Devonian - Knowledge

2062: 2493: 2383: 1953:, a major mountain-building event which would escalate further in the Late Paleozoic. Franconia and Saxothuringia collided with Laurussia near the end of the Early Devonian, pinching out the easternmost Rheic Ocean. The rest of the Armorican terranes followed, and by the end of the Devonian they were fully connected with Laurussia. This sequence of rifting and collision events led to the successive creation and destruction of several small seaways, including the Rheno-Hercynian, Saxo-Thuringian, and Galicia-Moldanubian oceans. Their sediments were eventually compressed and completely buried as Gondwana fully collided with Laurussia in the Carboniferous. 1823: 1688: 2602: 2471: 2565: 2400: 2527: 2043: 2587: 2434: 1776: 2344: 2623: 2655: 2639: 6619: 2549: 2127: 2079:

particularly during the Pragian, and that the overall diversity of nektonic taxa did not increase significantly during the Devonian compared to during other geologic periods, and was in fact higher during the intervals spanning from the Wenlock to the Lochkovian and from the Carboniferous to the Permian. The study's authors instead attribute the increased overall diversity of nekton in the Devonian to a broader, gradual trend of nektonic diversification across the entire Palaeozoic.

2332: 2453: 6608: 2684: 1553: 2823:". William Lonsdale stated that in December 1837 he had suggested the existence of a stratum between the Silurian and Carboniferous ones: "Mr. Austen's communication read December 1837 ... . It was immediately after the reading of that paper ... that I formed the opinion relative to the limestones of Devonshire being of the age of the old red sandstone; and which I afterwards suggested first to Mr. Murchison and then to Prof. Sedgwick". 2738: 2211: 1158: 1967: 1740:, but by the Late Devonian the tectonic situation had relaxed and much of South America was covered by shallow seas. These south polar seas hosted a distinctive brachiopod fauna, the Malvinokaffric Realm, which extended eastward to marginal areas now equivalent to South Africa and Antarctica. Malvinokaffric faunas even managed to approach the South Pole via a tongue of Panthalassa which extended into the 1379: 127: 2819:". Sedgwick and Murchison acknowledged William Lonsdale's role in proposing, on the basis of fossil evidence, the existence of a Devonian stratum between those of the Silurian and Carboniferous periods: "Again, Mr. Lonsdale, after an extensive examination of the fossils of South Devon, had pronounced them, more than a year since, to form 1913:. The closure of the Rheic Ocean began in the Devonian and continued into the Carboniferous. As the ocean narrowed, endemic marine faunas of Gondwana and Laurussia combined into a single tropical fauna. The history of the western Rheic Ocean is a subject of debate, but there is good evidence that Rheic oceanic crust experienced intense 2700:" mass extinctions in Earth's history. The Devonian extinction crisis primarily affected the marine community, and selectively affected shallow warm-water organisms rather than cool-water organisms. The most important group to be affected by this extinction event were the reef-builders of the great Devonian reef systems. 1370:. The shallow, warm, oxygen-depleted waters of Devonian inland lakes, surrounded by primitive plants, provided the environment necessary for certain early fish to develop such essential characteristics as well developed lungs and the ability to crawl out of the water and onto the land for short periods of time. 1811:), together as a unified continent, detached from the northeastern sector of Gondwana. Nevertheless, they remained close enough to Gondwana that their Devonian fossils were more closely related to Australian species than to north Asian species. Other Asian terranes remained attached to Gondwana, including 3463:

Estimates of oxygen levels during this period suggest that they were unprecedentedly low during the Givetian and Frasnian periods. At the same time, plant diversification was at its most rapid, changing the character of the landscape and contributing, via soils, soluble nutrients, and decaying plant

2181:, which was possibly the fruiting body of an enormous fungus, rolled liverwort mat, or another organism of uncertain affinities that stood more than 8 metres (26 ft) tall, and towered over the low, carpet-like vegetation during the early part of the Devonian. Also, the first possible fossils of 2078:

by many researchers. However, other researchers have questioned whether this revolution existed at all; a 2018 study found that although the proportion of biodiversity constituted by nekton increased across the boundary between the Silurian and Devonian, it decreased across the span of the Devonian,

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Siberia was located just north of the equator as the largest landmass in the Northern Hemisphere. At the beginning of the Devonian, Siberia was inverted (upside down) relative to its modern orientation. Later in the period it moved northwards and began to twist clockwise, though it was not near its

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Primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure. The evolving co-dependence of insects and seed plants that characterized a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the Late Devonian Epoch. The development of soils and plant root systems probably led to

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make their first appearance in the Early Devonian as well; their radiation, along with that of ammonoids, has been attributed by some authors to increased environmental stress resulting from decreasing oxygen levels in the deeper parts of the water column. Among vertebrates, jawless armored fish

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age, cladoxylopsid trees formed the first forests in Earth history. By the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared. This rapid appearance of many plant groups and growth forms has been referred to as the Devonian Explosion or the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution.

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levels dropped steeply throughout the Devonian Period. The newly evolved forests drew carbon out of the atmosphere, which were then buried into sediments. This may be reflected by a Mid-Devonian cooling of around 5 °C (9 °F). The Late Devonian warmed to levels equivalent to the Early

1671:, which extended into the Carboniferous. Mountain building could also be found in the far northeastern extent of the continent, as minor tropical island arcs and detached Baltic terranes re-join the continent. Deformed remnants of these mountains can still be found on Ellesmere Island and 2715:, and all of the ostracoderms and placoderms. Land plants as well as freshwater species, such as our tetrapod ancestors, were relatively unaffected by the Late Devonian extinction event (there is a counterargument that the Devonian extinctions nearly wiped out the tetrapods). 2492: 1854:. Kazakhstania was a volcanically active region during the Devonian, as it continued to assimilate smaller island arcs. The island arcs of the region, such as the Balkhash-West Junggar Arc, exhibited biological endemism as a consequence of their location. 1695:

Gondwana was by far the largest continent on the planet. It was completely south of the equator, although the northeastern sector (now Australia) did reach tropical latitudes. The southwestern sector (now South America) was located to the far south, with

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may have existed during the Early and Middle Devonian. The temperature gradient from the equator to the poles was not as large as it is today. The weather was also very arid, mostly along the equator where it was the driest. Reconstruction of tropical

1632:) characteristic of drought conditions. The abundance of red sandstone on continental land also lends Laurussia the name "the Old Red Continent". For much of the Devonian, the majority of western Laurussia (North America) was covered by subtropical 1795:. Although the western Paleo-Tethys Ocean had existed since the Cambrian, the eastern part only began to rift apart as late as the Silurian. This process accelerated in the Devonian. The eastern branch of the Paleo-Tethys was fully opened when 5188: 1427:

concentrations, continental weathering increases (as predicted by warmer temperatures); further, a range of evidence, such as plant distribution, points to a Late Devonian warming. The climate would have affected the dominant organisms in

1949:. These continental blocks, collectively known as the Armorican Terrane Assemblage, split away from Gondwana in the Silurian and drifted towards Laurussia through the Devonian. Their collision with Laurussia leads to the beginning of the 1576:(modern day northern and eastern Europe). The tectonic effects of this collision continued into the Devonian, producing a string of mountain ranges along the southeastern coast of the continent. In present-day eastern North America, the 3464:

matter, to anoxia in all water systems. The co-occurrence of these global events may explain the evolution of air-breathing adaptations in at least two lobe-finned groups, contributing directly to the rise of the tetrapod stem group.

1842:(now northwesternmost China) were located westward and continued to drift northwards, powering over older oceanic crust in the process. Further west was a small ocean (the Turkestan Ocean), followed by the larger microcontinents of 2272:

evolved. Most of these plants had true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The earliest-known trees appeared in the Middle Devonian. These included a lineage of lycopods and another arborescent, woody vascular plant, the

1878:, flood basalts which may have contributed to the Late Devonian Mass Extinction. The last major round of volcanism, the Yakutsk Large Igneous Province, continued into the Carboniferous to produce extensive kimberlite deposits. 2073:

marine life driven by the abundance of planktonic microorganisms in the free water column as well as high ecological competition in benthic habitats, which were extremely saturated; this diversification has been labeled the

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takes the form of trace fossils in shallow lagoon environments within a marine carbonate platform/shelf during the Middle Devonian, although these traces have been questioned and an interpretation as fish feeding traces

1177:, a county in southwestern England, where a controversial argument in the 1830s over the age and structure of the rocks found throughout the county was resolved by adding the Devonian Period to the geological timescale. 2695:

is not a single event, but rather is a series of pulsed extinctions at the Givetian-Frasnian boundary, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, and the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. Together, these are considered one of the

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sponges taking the dominant role in cooler times. The warming at the end of the Devonian may even have contributed to the extinction of the stromatoporoids. At the terminus of the Devonian, Earth rapidly cooled into an

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Joachimski, M. M.; Breisig, S.; Buggisch, W. F.; Talent, J. A.; Mawson, R.; Gereke, M.; Morrow, J. R.; Day, J.; Weddige, K. (July 2009). "Devonian climate and reef evolution: Insights from oxygen isotopes in apatite".

1084:, which started about 375 Ma, severely affected marine life, killing off most of the reef systems, most of the jawless fish, half of all placoderms, and nearly all trilobites save for a few species of the order 2025:. Armored placoderms were numerous during the early ages of the Devonian Period and became extinct in the Late Devonian, perhaps because of competition for food against the other fish species. Early cartilaginous ( 1924:

The closure of the eastern part of the Rheic Ocean is associated with the assemblage of central and southern Europe. In the early Paleozoic, much of Europe was still attached to Gondwana, including the terranes of

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Most of Laurussia was located south of the equator, but in the Devonian it moved northwards and began to rotate counterclockwise towards its modern position. While the most northern parts of the continent (such as

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Joachimski, M.M.; Breisig, S.; Buggisch, W.; Talent, J.A.; Mawson, R.; Gereke, M.; Morrow, J.R.; Day, J.; Weddige, K. (July 2009). "Devonian climate and reef evolution: Insights from oxygen isotopes in apatite".

