
3258:Anigre
3220:Spruce
3173:Cedrus
3040:Khatam
2995:Caning
2958:lumber
2801:
2554:
2517:
2143:kiln).
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1961:
1953:
1736:= 1.52
1634:where
1514:Where
1330:where
1157:) and
1117:et al.
1095:et al.
1091:et al.
1079:et al.
1075:et al.
1058:et al.
1044:
1031:et al.
1023:et al.
1019:et al.
1012:et al.
978:et al.
966:et al.
962:et al.
945:et al.
932:et al.
895:et al.
792:et al.
718:et al.
607:These
589:et al.
517:Here,
417:lignin
292:sawing
158:lumber
132:(also
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
4353:Paint
4262:Ovolo
4257:Ogive
4242:Bevel
4209:Scarf
4194:Miter
3962:Table
3947:Miter
3922:Frame
3839:Gripe
3755:Speed
3751:Miter
3683:Gauge
3673:Float
3668:Fence
3663:Drill
3621:Tools
3544:Wenge
3534:Utile
3499:Ramin
3454:Maple
3426:Lovoa
3398:Iroko
3368:Hazel
3353:Ebony
3298:Birch
3288:Beech
3283:Balsa
3273:Aspen
3268:Apple
3248:Alder
3205:Kauri
3200:Larch
3162:Cedar
3145:Woods
3120:Treen
2597:(PDF)
2573:(PDF)
2542:(2).
2003:mm (1
1202:Model
716:Keey
712:(1.2)
422:Vapor
207:green
179:wood.
90:JSTOR
76:books
4605:Wood
4252:Ogee
4237:Bead
4179:Knee
4149:Dado
4129:Butt
3869:Saws
3781:Vise
3718:Rasp
3643:Adze
3524:Teak
3479:Plum
3474:Pear
3235:Hard
3215:Rimu
3210:Pine
3154:Soft
2954:Wood
2799:ISBN
2760:p14.
2625:help
2552:ISSN
2515:ISBN
2476:Pits
2229:any
2227:cite
1977:3.03
1642:and
1103:The
1001:The
840:and
696:1000
667:0.30
609:IPPC
415:and
242:any
240:cite
218:kiln
150:kiln
146:wood
62:news
4378:Wax
4348:Oil
4184:Lap
4119:Box
3887:Bow
3759:Try
3638:Axe
3592:OSB
3587:MDF
3464:Oak
3393:Ipê
3358:Elm
3263:Ash
3225:Yew
3190:Fir
2544:doi
2240:by
1860:sat
1703:sat
1659:sat
1605:sat
1149:),
1141:),
659:fsp
629:fsp
581:218
573:103
499:100
348:to
340:to
322:).
320:spp
253:by
144:of
136:or
45:by
4586::
3757:,
3753:,
3749:,
3745:,
3444:,
3170:,
2797:.
2732:.
2693:^
2670:.
2633:^
2616::
2614:}}
2610:{{
2550:.
2540:28
2538:.
1999:25
1878:ln
1764:ln
1638:,
1409:10
1256::
682:20
557:od
489:od
478:od
411:,
294:.
3762:)
3740:(
3450:)
3438:(
3176:)
3164:(
2960:)
2956:(
2922:e
2915:t
2908:v
2807:.
2742:.
2674:.
2627:)
2623:(
2606:.
2581:.
2558:.
2546::
2523:.
2267:)
2261:(
2256:)
2252:(
2248:.
2234:.
1974:=
1935:)
1927:e
1923:M
1914:0
1910:M
1902:e
1898:M
1891:M
1885:(
1871:)
1868:T
1865:(
1856:p
1852:b
1849:+
1846:a
1839:n
1835:L
1825:=
1821:)
1813:e
1809:M
1800:0
1796:M
1788:e
1784:M
1777:M
1771:(
1754:=
1751:t
1734:n
1728:b
1722:a
1699:p
1688:T
1670:)
1667:T
1664:(
1655:p
1644:n
1640:b
1636:a
1616:)
1613:T
1610:(
1601:p
1597:b
1594:+
1591:a
1585:n
1581:L
1575:=
1527:0
1523:M
1492:t
1483:e
1479:=
1471:e
1467:M
1458:0
1454:M
1446:e
1442:M
1435:M
1405:/
1399:L
1395:L
1390:,
1385:t
1381:L
1376:,
1371:r
1367:L
1356:L
1352:T
1307:e
1303:M
1296:M
1287:=
1281:t
1278:d
1273:M
1270:d
1254:h
1250:T
1234:e
1230:M
1216:t
1212:M
1197:.
1187:(
1176:(
1161:(
1153:(
1145:(
863:)
857:(
852:)
848:(
844:.
834:.
699:K
692:/
688:)
685:C
676:T
673:(
664:=
655:X
625:X
583:±
579:(
575:±
553:m
530:g
526:m
485:m
474:m
465:g
461:m
454:=
280:)
274:(
269:)
265:(
261:.
247:.
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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