Spanish conquest of Yucatán

3499: 2323:. Once ashore, the Spaniards clustered loosely together and advanced towards the city along a path among low, scrub-covered hillocks. At this point the Maya leader gave a shout and the Spanish party was ambushed by Maya warriors armed with spears, bows and arrows, and stones. Thirteen Spaniards were injured by arrows in the first assault, but the conquistadors regrouped and repulsed the Maya attack. They advanced to a small plaza bordered by temples upon the outskirts of the city. When the Spaniards ransacked the temples they found a number of low-grade gold items, which filled them with enthusiasm. The expedition captured two Mayas to be used as interpreters and retreated to the ships. Over the following days the Spanish discovered that although the Maya arrows had struck with little force, the flint arrowheads tended to shatter on impact, causing infected wounds and a slow death; two of the wounded Spaniards died from the arrow-wounds inflicted in the ambush. 2343:. A large contingent put ashore in the brigantine and the ships' boats to fill their water casks in a freshwater pool. They were approached by about fifty finely dressed and unarmed Indians while the water was being loaded into the boats; they questioned the Spaniards as to their purpose by means of signs. The Spanish party then accepted an invitation to enter the city. They were led amongst large buildings until they stood before a blood-caked altar, where many of the city's inhabitants crowded around. The Indians piled reeds before the visitors; this act was followed by a procession of armed Maya warriors in full war paint, followed by ten Maya priests. The Maya set fire to the reeds and indicated that the Spanish would be killed if they were not gone by the time the reeds had been consumed. The Spanish party withdrew in defensive formation to the shore and rapidly boarded their boats to retreat to the safety of the ships. 2350:, and a landing party discovered fresh water. Armed Maya warriors approached from the city while the water casks were being filled. Communication was once again attempted with signs. Night fell by the time the water casks had been filled and the attempts at communication concluded. In the darkness the Spaniards could hear the movements of large numbers of Maya warriors. They decided that a night-time retreat would be too risky; instead, they posted guards and waited for dawn. At sunrise, the Spanish saw that they had been surrounded by a sizeable army. The massed Maya warriors launched an assault with missiles, including arrows, darts and stones; they then charged into hand-to-hand combat with spears and clubs. Eighty of the defenders were wounded in the initial barrage of missiles, and two Spaniards were captured in the frantic mêlée that followed. All of the Spanish party received wounds, including 1478:. Average temperature in the peninsula varies from 24 °C (75 °F) in January to 29 °C (84 °F) in July. The lowest temperature on record is 6 °C (43 °F). For the peninsula as a whole, the mean annual precipitation is 1,100 millimetres (43 in). The rainy season lasts from June to September, while the dry season runs from October to May. During the dry season, rainfall averages 300 millimetres (12 in); in the wet season this increases to an average 800 to 900 millimetres (31 to 35 in). The prevailing winds are easterly and have created an east–west precipitation gradient with average rainfall in the east exceeding 1,400 millimetres (55 in) and the north and northwestern portions of the peninsula receiving a maximum of 800 millimetres (31 in). The southeastern portion of the peninsula has a tropical rainy climate with a short dry season in winter. 2550: 2354:. The Spanish regrouped in a defensive formation and forced passage to the shore, where their discipline collapsed and a frantic scramble for the boats ensued, leaving the Spanish vulnerable to the pursuing Maya warriors who waded into the sea behind them. Most of the precious water casks were abandoned on the beach. When the surviving Spanish reached the safety of the ships, they realised that they had lost over fifty men, more than half their number. Five men died from their wounds in the following days. The battle had lasted only an hour, and the Spanish named the locale as the Coast of the Disastrous Battle. They were now far from help and low on supplies; too many men had been lost and injured to sail all three ships back to 3573:. In the meantime the Itza had learnt of the approaching military expedition and had become hardened against further Spanish missionary attempts. When Mirones learnt of Delgado's departure, he sent 13 soldiers to persuade him to return or continue as his escort should he refuse. The soldiers caught up with him just before Tipuj, but he was determined to reach Nojpetén. From Tipuj, Delgado sent a messenger to Kan Ekʼ, asking permission to travel to Nojpetén; the Itza king replied with a promise of safe passage for the missionary and his companions. The party was initially received in peace at the Itza capital, but as soon as the Spanish soldiers let their guard down, the Itza seized and bound the new arrivals. The soldiers were 3349:, approached the Spanish encampment at Mérida in peace, bearing sorely needed food supplies. He expressed interest in the Spanish religion and witnessed a Roman Catholic mass celebrated for his benefit. Tutul-Xiu was greatly impressed and converted to the new religion; he was baptised as Melchor and stayed with the Spanish at Mérida for two months, receiving instruction in the Catholic faith. Tutul-Xiu was the ruler of the most powerful province of northern Yucatán and his submission to Spain and conversion to Christianity had repercussions throughout the peninsula, and encouraged the lords of the western provinces of the peninsula to accept Spanish rule. The eastern provinces continued to resist Spanish overtures. 2963:

little. With discontent growing among his men, Montejo took the drastic step of burning his ships; this strengthened the resolve of his troops, who gradually acclimatised to the harsh conditions of Yucatán. Montejo was able to get more food from the still-friendly Aj Nuam Pat, when the latter made a visit to the mainland. Montejo took 125 men and set out on an expedition to explore the north-eastern portion of the Yucatán peninsula. His expedition passed through the towns of Xamanha, Mochis and Belma, none of which survives today. At Belma, Montejo gathered the leaders of the nearby Maya towns and ordered them to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown. After this, Montejo led his men to Conil, a town in