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that took place during the period. Older literature on the Anglo-Welsh basin divides it into the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian, and Farlovian stages, the latter three of which are placed in the Devonian.

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and between geographic regions. For example, during the Early Devonian, arid conditions were prevalent through much of the world including Siberia, Australia, North America, and China, but Africa and

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Becker, R. T.; Marshall, J. E. A.; Da Silva, A. -C.; Agterberg, F. P.; Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. (1 January 2020), Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Schmitz, Mark D.; Ogg, Gabi M. (eds.),

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Kaufmann, B.; Trapp, E.; Mezger, K. (2004). "The numerical age of the Upper Frasnian (Upper Devonian) Kellwasser horizons: A new U-Pb zircon date from Steinbruch Schmidt(Kellerwald, Germany)".

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fishes began to decline in diversity in freshwater and marine environments partly due to drastic environmental changes and partly due to the increasing competition, predation, and diversity of

4401:"Ecological change during the early Emsian (Devonian) in the Tafilalt (Morocco), the origin of the Ammonoidea, and the first African pyrgocystid edrioasteroids, machaerids and phyllocarids" 5170:"Earth's earliest forest: fossilized trees and vegetation-induced sedimentary structures from the Middle Devonian (Eifelian) Hangman Sandstone Formation, Somerset and Devon, SW England" 2601: 2039:, appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period. The great diversity of fish around at the time has led to the Devonian being given the name "The Age of Fishes" in popular culture. 4113:"Influence of atrypid morphological shape on Devonian episkeletobiont assemblages from the lower Genshaw formation of the Traverse Group of Michigan: A geometric morphometric approach" 2526: 4984:

Zhang, Ying-ying; Xue, Jin-Zhuang; Liu, Le; Wang, De-ming (2016). "Periodicity of reproductive growth in lycopsids: An example from the Upper Devonian of Zhejiang Province, China".

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In the Early and Middle Devonian, the west coast of Laurussia was a passive margin with broad coastal waters, deep silty embayments, river deltas and estuaries, found today in

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reached the steep slope of the continental shelf and began to uplift deep water deposits. This minor collision sparked the start of a mountain-building episode called the

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became commonplace in deep water and outer shelf environments. The first ammonites also appeared during or slightly before the early Devonian Period around 400 Ma.

5051: 3664:"Sequence stratigraphic hierarchy of the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation, central Appalachian Basin, USA: Evidence for transitional greenhouse to icehouse conditions" 2909:

Algeo, T. J. (1998). "Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events".

3213: 2118:. Microbial reefs dominated under the warmer conditions of the early and late Devonian, while coral-stromatoporoid reefs dominated during the cooler middle Devonian. 2586: 2433: 5988: 4400: 2815:

Sedgwick and Murchison coined the term "Devonian system" in 1840: "We propose therefore, for the future, to designate these groups collectively by the name

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suggested in 1969 that the Devonian extinction events were caused by an asteroid impact. However, while there were Late Devonian collision events (see the

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did not have true roots or leaves like extant plants, although vascular tissue is observed in many of those plants. Some of the early land plants such as

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implies an average value of 30 °C (86 °F) in the Early Devonian. Early Devonian mean annual surface temperatures were approximately 16 °C. CO

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In 19th-century texts the Devonian has been called the "Old Red Age", after the red and brown terrestrial deposits known in the United Kingdom as the

4285: 4117: 4066: 3952: 3668: 3482: 3273:"On the physical structure of Devonshire, and on the subdivisions and geological relations of its older stratified deposits, etc. Part I and Part II" 4494:

Klug, Christian; Kröger, Björn; Kiessling, Wolfgang; Mullins, Gary L.; Servais, Thomas; Frýda, Jiří; Korn, Dieter; Turner, Susan (26 October 2010).

2099:-secreting organisms that can erect wave-resistant structures near sea level. Although modern reefs are constructed mainly by corals and calcareous 5205: 4209:"Dead or alive? Brachiopods and other shells as substrates for endo- and sclerobiont activity in the Early Devonian (Lochkovian) of the Barrandian" 3735: 2452: 1800: 2061: 1223:

in which early fossil discoveries were found. Another common term is "Age of the Fishes", referring to the evolution of several major groups of

1934: 4329:"An updated look at the taxonomy, stratigraphy, and palaeoecology of the Devonian bivalve genus Ontario Clarke, 1904 (Cardiolidae, Bivalvia)" 1839: 5568:"Periodic oceanic euxinia and terrestrial fluxes linked to astronomical forcing during the Late Devonian Frasnian–Famennian mass extinction" 4831:

Taylor, Thomas N.; Taylor, Edith L.; Decombeix, Anne-Laure; Schwendemann, Andrew; Serbet, Rudolph; Escapa, Ignacio; Krings, Michael (2010).

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and their vicinities). Though certainly close to Siberia in the Devonian, the precise location of Amuria is uncertain due to contradictory

1322:. Ammonoids during this time period were simple and differed little from their nautiloid counterparts. These ammonoids belong to the order 5282:"The earliest record of terrestrial animals in Gondwana: A scorpion from the Famennian (Late Devonian) Witpoort Formation of South Africa" 1858:

modern location. Siberia approached the eastern edge of Laurussia as the Devonian progressed, but it was still separated by a seaway, the

5513:"Paleogeography and paleoenvironments of the Late Devonian Kellwasser event: A review of its sedimentological and geochemical expression" 4399:

Klug, Christian; Kroeger, Bjoern; Korn, Dieter; Ruecklin, Martin; Schemm-Gregory, Mena; De Baets, Kenneth; Mapes, Royal H. (April 2008).

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were present east of Laurussia and north of Gondwana, corresponding to parts of Europe and Asia. The Devonian Period was a time of great

1390:, 382.7 to 372.2 Ma, during which the first forests took shape on land. The first tetrapods appeared in the fossil record in the ensuing 5566:

Lu, Man; Lu, YueHan; Ikejiri, Takehitio; Sun, Dayang; Carroll, Richard; Blair, Elliot H.; Algeo, Thomas J.; Sun, Yongge (15 May 2021).

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and sediment deposition. The rapid evolution of a terrestrial ecosystem that contained copious animals opened the way for the first

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subdivision, the beginning and end of which are marked with extinction events. This lasted until the end of the Devonian, 358.9 Ma.

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Zatoń, Michał; Borszcz, Tomasz; Berkowski, Błażej; Rakociński, Michał; Zapalski, Mikołaj K.; Zhuravlev, Andrey V. (15 April 2015).

4161:"Devonian–Carboniferous brachiopod zonation in the Tarim Basin, northwest China: implications for biostratigraphy and biogeography" 2331: 1201: 951: 585: 528: 3948:"Conodont and carbon isotope stratigraphy near the Frasnian/Famennian (Devonian) boundary at Wulankeshun, Junggar Basin, NW China" 3045: 2718:

The reasons for the Late Devonian extinctions are still unknown, and all explanations remain speculative. Canadian paleontologist

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axes with terminal sporangia and were generally very short-statured, and grew hardly more than a few centimetres tall. Fossils of

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The Rheic Ocean, which separated Laurussia from Gondwana, was wide at the start of the Devonian, having formed after the drift of

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The northern rim of Gondwana was mostly a passive margin, hosting extensive marine deposits in areas such as northwest Africa and

3478:"Stratigraphic and oxygen isotope evidence for My-scale glaciation driving eustasy in the Early–Middle Devonian greenhouse world" 2548: 3575: 5059: 5347: 5221:"The Silurian–Devonian terrestrial revolution: Diversity patterns and sampling bias of the vascular plant macrofossil record" 5219:

Capel, Elliot; Cleal, Christopher J.; Xue, Jinzhuang; Monnet, Claude; Servais, Thomas; Cascales-Miñana, Borja (August 2022).

4240:"Unusual shallow water Devonian coral community from Queensland and its recent analogues from the inshore Great Barrier Reef" 3755: 3638: 3125: 2697: 1874:

was shaken by volcanism in the Early and Middle Devonian, while Late Devonian magmatism was magnified further to produce the

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United States. Devonian reefs also extended along the southeast edge of Laurussia, a coastline now corresponding to southern

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that define the start and end of the Devonian Period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the

1137:. The Devonian experienced several major mountain-building events as Laurussia and Gondwana approached; these include the 3534: 3872: 2145:

and algal mats of the Silurian were joined early in the period by primitive rooted plants that created the first stable

2033:) also become diverse and played a large role within the Devonian seas. The first abundant genus of cartilaginous fish, 471: 4281:"Paleoecology and sedimentary environment of the Late Devonian coral biostrome from the Central Devonian Field, Russia" 3255: 3170: 2763: 2227: 5678:, Understanding Late Devonian And Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events, vol. 20, Elsevier, pp. 5–36, 3569:

Nardin, E.; Godderis, Yves; Donnadieu, Yannick; Le Hir, Guillaume; Blakey, R. C.; Puceat, E.; Aretz, M. (1 May 2011).

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which hosted a diverse ecosystem of reefs and marine life. Devonian marine deposits are particularly prevalent in the

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Wang, Z. H.; Becker, R. T.; Aboussalam, Z. S.; Hartenfels, S.; Joachimski, Michael M.; Gong, Y. M. (15 April 2016).

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Elrick, Maya; Berkyová, Stana; Klapper, Gilbert; Sharp, Zachary; Joachimski, Michael M.; Frýda, Jiří (15 May 2009).

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While the South China-Annamia continent was the newest addition to the Asian microcontinents, it was not the first.

2845:"A high-precision U–Pb age constraint on the Rhynie Chert Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and other implications" 2165:(although arthropods appeared on land much earlier than in the Early Devonian and the existence of fossils such as 1283:

The Devonian Period is formally broken into Early, Middle and Late subdivisions. The rocks corresponding to those

974:, also became well-established early in this period, after beginning their colonization of land at least from the 1729: 1691:

The Early-Middle Devonian world, with major continents Gondwana (Go), Euramerica/Laurussia (Eu), and Siberia (Si)

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away from Gondwana. It steadily shrunk as the period continued, as the two major continents approached near the

950:) appeared. This rapid evolution and colonization process, which had begun during the Silurian, is known as the 2095:, once extended 350 km (220 mi), fringing a Devonian continent. Reefs are generally built by various 1787:

Several island microcontinents (which would later coalesce into modern day Asia) stretched over a low-latitude

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Carmichael, Sarah K.; Waters, Johnny A.; Königshof, Peter; Suttner, Thomas J.; Kido, Erika (1 December 2019).

1862:. Although Siberia's margins were generally tectonically stable and ecologically productive, rifting and deep 740: 5715:"Impact resilience: Ecological recovery of a carbonate factory in the wake of the Late Devonian impact event" 2088: 1975: 1751:. The eastern margin, though warmer than the west, was equally active. Numerous mountain building events and 1442: 5474: 1493:. The second-largest continent, Laurussia, was northwest of Gondwana, and corresponds to much of modern-day 5625:"The global Hangenberg Crisis (Devonian–Carboniferous transition): review of a first-order mass extinction" 4495: 4238:

Zapalski, Mikołaj K.; Baird, Andrew M.; Bridge, Tom; Jakubowicz, Michał; Daniell, James (4 February 2021).

2754: – State park in Indiana, United States. One of the largest exposed Devonian fossil beds in the world. 2751: 1612:) established tropical conditions, most of the continent was located within the natural dry zone along the 4280: 4112: 3477: 2021:) declined in diversity, while the jawed fish (gnathostomes) simultaneously increased in both the sea and 6647: 5997: 5327: 3902: 3618: 2371:

to seek terrestrial living. By the end of the Devonian, arthropods were solidly established on the land.

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over the naming of the period. Murchison and Sedgwick won the debate and named it the Devonian System.

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McClung, Wilson S.; Eriksson, Kenneth A.; Terry Jr., Dennis O.; Cuffey, Clifford A. (1 October 2013).

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Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high. Marine faunas continued to be dominated by conodonts,

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The Devonian world involved many continents and ocean basins of various sizes. The largest continent,

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that were warm and moderately humid. In fact the climate in the Devonian differed greatly during its

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to the north of Gondwana. They were separated from the southern continent by an oceanic basin: the

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were able to grow to large size on dry land because they had evolved the ability to biosynthesize

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Graham, Linda E.; Cook, Martha E.; Hanson, David T.; Pigg, Kathleen B.; Graham, James M. (2010).

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The great Devonian controversy: The shaping of scientific knowledge among gentlemanly specialists

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Gonez, Paul; Gerrienne, Philippe (2010). "A new definition and a lectotypification of the genus

4652:"The walking dead: Blender as a tool for paleontologists with a case study on extinct arachnids" 4328: 3956:. Ecosystem evolution in deep time: evidence from the rich Palaeozoic fossil records of China. 904: 637: 5167: 4111:

Bose, Rituparna; Schneider, Chris L.; Leighton, Lindsey R.; Polly, P. David (1 October 2011).

3303: 3272: 2133:, a large fungus, initially thought to be a marine alga, from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin 1271:. In the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and 988:, reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the 5286: 5225: 5199: 5055: 3898: 2703:

Amongst the severely affected marine groups were the brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites, and

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as well as wide swathes east of Gondwana and west of Laurussia. Other minor oceans were the

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Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay under shallow seas, where tropical

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Niedźwiedzki (2010). "Tetrapod trackways from the early middle Devonian period of Poland".

4760: 4665: 4624: 4412: 4294: 4126: 4007: 3803: 3677: 3543: 3491: 3381: 3356:. Memoir for 1:50,000 geological sheet (England and Wales) (3rd ed.). pp. 18–19. 3071: 2883: 2768: 1816: 1633: 1382:

Map of Earth as it appeared 370 million years ago during the late Devonian, Fammenian stage

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Corradini, Carlo; Corriga, Maria G.; Pondrelli, Monica; Suttner, Thomas J. (1 July 2020).

3401: 3040: 2393:, one of the largest armoured fish ever to roam the planet, lived during the Late Devonian 2042: 1287:

are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle and Upper parts of the Devonian System.

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is not a rolled-up liverwort mat: Comment on the paper by Graham et al.(AJB 97: 268–275)"

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Map of Earth as it appeared 400 million years ago during the Early Devonian, Emsian stage

5730: 5672:"Chapter 2Toward understanding Late Devonian global events: few answers, many questions" 5528: 5394: 5299: 5238: 4954: 4901: 4764: 4669: 4416: 4298: 4130: 4062:"Conodonts across the Silurian/Devonian boundary in the Carnic Alps (Austria and Italy)" 4011: 3807: 3681: 3495: 3075: 2887: 5742: 5652: 5605: 5548: 5422: 5353: 5339: 5262: 5032: 4966: 4921: 4689: 4558: 4533: 4476: 4348: 4261: 4182: 4165: 3827: 3644: 3630: 3432: 3244: 3095: 3020: 2205: 1871: 1835: 1796: 1792: 1780: 1775: 1585: 1537: 1182: 1134: 1051: 1004: 897: 5683: 4772: 4374: 3903:"The country rocks of Devonian magmatism in the North Patagonian Massif and Chaitenia" 3894: 2175:). By far the largest land organism at the beginning of this period was the enigmatic 1311:, which lasted until the Middle Devonian began, 393.3 Ma. During this time, the first 1204:, the Devonian extends from the end of the Silurian 419.2 Ma, to the beginning of the 1145:

in Europe. These early collisions preceded the formation of the single supercontinent

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Racki, Grzegorz (1 January 2005), Over, D. J.; Morrow, J. R.; Wignall, P. B. (eds.),

5656: 5644: 5609: 5597: 5552: 5540: 5491: 5457: 5447: 5414: 5406: 5357: 5343: 5266: 5150: 5145: 5128: 4970: 4913: 4868: 4813: 4693: 4681: 4563: 4511: 4468: 4352: 4265: 4186: 4160: 4083: 4040: 3969: 3845: 3831: 3819: 3751: 3648: 3634: 3592: 3570: 3454: 3357: 3251: 3166: 3121: 3099: 3087: 2983:"The Devonian/Carboniferous boundary stratotype section (La Serre, France) revisited" 2955: 1930: 1733: 1625: 1597: 1272: 1268: 1220: 1190: 881: 609: 30:

This article is about the geological period. For the residents of the UK county, see

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By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. The

1012: 6493: 6368: 6337: 6134: 5734: 5679: 5636: 5587: 5532: 5398: 5335: 5303: 5252: 5242: 5180: 5140: 5024: 4993: 4958: 4925: 4905: 4888: 4858: 4848: 4803: 4768: 4727: 4673: 4632: 4594: 4553: 4545: 4507: 4480: 4458: 4424: 4420: 4340: 4302: 4251: 4174: 4134: 4075: 4015: 3961: 3926: 3916: 3811: 3743: 3685: 3626: 3584: 3551: 3499: 3444: 3396: 3079: 3035: 2994: 2918: 2891: 2856: 2312: 2111: 2051: 1950: 1609: 1437: 1231:

The Devonian has also erroneously been characterised as a "greenhouse age", due to

1142: 1031: 993: 855: 801: 788:

Relatively steady around 189 m, gradually falling to 120 m through period

450: 5402: 5109: 4962: 3187: 1616:, which (as nowadays) is a result of the convergence of two great air-masses, the 6593: 6589: 6585: 6462: 6358: 6296: 6191: 6160: 6129: 5623:

Kaiser, Sandra Isabella; Aretz, Markus; Becker, Ralph Thomas (11 November 2015).

4997: 4306: 4138: 4079: 3965: 3690: 3663: 3503: 3354:

Geology of the South Wales Coalfield Part II, the country around Abergavenny

2743: 2420: 1881:

Similar volcanic activity also affected the nearby microcontinent of Amuria (now

1577: 1510: 1502: 1436:

would have been the main reef-forming organisms in warm periods, with corals and

1351: 1138: 1107: 1028: 331: 54: 6618: 4939:

Lucas (2015). "Thinopus and a Critical Review of Devonian Tetrapod Footprints".

3062:

Haq, B. U.; Schutter, SR (2008). "A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-Level Changes".

2256:

tissue. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed:

2236:

likely spread by vegetative growth and spores. The earliest land plants such as

1741: 1675:. Many of the Devonian collisions in Laurussia produce both mountain chains and 6612: 6431: 6301: 6196: 6165: 5892: 5592: 5567: 4636: 4534:"The Palaeozoic colonization of the water column and the rise of global nekton" 4344: 4256: 4239: 3907: 3555: 3433:"Devonian climate change, breathing, and the origin of the tetrapod stem group" 3146: 2510: 2308: 2274: 2257: 2248: 2185:

appeared around 416 Ma, in the Early Devonian. Evidence for the earliest

2158: 2026: 1890: 1676: 1668: 1296: 1240: 1111: 1020: 1016: 931: 930:

which covered the continents. By the middle of the Devonian, several groups of

730: 660: 322: 5966: 5257: 4732: 4715: 3747: 2860: 2707:, and the world saw the disappearance of an estimated 96% of vertebrates like 6636: 6332: 6322: 6291: 6254: 6186: 6155: 5648: 5601: 5544: 5410: 4747:

Hueber, Francis M. (2001). "Rotted wood-alga fungus: The history and life of

4685: 4087: 4019: 3973: 3921: 3880: 3823: 3596: 3141: 3113: 2726:), little evidence supports the existence of a large enough Devonian crater. 2719: 2687:

The Late Devonian is characterised by three episodes of extinction ("Late D")

2608: 2505: 2441: 2279: 2269: 2232: 2126: 2107: 1993: 1851: 1705: 1589: 1494: 1486: 1466: 1433: 1367: 1264: 1244: 1232: 1209: 1205: 1186: 889: 873: 866: 755: 742: 681: 668: 340: 313: 85: 5461: 4208: 3083: 2821:

a group intermediate between those of the Carboniferous and Silurian systems

6623: 6554: 6404: 6327: 5418: 5154: 4917: 4872: 4817: 4567: 4549: 4472: 3458: 3091: 2956:"The global stratotype section and point of the Silurian-Devonian boundary" 2922: 2776: 2712: 2660: 2516: 2500: 2476: 2405: 2389: 2284: 2177: 2167: 2035: 2030: 2004:(animals, their resemblance to flowers notwithstanding) were abundant, and 1918: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1843: 1323: 1035: 919: 714: 432: 5813: 5772: 5738: 5308: 2349:

Bark (possibly from a cladoxylopsid) from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin

2214:

The Devonian Period marks the beginning of extensive land colonization by

6549: 6418: 6394: 6239: 6034: 5441: 3792:"Late Devonian paleogeography in the framework of global plate tectonics" 3449: 2409: 2300: 2261: 2104: 2055: 2022: 2018: 1788: 1621: 1617: 1593: 1541: 1529: 1319: 1130: 1126: 1100: 955: 927: 870: 645: 60: 5488:

When the invasion of land failed: The legacy of the Devonian extinctions

5184: 4909: 4853: 4832: 4808: 4787: 2311:

may have dropped. This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive

1596:. As the Caledonian Orogeny wound down in the later part of the period, 6544: 6504: 6447: 6347: 6244: 6118: 6018: 5908: 5168:

Davies, Neil S., McMahon, William J. and Berry, Christopher M. (2024).

4863: 3931: 3214:"How do you have a mass extinction without an increase in extinctions?" 2737: 2683: 2629: 2577: 2412: 2368: 2192: 2013: 1989: 1985: 1914: 1859: 1756: 1701: 1664: 1565: 1552: 1478: 1335: 1331: 1316: 1312: 1300: 1093: 1077: 1073: 1062: 1039: 985: 975: 915: 641: 348: 105: 70: 6607: 5443:

The Late Devonian mass extinction : the Frasnian/Famennian crisis

2911:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2252:, about 400 million years old, represent the oldest known plants with 2210: 1560:(Euramerica) and its constituents, superimposed onto modern coastlines 6559: 6509: 6483: 6442: 6389: 6234: 6210: 6091: 6081: 6070: 5950: 5212: 3588: 2704: 2632:

from the Devonian of Michigan (largest tube diameter is 0.75 mm)

2555: 2540: 2480: 2460: 2416: 2238: 2219: 2171:

suggest that amphibious arthropods may have appeared as early as the

2162: 2096: 2092: 2047: 2005: 1942: 1882: 1808: 1760: 1721: 1605: 1569: 1557: 1514: 1474: 1391: 1327: 1122: 1069: 996: 959: 885: 863: 390: 283: 110: 5640: 4463: 4446: 1338:

molluscs would dominate the marine fauna until the beginning of the

1326:, which in later epochs evolved to new ammonoid orders, for example 1157: 1050:, though they were not fully established for life on land until the 6519: 6514: 6478: 6378: 6311: 6175: 6144: 6105: 6055: 6029: 6005: 5945: 5934: 5929: 5028: 4677: 4651: 4583:"Geological evolution of the Kimberley region of Western Australia" 4581:

Tyler, Ian M.; Hocking, Roger M.; Haines, Peter W. (1 March 2012).

4178: 2895: 2843:

Parry, S. F.; Noble, S. R.; Crowley, Q. G.; Wellman, C. H. (2011).

2708: 2613: 2572: 2292: 2186: 2172: 2154: 2142: 2009: 1902: 1886: 1812: 1764: 1713: 1672: 1629: 1518: 1458: 1412: 1387: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1339: 1114: 1085: 1058: 1047: 1043: 1024: 971: 967: 963: 923: 877: 726: 710: 383: 376: 369: 293: 100: 95: 75: 65: 5848: 5624: 5116:. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. 2046:

The Devonian period saw the development of early sharks, armoured

6533: 6473: 6223: 6060: 6044: 5913: 5837: 5129:"The origin and evolution of lignin biosynthesis: Tansley review" 4830: 2536: 2364: 2001: 1981: 1966: 1938: 1910: 1906: 1827: 1804: 1752: 1737: 1717: 1649: 1645: 1573: 1506: 1415: 1403: 1378: 1304: 1256: 1248: 1236: 1197: 1162: 1146: 1097: 1065: 876:, spanning 60.3 million years from the end of the preceding 355: 126: 115: 90: 5510: 4059: 3994:

Franke, Wolfgang; Cocks, L. Robin M.; Torsvik, Trond H. (2017).

3283: 2103:, Devonian reefs were either microbial reefs built up mostly by 1402:

The Devonian was a relatively warm period, although significant

6569: 6452: 6086: 5918: 5789: 5325: 4613: 4278: 3530: 2664: 2576:

from the Middle Devonian of Ohio – view of colony encrusting a

2288: 2182: 2115: 2070: 1926: 1697: 1660: 1498: 1470: 1308: 1252: 734: 362: 5083:"Fossil from a forest that gave Earth its breath of fresh air" 3945: 3661: 1564:

By the early Devonian, the continent Laurussia (also known as

1125:

to the east. Major tectonic events include the closure of the

828: 5475:

After a Mass Extinction, Only the Small Survive | Carl Zimmer

4714:

Garwood, Russell J.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (September 2011).

4237: 3893: 3568: 3380:

Cohen, K.M.; Finney, S.C.; Gibbard, P.L.; Fan, J.-X. (2013).

3314: 2648:

which served as a host substrate for a colony of hederelloids

2483: 2222:

not yet present, large forests grew and shaped the landscape.

2215: 2100: 1997: 1826:

World map at 400 Ma (Early Devonian), showing continents and

1748: 1725: 1656: 1482: 1174: 1166: 1008: 912: 893: 656: 31: 4532:

Whalen, Christopher D.; Briggs, Derek E. G. (18 July 2018).

3021:"Decision on the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary stratotype" 1584:. Further east, the collision also extended the rise of the 27:

Fourth period of the Paleozoic Era 419–359 million years ago

3742:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 138–158, 3161:

Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G. (2004).

3019:

Paproth, Eva; Feist, Raimund; Flajs, Gerd (December 1991).

2645: 2595:, an orthid brachiopod from the Middle Devonian of New York 2514:

that was an early marine tetrapodomorph, and the placoderm

2424: 2337:

Lycopod axis (branch) from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin

2265: 2253: 2150: 2146: 2138: 2069:

The Devonian saw significant expansion in the diversity of

1759:

intrusions affected areas equivalent to modern day eastern

1712:

of many smaller land masses and island arcs. These include

1568:) was fully formed through the collision of the continents 1525: 1490: 1429: 1235:: most of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from the 1224: 981: 943: 939: 935: 837: 822: 816: 807: 4493: 4110: 3475: 1600:

facilitated a cluster of granite intrusions in Scotland.

2842: 1628:

sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidised iron (

1423:

Devonian; while there is no corresponding increase in CO

718:(discovered to have biostratigraphic issues as of 2006). 4716:"Early Terrestrial Animals, Evolution, and Uncertainty" 4398: 3571:"Modeling the early Paleozoic long-term climatic trend" 2783:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1003:

almost every known aquatic environment. In the oceans,

5792:. International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). 2004 4375:"Palaeos Paleozoic: Devonian: The Devonian Period – 1" 3304:"Notes on the age of limestones from south Devonshire" 3379: 2110:

or coral-stromatoporoid reefs built up by coral-like

846: 819: 4785: 3734:

Cocks, L. Robin M.; Torsvik, Trond H., eds. (2016),

2733: 1169:

played an early role in defining the Devonian Period

834: 813: 804: 5218: 4106: 4104: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 2873: 2760: – System that relates geologic strata to time 1303:Stage 419.2 to 410.8 Ma, which was followed by the 900:, where rocks from this period were first studied. 810: 143: 4580: 3993: 3625:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 534–545. 3310:. Second series. Vol. 5 part II. p. 724. 3279:. Second series. Vol. 5 part II. p. 701. 3271:Sedgwick, Adam; Murchison, Roderick Impey (1840). 3243: 3061: 1251:as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where 1133:from Gondwana, and the resulting expansion of the 5622: 5052:"Analyzing the World's Oldest Woody Plant Fossil" 4286:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4118:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4067:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3953:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3669:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3483:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3382:"The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart" 3320: 3289: 3270: 3230: 3160: 3018: 2616:coral, Kashong Shale, Middle Devonian of New York 1299:lasted from 419.2 to 393.3 Ma. It began with the 1255:signatures of widespread reefs indicate tropical 6634: 5629:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 4713: 4650:Garwood, Russell J.; Dunlop, Jason (July 2014). 4101: 3517: 3308:Transactions of the Geological Society of London 3277:Transactions of the Geological Society of London 1976:Evolution of fish § Devonian: Age of fishes 1970:Spindle diagram for the evolution of vertebrates 1815:(western Indochina), Tibet, and the rest of the 1663:. In the Late Devonian, an approaching volcanic 1121:to the north, and the medium-sized continent of 5996: 5712: 4983: 4320: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3655: 2954:Chlupáč, Ivo; Hladil, Jindrich (January 2000). 2087:A now-dry barrier reef, located in present-day 5676:Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy 5565: 5379:"Mass Extinctions in the Marine Fossil Record" 5377:Raup, D. M.; Sepkoski, J. J. (19 March 1982). 5321: 5319: 5010: 4070:. Global Events impacting COnodont evolution. 3729: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3721: 3621:. In Alderton, David; Elias, Scott A. (eds.). 2357: 1011:became more numerous than in the Silurian and 5982: 5864: 4649: 3879:. Northern Arizona University. Archived from 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3617:Rosa, Eduardo L. M.; Isbell, John L. (2021). 2953: 1896: 1528:organisms lived. The enormous "world ocean", 527:Subdivision of the Devonian according to the 5376: 5204:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4885: 4531: 3901:; Rapela, Carlos W.; Quezada, Paulo (2018). 3770: 3733: 3335:"Paleobiology: The Late Paleozoic: Devonian" 3188:"Fossil tracks record 'oldest land-walkers'" 2902: 2299:The 'greening' of the continents acted as a 1386:Finally, the Late Devonian started with the 5316: 5127:Weng, Jing-Ke; Chapple, Clint (July 2010). 5126: 4326: 2943:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2867: 2672: 1704:. The northwestern edge of Gondwana was an 1080:were still common during the Devonian. The 825: 534:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago. 5989: 5975: 5871: 5857: 5049: 3996:"The Palaeozoic Variscan oceans revisited" 3873:"Devonian Paleogeography, Southwestern US" 3698: 3616: 2960:CFS Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 2855:(4). London: Geological Society: 863–872. 1830:with modern continent borders superimposed 1652:, and other mid-latitude areas of Europe. 1141:in North America and the beginning of the 1019:, which include the ancestors of all four- 5591: 5307: 5256: 5246: 5144: 5112:. In Basu, Saikat; Cleveland, C. (eds.). 4862: 4852: 4807: 4731: 4598: 4557: 4462: 4333:Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments 4255: 3930: 3920: 3887: 3689: 3448: 3400: 3165:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3039: 2486:that lived from the Mid to Late Devonian. 942:, and by the end of the period the first 4039:(3rd ed.). John Wiley. p. 14. 3301: 3250:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3154: 2682: 2209: 2125: 2060: 2041: 1965: 1821: 1783:, which fully opened during the Devonian 1774: 1732:. These collisions were associated with 1686: 1551: 1377: 1202:International Commission on Stratigraphy 1156: 952:Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution 5490:. New York: Columbia University Press. 5446:. New York: Columbia University Press. 5043: 5017:International Journal of Plant Sciences 4707: 3789: 3375: 3373: 3351: 3332: 3241: 2199: 1909:in the early stages of the assembly of 1362:387.7 Ma. During this time the jawless 1307:from 410.8 to 407.6 Ma and then by the 14: 6635: 5485: 5439: 4746: 4444: 4372: 4206: 4159:Chen, Zhong-Qiang (2 September 2023). 4032: 3576:Geological Society of America Bulletin 3412:from the original on 13 September 2015 3341:. Estrella Mountain Community College. 3211: 2980: 1708:for much of the Devonian, and saw the 1679:, which are frequently fossiliferous. 1354:comprised two subdivisions: first the 911:occurred during the Devonian, as free- 892:period at 358.9 Ma. It is named after 888:), to the beginning of the succeeding 524: 5970: 5852: 5669: 5107: 5080: 4938: 4788:"Rolled liverwort mats explain major 4753:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 4327:Nagel-Myers, Judith (5 August 2021). 3897:; Calderón, Mauricio; Fanning, Mark; 3430: 3112: 2908: 2464:from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin 2446:from the Middle Devonian of Wisconsin 1779:The earth at 380 Ma, centered on the 1513:activity, as the major continents of 1117:to the south, the small continent of 5279: 4158: 3370: 2836: 2781: – Extinct species of trilobite 2644:Devonian spiriferid brachiopod from 2363:changes in the speed and pattern of 2121: 502: 484: 461: 440: 422: 6588:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 5878: 5814:"Devonian chronostratigraphy scale" 5572:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4792:features: Response to commentaries" 4617:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3535:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3437:Integrative and Comparative Biology 24: 6592:= megaannum (millions years ago); 5340:10.1016/b978-0-12-824360-2.00022-x 5328:"Chapter 22 - The Devonian Period" 5194:from the original on 9 March 2024. 4538:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 3870: 3631:10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00063-1 3431:Clack, Jennifer (13 August 2007). 2764:List of Early Devonian land plants 1937:(the western Mediterranean area), 1921:under Mexico and Central America. 1461:, was located entirely within the 1247:, which at the time straddled the 25: 6664: 6596:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 5757: 5177:Journal of the Geological Society 5050:MacPherson, C. (28 August 2019). 4720:Evolution: Education and Outreach 3740:Earth History and Palaeogeography 3231:Gradstein, Ogg & Smith (2004) 3120:(3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. 3051:from the original on 9 June 2020. 2849:Journal of the Geological Society 1770: 1485:, as well as minor components of 1452: 1034:as their more robust and muscled 6617: 6606: 5146:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03327.x 4512:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2009.00206.x 4496:"The Devonian nekton revolution" 3212:Newitz, Annalee (13 June 2013). 3185: 3118:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 2999:10.1127/0078-0421/2009/0043-0195 2736: 2653: 2637: 2621: 2600: 2585: 2563: 2547: 2525: 2491: 2469: 2451: 2432: 2398: 2381: 2342: 2330: 1161:The rocks of Lummaton Quarry in 800: 125: 58: 5706: 5663: 5616: 5559: 5537:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.102984 5504: 5479: 5468: 5433: 5370: 5273: 5248:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104085 5161: 5120: 5101: 5074: 5004: 4977: 4932: 4879: 4833:"The enigmatic Devonian fossil 4824: 4779: 4740: 4643: 4607: 4600:10.18814/epiiugs/2012/v35i1/029 4574: 4525: 4487: 4438: 4392: 4373:Kazlev, M. Alan (28 May 1998). 4366: 4272: 4231: 4200: 4152: 4053: 4026: 3987: 3939: 3864: 3838: 3816:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103129 3610: 3562: 3469: 3424: 3402:10.18814/epiiugs/2013/v36i3/002 3345: 3326: 3321:Gradstein, Ogg & Smith 2004 3295: 3264: 3235: 3224: 3205: 3179: 3134: 3041:10.18814/epiiugs/1991/v14i4/004 2981:Kaiser, Sandra (1 April 2009). 2809: 1961: 1572:(modern day North America) and 1465:. It corresponds to modern day 1445:, marking the beginning of the 1278: 5806:"Examples of Devonian Fossils" 5785:– site introduces the Devonian 5334:, Elsevier, pp. 733–810, 5081:Smith, Lewis (19 April 2007). 3106: 3055: 3012: 2974: 2947: 2929: 2458:Tooth of the lobe-finned fish 2249:Armoricaphyton chateaupannense 2065:Diorama of a Devonian seafloor 1870:during the Late Devonian. The 1501:. Various smaller continents, 1179:The Great Devonian Controversy 421: 13: 1: 6035:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 5684:10.1016/s0920-5446(05)80002-0 5403:10.1126/science.215.4539.1501 4963:10.1080/10420940.2015.1063491 4773:10.1016/s0034-6667(01)00058-6 4405:Palaeontographica Abteilung A 3790:Golonka, Jan (1 March 2020). 3290:Sedgwick & Murchison 1840 2829: 2533:Melocrinites nodosus spinosus 2149:and harbored arthropods like 2056:tetrapod transitional species 1624:. In these near-deserts, the 1358:, which then gave way to the 1181:was a lengthy debate between 780:Atmospheric and climatic data 4998:10.1016/j.palwor.2015.07.002 4445:Dalton, Rex (January 2006). 4307:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.02.021 4139:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.08.004 4080:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.02.023 3966:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.12.029 3691:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.07.020 3504:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.03.008 3333:Farabee, Michael J. (2006). 2752:Falls of the Ohio State Park 2539:from the Middle Devonian of 1866:impacted the continent with 1547: 7: 5998:Geological history of Earth 5517:Global and Planetary Change 3796:Global and Planetary Change 3619:"Late Paleozoic Glaciation" 2987:Newsletters on Stratigraphy 2729: 2358:Animals and the first soils 2218:. With large land-dwelling 1682: 785:Sea level above present day 525: 278: 10: 6669: 6271:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 6266:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 6030:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 5713:Rendall; Tapanila (2020). 5593:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.116839 5486:McGhee, George R. (2013). 5440:McGhee, George R. (1996). 5108:Hogan, C. Michael (2010). 4841:American Journal of Botany 4796:American Journal of Botany 4637:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.05.028 4345:10.1007/s12549-021-00491-2 4257:10.1007/s00338-020-02048-9 3606:– via Research Gate. 3556:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.05.028 3302:Lonsdale, William (1840). 3163:A Geologic Time Scale 2004 2676: 2570:The common tabulate coral 2374: 2305:atmospheric concentrations 2203: 2131:Prototaxites milwaukeensis 2076:Devonian Nekton Revolution 2008:were still fairly common. 1973: 1897:Closure of the Rheic Ocean 1397: 1315:appeared, descending from 1212:, at the beginning of the 1173:The period is named after 1152: 53:419.2 ± 3.2 – 358.9 ± 0.4 29: 6583: 6568: 6555:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 6532: 6492: 6461: 6430: 6417: 6405:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 6377: 6346: 6310: 6279: 6253: 6222: 6209: 6174: 6143: 6117: 6104: 6069: 6043: 6017: 6004: 5886: 4733:10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y 3748:10.1017/9781316225523.009 3147:Dictionary.com Unabridged 2861:10.1144/0016-76492010-043 2558:from the Devonian of Ohio 1724:, which now form much of 922:) began to spread across 784: 779: 771: 722: 706:Upper boundary definition 705: 697: 652: 634:Lower boundary definition 633: 625: 615: 605: 600: 592: 580: 570: 565: 557: 549: 544: 141: 136: 124: 50: 45: 36:Devonian (disambiguation) 6550:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 6395:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 6240:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 6092:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 6082:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 5332:Geologic Time Scale 2020 4425:10.1127/pala/283/2008/83 4036:Vertebrate Palaeontology 4020:10.1016/j.gr.2017.03.005 3922:10.5027/andgeoV45n3-3117 3242:Rudwick, M.S.J. (1985). 2803: 2798:Category:Devonian plants 2693:Late Devonian extinction 2679:Late Devonian extinction 2673:Late Devonian extinction 2609:Pleurodictyum americanum 2320:Late Devonian extinction 2082: 1556:Continental boundary of 1082:Late Devonian extinction 1027:), began diverging from 476:Late Devonian extinction 146: 6545:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 6510:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 6505:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 6448:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 6338:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 6245:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 6056:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 5584:2021E&PSL.56216839L 4657:Journal of Paleontology 4629:2009E&PSL.284..599J 4213:Bulletin of Geosciences 3850:Encyclopedia Britannica 3623:Encyclopedia of Geology 3548:2009E&PSL.284..599J 3339:The Online Biology Book 3084:10.1126/science.1161648 2593:Tropidoleptus carinatus 2520:in a painting from 1905 2242:consisted of leafless, 1984:, diverse and abundant 1956: 1580:continued to raise the 1532:, occupied much of the 1447:Late Paleozoic icehouse 1409:sea surface temperature 1214:Mississippian subperiod 1149:in the Late Paleozoic. 1090:end-Devonian extinction 1042:gradually evolved into 269:−360 — 259:−365 — 249:−370 — 239:−375 — 229:−380 — 219:−385 — 209:−390 — 199:−395 — 189:−400 — 179:−405 — 169:−410 — 159:−415 — 149:−420 — 6515:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 6484:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 6443:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 6390:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 6235:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 6061:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 4550:10.1098/rspb.2018.0883 4207:Michal, Mergl (2021). 4033:Benton, M. J. (2005). 3352:Barclay, W.J. (1989). 2923:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195 2876:The Journal of Geology 2785:, a Devonian trilobite 2688: 2663:, an 8-meter genus of 2223: 2134: 2066: 2058: 1971: 1831: 1807:equivalent to most of 1784: 1692: 1561: 1521:drew closer together. 1383: 1216:of the Carboniferous. 1170: 905:evolutionary radiation 903:The first significant 34:. For other uses, see 6520:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 6479:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 6400:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 6087:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 5790:"Geologic Time Scale" 5739:10.2110/palo.2019.001 5309:10.5733/afin.054.0206 5287:African Invertebrates 5226:Earth-Science Reviews 5114:Encyclopedia of Earth 5056:Canadian Light Source 2772:(with link directory) 2686: 2228:Early Devonian plants 2213: 2196:) has been advanced. 2129: 2064: 2045: 1969: 1825: 1778: 1690: 1582:Appalachian Mountains 1555: 1381: 1160: 1110:was dominated by the 948:pteridospermatophytes 646:Monograptus uniformis 6560:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 6453:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 6333:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 6323:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 5893:Lower/Early Devonian 5775:on 11 February 2010. 2941:www.stratigraphy.org 2769:List of fossil sites 2200:The greening of land 1586:Caledonian Mountains 1129:, the separation of 1005:cartilaginous fishes 926:, forming extensive 715:Siphonodella sulcata 455:Famennian glaciation 6615: • 6604: • 6602:Geologic time scale 6364:Middle (458–470 Ma) 6328:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 6297:Middle (383–393 Ma) 6192:Middle (237–247 Ma) 6161:Middle (164–174 Ma) 5900:Upper/Late Devonian 5832:on 28 October 2007. 5731:2020Palai..35...12R 5529:2019GPC...18302984C 5395:1982Sci...215.1501R 5389:(4539): 1501–1503. 5300:2013AfrIn..54..373G 5280:Gess, R.W. (2013). 5239:2022ESRv..23104085C 5185:10.1144/jgs2023-204 4955:2015Ichno..22..136L 4910:10.1038/nature08623 4902:2010Natur.463...43N 4854:10.3732/ajb.1000047 4809:10.3732/ajb.1000172 4765:2001RPaPa.116..123H 4670:2014JPal...88..735G 4447:"Hooked on fossils" 4417:2008PalAA.283...83K 4299:2015PPP...424...61Z 4131:2011PPP...310..427B 4012:2017GondR..48..257F 3808:2020GPC...18603129G 3682:2013PPP...387..104M 3496:2009PPP...276..170E 3076:2008Sci...322...64H 2888:2004JG....112..495K 2758:Geologic time scale 2724:Alamo bolide impact 2535:, a spiny, stalked 2029:) and bony fishes ( 1614:Tropic of Capricorn 1534:Northern Hemisphere 1463:Southern Hemisphere 772:Upper GSSP ratified 752: / 723:Upper boundary GSSP 698:Lower GSSP ratified 682:49.8550°N 13.7920°E 678: / 653:Lower boundary GSSP 626:Time span formality 6648:Geological periods 6613:Geology portal 6474:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 6369:Early (470–485 Ma) 6302:Early (393–419 Ma) 6197:Early (247–252 Ma) 6166:Early (174–201 Ma) 6135:Early (100–145 Ma) 6130:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 5258:20.500.12210/76731 4166:Geological Journal 3583:(5–6): 1181–1192. 3450:10.1093/icb/icm055 2937:"Chart/Time Scale" 2689: 2554:Enrolled phacopid 2506:lobe-finned fishes 2277:and progymnosperm 2224: 2206:Devonian explosion 2135: 2067: 2059: 2052:lobe-finned fishes 1972: 1872:Altai-Sayan region 1832: 1785: 1781:Paleo-Tethys Ocean 1767:, and Antarctica. 1700:situated near the 1693: 1562: 1538:Paleo-Tethys Ocean 1384: 1275:were more common. 1273:temperate climates 1183:Roderick Murchison 1171: 1135:Paleo-Tethys Ocean 1052:Late Carboniferous 1023:vertebrates (i.e. 1007:such as primitive 898:South West England 756:43.5555°N 3.3573°E 616:Stratigraphic unit 606:Chronological unit 593:Time scale(s) used 496:shrubs & trees 6630: 6629: 6528: 6527: 6494:Paleoproterozoic 6413: 6412: 6359:Late (444–458 Ma) 6292:Late (359–383 Ma) 6205: 6204: 6187:Late (201–237 Ma) 6156:Late (145–164 Ma) 6100: 6099: 6021:(present–2.58 Ma) 6009:(present–66.0 Ma) 5964: 5963: 5959: 5958: 5349:978-0-12-824360-2 4457:(7074): 262–263. 4000:Gondwana Research 3899:Pankhurst, Robert 3883:on 15 April 2010. 3846:"Devonian Period" 3757:978-1-316-22552-3 3640:978-0-08-102909-1 3127:978-1-4058-8118-0 2917:(1365): 113–130. 2122:Terrestrial biota 2114:and tabulate and 1734:volcanic activity 1626:Old Red Sandstone 1598:orogenic collapse 1269:temperate climate 1221:Old Red Sandstone 1191:Henry De la Beche 1088:. The subsequent 946:-bearing plants ( 882:million years ago 792: 791: 566:Usage information 539: 538: 520: 519: 501: 500: 483: 482: 460: 459: 439: 438: 16:(Redirected from 6660: 6653:Geology of Devon 6624:World portal 6622: 6621: 6611: 6610: 6573: 6537: 6497: 6466: 6463:Mesoproterozoic 6435: 6428: 6427: 6423: 6382: 6351: 6315: 6284: 6258: 6227: 6220: 6219: 6215: 6179: 6148: 6122: 6115: 6114: 6110: 6074: 6048: 6022: 6015: 6014: 6010: 5991: 5984: 5977: 5968: 5967: 5889: 5888: 5873: 5866: 5859: 5850: 5849: 5845: 5833: 5828:. Archived from 5817: 5809: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5784: 5776: 5771:. Archived from 5751: 5750: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5667: 5661: 5660: 5620: 5614: 5613: 5595: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5508: 5502: 5501: 5483: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5465: 5437: 5431: 5430: 5374: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5323: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5260: 5250: 5216: 5210: 5209: 5203: 5195: 5193: 5174: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5148: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5105: 5099: 5098: 5096: 5094: 5078: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5062:on 14 April 2021 5058:. Archived from 5047: 5041: 5040: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4949:(3–4): 136–154. 4936: 4930: 4929: 4883: 4877: 4876: 4866: 4856: 4847:(7): 1074–1078. 4828: 4822: 4821: 4811: 4802:(7): 1079–1086. 4783: 4777: 4776: 4759:(1–2): 123–159. 4744: 4738: 4737: 4735: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4623:(3–4): 599–609. 4611: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4561: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4520: 4518: 4491: 4485: 4484: 4466: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4324: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4276: 4270: 4269: 4259: 4235: 4229: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4204: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4173:(3–4): 431–458. 4156: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4125:(3–4): 427–441. 4108: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4057: 4051: 4050: 4030: 4024: 4023: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3924: 3895:Hervé, Francisco 3891: 3885: 3884: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3787: 3768: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3731: 3696: 3695: 3693: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3589:10.1130/B30364.1 3566: 3560: 3559: 3542:(3–4): 599–609. 3528: 3515: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3490:(1–4): 170–181. 3473: 3467: 3466: 3452: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3411: 3404: 3386: 3377: 3368: 3367: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3249: 3239: 3233: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3186:Amos, Jonathan. 3183: 3177: 3176: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3138: 3132: 3131: 3116:(3 April 2008). 3110: 3104: 3103: 3059: 3053: 3052: 3050: 3043: 3025: 3016: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3005: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2933: 2927: 2926: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2840: 2824: 2813: 2784: 2746: 2741: 2740: 2657: 2641: 2625: 2604: 2589: 2567: 2551: 2529: 2495: 2473: 2455: 2436: 2402: 2385: 2346: 2334: 2313:extinction event 1988:, the enigmatic 1951:Variscan Orogeny 1610:Ellesmere Island 1334:. This class of 1143:Variscan Orogeny 1103:and placoderms. 1061:, a subclass of 1032:lobe-finned fish 958:, predominantly 880:period at 419.2 850: 844: 843: 840: 839: 836: 831: 830: 827: 824: 821: 818: 815: 812: 809: 806: 767: 766: 764: 763: 762: 757: 753: 750: 749: 748: 745: 693: 692: 690: 689: 688: 687:49.8550; 13.7920 683: 679: 676: 675: 674: 671: 508: 503: 490: 485: 472:Kellwasser event 467: 462: 451:Hangenberg event 446: 441: 428: 423: 343: 334: 325: 306: 286: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 144: 129: 120: 57: 43: 42: 21: 6668: 6667: 6663: 6662: 6661: 6659: 6658: 6657: 6633: 6632: 6631: 6626: 6616: 6605: 6597: 6579: 6571: 6564: 6535: 6524: 6495: 6488: 6464: 6457: 6433: 6432:Neoproterozoic 6422:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 6421: 6420: 6419:Proterozoic Eon 6409: 6380: 6373: 6349: 6342: 6313: 6306: 6282: 6275: 6256: 6249: 6225: 6213: 6212: 6201: 6177: 6170: 6146: 6139: 6120: 6108: 6107: 6096: 6072: 6065: 6046: 6039: 6020: 6008: 6007: 6000: 5995: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5939: 5923: 5897:Middle Devonian 5882: 5880:Devonian Period 5877: 5836: 5820: 5812: 5804: 5795: 5793: 5788: 5781:"Devonian life" 5779: 5763: 5760: 5755: 5754: 5711: 5707: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5668: 5664: 5641:10.1144/sp423.9 5621: 5617: 5564: 5560: 5509: 5505: 5498: 5484: 5480: 5473: 5469: 5454: 5438: 5434: 5375: 5371: 5362: 5360: 5350: 5324: 5317: 5278: 5274: 5217: 5213: 5197: 5196: 5191: 5172: 5166: 5162: 5133:New Phytologist 5125: 5121: 5106: 5102: 5092: 5090: 5079: 5075: 5065: 5063: 5048: 5044: 5009: 5005: 4982: 4978: 4937: 4933: 4896:(7277): 43–48. 4884: 4880: 4829: 4825: 4784: 4780: 4745: 4741: 4712: 4708: 4698: 4696: 4648: 4644: 4612: 4608: 4579: 4575: 4530: 4526: 4516: 4514: 4492: 4488: 4464:10.1038/439262a 4443: 4439: 4429: 4427: 4411:(4–6): 83–U58. 4397: 4393: 4383: 4381: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4355: 4325: 4321: 4311: 4309: 4277: 4273: 4236: 4232: 4222: 4220: 4205: 4201: 4191: 4189: 4157: 4153: 4143: 4141: 4109: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4031: 4027: 3992: 3988: 3978: 3976: 3944: 3940: 3892: 3888: 3877:jan.ucc.nau.edu 3871:Blakey, Ron C. 3869: 3865: 3855: 3853: 3852:. geochronology 3844: 3843: 3839: 3788: 3771: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3732: 3699: 3660: 3656: 3641: 3615: 3611: 3601: 3599: 3567: 3563: 3529: 3518: 3508: 3506: 3474: 3470: 3429: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3384: 3378: 3371: 3364: 3350: 3346: 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3300: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3225: 3210: 3206: 3196: 3194: 3184: 3180: 3173: 3159: 3155: 3140: 3139: 3135: 3128: 3111: 3107: 3070:(5898): 64–68. 3060: 3056: 3048: 3023: 3017: 3013: 3003: 3001: 2979: 2975: 2965: 2963: 2952: 2948: 2935: 2934: 2930: 2907: 2903: 2872: 2868: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2817:Devonian system 2814: 2810: 2806: 2782: 2744:Devonian portal 2742: 2735: 2732: 2681: 2675: 2668: 2658: 2649: 2642: 2633: 2628:SEM image of a 2626: 2617: 2605: 2596: 2590: 2581: 2568: 2559: 2552: 2543: 2530: 2521: 2496: 2487: 2474: 2465: 2456: 2447: 2437: 2428: 2421:Cleveland Shale 2403: 2394: 2386: 2377: 2360: 2355: 2354: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2338: 2335: 2208: 2202: 2124: 2112:stromatoporoids 2089:Kimberley Basin 2085: 1978: 1964: 1959: 1899: 1773: 1685: 1677:foreland basins 1578:Acadian Orogeny 1550: 1503:microcontinents 1455: 1426: 1421: 1400: 1352:Middle Devonian 1346:Middle Devonian 1281: 1155: 1139:Acadian Orogeny 1108:palaeogeography 1017:Tetrapodomorphs 1013:Late Ordovician 954:. The earliest 932:vascular plants 856:geologic period 848: 833: 803: 799: 761:43.5555; 3.3573 760: 758: 754: 751: 746: 743: 741: 739: 738: 737: 686: 684: 680: 677: 672: 669: 667: 665: 664: 663: 540: 535: 533: 516: 515: 506: 497: 495: 488: 479: 465: 456: 454: 444: 435: 426: 419: 418: 414: 413: 409: 408: 404: 403: 399: 398: 394: 393: 387: 386: 380: 379: 373: 372: 366: 365: 359: 358: 352: 351: 345: 344: 339: 336: 335: 330: 327: 326: 321: 318: 317: 309: 308: 302: 298: 297: 289: 288: 282: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 132: 119: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 52: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6666: 6656: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6628: 6627: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6566: 6565: 6563: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6541: 6539: 6530: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6501: 6499: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6470: 6468: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6439: 6437: 6425: 6415: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6408: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6386: 6384: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6355: 6353: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6319: 6317: 6308: 6307: 6305: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6288: 6286: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6273: 6268: 6262: 6260: 6255:Carboniferous 6251: 6250: 6248: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6231: 6229: 6217: 6207: 6206: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6183: 6181: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6152: 6150: 6141: 6140: 6138: 6137: 6132: 6126: 6124: 6112: 6102: 6101: 6098: 6097: 6095: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6078: 6076: 6073:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 6067: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6058: 6052: 6050: 6047:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 6041: 6040: 6038: 6037: 6032: 6026: 6024: 6012: 6002: 6001: 5994: 5993: 5986: 5979: 5971: 5962: 5961: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5953: 5948: 5942: 5940: 5938: 5937: 5932: 5926: 5924: 5922: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5898: 5895: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5876: 5875: 5868: 5861: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5834: 5818: 5810: 5802: 5786: 5783:. UC Berkeley. 5777: 5769:Devonian Times 5759: 5758:External links 5756: 5753: 5752: 5705: 5692: 5662: 5635:(1): 387–437. 5615: 5558: 5503: 5496: 5478: 5467: 5452: 5432: 5369: 5348: 5315: 5294:(2): 373–379. 5272: 5211: 5160: 5139:(2): 273–285. 5119: 5100: 5073: 5042: 5029:10.1086/648988 5023:(2): 199–215. 5003: 4976: 4931: 4878: 4823: 4778: 4751:Dawson 1859". 4739: 4726:(3): 489–501. 4706: 4678:10.1666/13-088 4664:(4): 735–746. 4642: 4606: 4593:(1): 298–306. 4573: 4524: 4506:(4): 465–477. 4486: 4437: 4391: 4365: 4339:(3): 541–555. 4319: 4271: 4250:(2): 417–431. 4230: 4199: 4179:10.1002/gj.967 4151: 4100: 4052: 4045: 4025: 3986: 3938: 3915:(3): 301–317. 3908:Andean Geology 3886: 3863: 3837: 3769: 3756: 3697: 3654: 3639: 3609: 3561: 3516: 3468: 3443:(4): 510–523. 3423: 3395:(3): 199–204. 3369: 3362: 3344: 3325: 3313: 3294: 3292:, p. 690. 3282: 3263: 3257:978-0226731025 3256: 3234: 3223: 3204: 3178: 3172:978-0521786737 3171: 3153: 3150:(Online). n.d. 3133: 3126: 3105: 3054: 3034:(4): 331–336. 3011: 2993:(2): 195–205. 2973: 2946: 2928: 2901: 2896:10.1086/421077 2882:(4): 495–501. 2866: 2834: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2825: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2801: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2786: 2774: 2766: 2761: 2755: 2748: 2747: 2731: 2728: 2677:Main article: 2674: 2671: 2670: 2669: 2659: 2652: 2650: 2643: 2636: 2634: 2627: 2620: 2618: 2606: 2599: 2597: 2591: 2584: 2582: 2569: 2562: 2560: 2553: 2546: 2544: 2531: 2524: 2522: 2511:Eusthenopteron 2497: 2490: 2488: 2475: 2468: 2466: 2457: 2450: 2448: 2438: 2431: 2429: 2404: 2397: 2395: 2387: 2380: 2376: 2373: 2359: 2356: 2352: 2351: 2348: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2329: 2326: 2325: 2324: 2309:carbon dioxide 2275:cladoxylopsids 2270:progymnosperms 2204:Main article: 2201: 2198: 2159:trigonotarbids 2123: 2120: 2084: 2081: 2054:including the 2027:Chondrichthyes 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1898: 1895: 1772: 1771:Asian terranes 1769: 1684: 1681: 1669:Antler orogeny 1549: 1546: 1454: 1453:Paleogeography 1451: 1438:stromatoporoid 1424: 1419: 1399: 1396: 1376: 1375: 1348: 1347: 1297:Early Devonian 1293: 1292: 1291:Early Devonian 1280: 1277: 1241:western Europe 1208:358.9 Ma – in 1154: 1151: 1112:supercontinent 1076:and the great 790: 789: 786: 782: 781: 777: 776: 773: 769: 768: 731:Montagne Noire 724: 720: 719: 707: 703: 702: 699: 695: 694: 661:Czech Republic 654: 650: 649: 635: 631: 630: 627: 623: 622: 617: 613: 612: 607: 603: 602: 598: 597: 596:ICS Time Scale 594: 590: 589: 582: 581:Regional usage 578: 577: 572: 571:Celestial body 568: 567: 563: 562: 559: 555: 554: 551: 550:Name formality 547: 546: 542: 541: 537: 536: 522: 521: 518: 517: 513:Hunsrück fauna 511: 509: 499: 498: 493: 491: 481: 480: 470: 468: 458: 457: 449: 447: 437: 436: 431: 429: 420: 416: 415: 411: 410: 406: 405: 401: 400: 396: 395: 389: 388: 382: 381: 375: 374: 368: 367: 361: 360: 354: 353: 347: 346: 338: 337: 329: 328: 320: 319: 311: 310: 300: 299: 291: 290: 280: 279: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 139: 138: 134: 133: 130: 122: 121: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 48: 47: 26: 18:Upper Devonian 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6665: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6638: 6625: 6620: 6614: 6609: 6603: 6600: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6582: 6576: 6574: 6567: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6542: 6540: 6538: 6531: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6500: 6498: 6491: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6469: 6467: 6460: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6436: 6434:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 6429: 6426: 6424: 6416: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6383: 6376: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6352: 6345: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6320: 6318: 6316: 6309: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6285: 6278: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6263: 6261: 6259: 6252: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6211:Paleozoic Era 6208: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6142: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6127: 6125: 6123: 6121:(66.0–145 Ma) 6116: 6113: 6111: 6109:(66.0–252 Ma) 6103: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6068: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6053: 6051: 6049: 6042: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6023: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6003: 5999: 5992: 5987: 5985: 5980: 5978: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5906: 5904: 5903: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5890: 5885: 5881: 5874: 5869: 5867: 5862: 5860: 5855: 5854: 5851: 5843: 5842:Age of Fishes 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5791: 5787: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5761: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5709: 5695: 5693:9780444521279 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5666: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5562: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5499: 5497:9780231160568 5493: 5489: 5482: 5476: 5471: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5453:0-231-07504-9 5449: 5445: 5444: 5436: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5373: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5320: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5288: 5283: 5276: 5268: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5227: 5222: 5215: 5207: 5201: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5123: 5115: 5111: 5104: 5088: 5084: 5077: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5046: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4943: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4890: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4836: 4827: 4819: 4815: 4810: 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3949: 3942: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3890: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3759: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3670: 3665: 3658: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3577: 3572: 3565: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3536: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3484: 3479: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3427: 3408: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3383: 3376: 3374: 3365: 3363:0-11-884408-3 3359: 3355: 3348: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3322: 3317: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3291: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3259: 3253: 3248: 3247: 3238: 3232: 3227: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3174: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3149: 3148: 3143: 3137: 3129: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3109: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3058: 3047: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3015: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2942: 2938: 2932: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2870: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2839: 2835: 2822: 2818: 2812: 2808: 2799: 2796: 2795: 2792: 2789: 2788: 2780: 2779: 2775: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2753: 2750: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2734: 2727: 2725: 2721: 2720:Digby McLaren 2716: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2699: 2694: 2685: 2680: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2610: 2603: 2598: 2594: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2574: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2550: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2518: 2513: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2502: 2494: 2489: 2485: 2482: 2478: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2462: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2443: 2442:Eastmanosteus 2439:Lower jaw of 2435: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2410:planktivorous 2407: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2391: 2384: 2379: 2378: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2345: 2340: 2333: 2328: 2327: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2285:tracheophytes 2282: 2281: 2280:Archaeopteris 2276: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2250: 2245: 2241: 2240: 2235: 2234: 2233:Drepanophycus 2229: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2207: 2197: 2195: 2194: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2169: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2119: 2117: 2116:rugose corals 2113: 2109: 2108:cyanobacteria 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2091:of northwest 2090: 2080: 2077: 2072: 2063: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2038: 2037: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1994:microconchids 1991: 1987: 1983: 1977: 1968: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1947:Saxothuringia 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1894: 1892: 1891:paleomagnetic 1888: 1884: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1868:flood basalts 1865: 1864:mantle plumes 1861: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1829: 1824: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1777: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1706:active margin 1703: 1699: 1689: 1680: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1590:Great Britain 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1559: 1554: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1495:North America 1492: 1488: 1487:North America 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1467:South America 1464: 1460: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1417: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1380: 1374:Late Devonian 1373: 1372: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1290: 1289: 1288: 1286: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1265:South America 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1245:North America 1242: 1238: 1234: 1233:sampling bias 1229: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1210:North America 1207: 1206:Carboniferous 1203: 1199: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1187:Adam Sedgwick 1184: 1180: 1176: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1064: 1060: 1055: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 995: 991: 990:Age of Fishes 987: 984:, especially 983: 979: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 920:pteridophytes 917: 914: 910: 906: 901: 899: 895: 891: 890:Carboniferous 887: 883: 879: 875: 872: 868: 865: 861: 857: 853: 852: 851:-nee-ən, deh- 842: 797: 787: 783: 778: 774: 770: 765: 736: 732: 728: 725: 721: 717: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 691: 662: 658: 655: 651: 648: 647: 643: 639: 636: 632: 628: 624: 621: 618: 614: 611: 608: 604: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 576: 573: 569: 564: 561:Age of Fishes 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 532: 531:, as of 2021. 530: 523: 514: 510: 505: 504: 492: 487: 486: 477: 473: 469: 464: 463: 452: 448: 443: 442: 434: 430: 425: 424: 392: 385: 378: 371: 364: 357: 350: 342: 333: 324: 316: 315: 314:Carboniferous 307: 305: 296: 295: 287: 285: 145: 140: 135: 128: 123: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 56: 49: 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6598: 6534:Archean Eon 6496:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 6381:(485–539 Ma) 6350:(444–485 Ma) 6314:(419–444 Ma) 6283:(359–419 Ma) 6280: 6257:(299–359 Ma) 6226:(252–299 Ma) 6214:(252–539 Ma) 6178:(201–252 Ma) 6147:(145–201 Ma) 6106:Mesozoic Era 6006:Cenozoic Era 5879: 5841: 5830:the original 5825: 5796:19 September 5794:. Retrieved 5773:the original 5768: 5725:(1): 12–21. 5722: 5718: 5708: 5697:, retrieved 5675: 5665: 5632: 5628: 5618: 5575: 5571: 5561: 5520: 5516: 5506: 5487: 5481: 5470: 5442: 5435: 5386: 5382: 5372: 5361:, retrieved 5331: 5291: 5285: 5275: 5230: 5224: 5214: 5200:cite journal 5176: 5163: 5136: 5132: 5122: 5113: 5103: 5091:. Retrieved 5086: 5076: 5064:. Retrieved 5060:the original 5045: 5020: 5016: 5015:Lang 1937". 5012: 5006: 4992:(1): 12–20. 4989: 4985: 4979: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4893: 4887: 4881: 4844: 4840: 4835:Prototaxites 4834: 4826: 4799: 4795: 4790:Prototaxites 4789: 4781: 4756: 4752: 4749:Prototaxites 4748: 4742: 4723: 4719: 4709: 4697:. Retrieved 4661: 4655: 4645: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4590: 4586: 4576: 4541: 4537: 4527: 4515:. Retrieved 4503: 4499: 4489: 4454: 4450: 4440: 4428:. Retrieved 4408: 4404: 4394: 4382:. Retrieved 4378: 4368: 4356:. Retrieved 4336: 4332: 4322: 4310:. Retrieved 4290: 4284: 4274: 4247: 4243: 4233: 4221:. Retrieved 4219:(4): 401–429 4216: 4212: 4202: 4190:. 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Retrieved 2959: 2949: 2940: 2931: 2914: 2910: 2904: 2879: 2875: 2869: 2852: 2848: 2838: 2820: 2816: 2811: 2778:Phacops rana 2777: 2771: 2717: 2702: 2690: 2661:Prototaxites 2607: 2592: 2571: 2532: 2517:Bothriolepis 2515: 2509: 2508:, including 2501:Cladoselache 2499: 2479:, a diverse 2477:Bothriolepis 2459: 2440: 2406:Titanichthys 2390:Dunkleosteus 2388: 2361: 2316: 2298: 2278: 2247: 2237: 2231: 2225: 2191: 2178:Prototaxites 2176: 2168:Protichnites 2166: 2141:forests and 2136: 2130: 2086: 2075: 2068: 2050:and various 2036:Cladoselache 2034: 2031:Osteichthyes 2019:ostracoderms 2000:. 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