1844: 4287:. The attack boat was rowed east towards the Itza capital; half way across the lake it encountered a large fleet of canoes spread in an arc across the approach to Nojpetén – Ursúa simply gave the order to row through them. A large number of defenders had gathered along the shore of Nojpetén and on the roofs of the city. Itza archers began to shoot at the invaders from the canoes. Ursúa ordered his men not to return fire but arrows wounded a number of his soldiers; one of the wounded soldiers discharged his musket and at that point the officers lost control of their men. The defending Itza soon fled from the withering Spanish gunfire. 3283: 1571:. The various provinces shared a common culture but the internal sociopolitical organisation varied from one province to the next, as did access to important resources. These differences in political and economic makeup often led to hostilities between the provinces. The politically fragmented state of the Yucatán Peninsula at the time of conquest hindered the Spanish invasion, since there was no central political authority to be overthrown. However, the Spanish were also able to exploit this fragmentation by taking advantage of pre-existing rivalries between polities. Estimates of the number of 3295: 2248: 3646: 8716: 2474: 3940:

were returning en masse and discharged their muskets at them, with both groups then retreating. The musketeer company then arrived to reinforce their sentries and charged into battle against approaching Kejache archers. Several musketeers were injured in the ensuing skirmish and the Kejache retreated along a forest path without injury. The Sajkabʼchen company followed the path and found two more deserted settlements with large amounts of abandoned food. They seized the food and retreated back along the path.

2886: 4037:(native chief) and his pagan priest. Pakʼekʼem was sufficiently far from the new Spanish road that it was free from military interference, and the friars oversaw the building of a church in what was the largest mission town in Kejache territory. A second church was built at Bʼatkabʼ to attend to over 100 Kejache refugees who had been gathered there under the stewardship of a Spanish friar; a further church was established at Tzuktokʼ, overseen by another friar. 2366: 8421: 3585:, the Itza took them across to their island capital and imprisoned them. Bernardino Ek, the scout, escaped and returned to Mirones with the news. Soon afterwards, on 27 January 1624, an Itza war party led by AjKʼin Pʼol caught Mirones and his soldiers off guard and unarmed in the church at Sakalum, and killed them all. Spanish reinforcements arrived too late. A number of local Maya men and women were killed by Spanish attackers, who also burned the town. 2080: 2146:. Also among the cargo were a small number of women and children, probably destined to be sold as slaves, as were a number of the rowers. The Europeans looted whatever took their interest from amongst the cargo and seized the elderly Maya captain to serve as an interpreter; the canoe was then allowed to continue on its way. This was the first recorded contact between Europeans and the Maya. It is likely that news of the piratical strangers in the 3125:. After six months of Spanish rule, Cupul dissatisfaction could no longer be contained and Naabon Cupul was killed during a failed attempt to kill Montejo the Younger. The death of their lord only served to inflame Cupul anger and, in mid 1533, they laid siege to the small Spanish garrison at Chichén Itzá. Montejo the Younger abandoned Ciudad Real by night after arranging a distraction for their attackers, and he and his men fled west, where the 2462: 1232: 1215:. These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695. Over the course of 1695 and 1696 a number of Spanish expeditions attempted to reach Nojpetén from the mutually independent Spanish colonies in Yucatán and Guatemala. In early 1695 the Spanish began to build a road from Campeche south towards Petén and activity intensified, sometimes with significant losses on the part of the Spanish. 4137:

prisoners, who included the two Franciscans. The Spanish party retreated from the lake shore and regrouped on open ground where they were surrounded by thousands of Itza warriors. Zubiaur ordered his men to fire a volley that killed between 30 and 40 Itzas. Realising that they were hopelessly outnumbered, the Spanish retreated towards Chuntuki, abandoning their captured companions to their fate.

3368:, and nine Spaniards drowned in the attempted crossing. Another Spanish conquistador was killed by hostile Maya. Rumours of this setback grew in the telling and both the Cupul and Cochua provinces once again rose up against their would-be European overlords. The Spanish hold on the eastern portion of the peninsula remained tenuous and a number of Maya polities remained independent, including 3069:. Montejo the Younger founded Salamanca de Xicalango as a base of operations. In 1530 Ávila established Salamanca de Acalan as a base from which to launch new attempts to conquer Yucatán. Salamanca de Acalan proved a disappointment, with no gold for the taking and with lower levels of population than had been hoped. Ávila soon abandoned the new settlement and set off across the lands of the 3241:. Testera had been assured by the Spanish authorities that no military activity would be undertaken in Yucatán, while he was attempting its conversion to the Roman Catholic faith, and that no soldiers would be permitted to enter the peninsula. His initial efforts were proving successful when Captain Lorenzo de Godoy arrived in Champotón at the command of soldiers despatched there by 4201:

Amésqueta was extremely suspicious of the small canoes being offered by the Itza to transport his party across to Nojpetén; as nightfall approached Amésqueta retreated from the lakeshore and his men took up positions on a small hill nearby. In the early hours of the morning he ordered a retreat by moonlight. At San Pedro Mártir he received news of an Itza embassy to

3581:. After their sacrifice, the Itza took Delgado, cut his heart out and dismembered him; they displayed his head on a stake with the others. The fortune of the leader of Delgado's Maya companions was no better. With no word from Delgado's escort, Mirones sent two Spanish soldiers with a Maya scout to learn their fate. When they arrived upon the shore of 4080:, on the west shore of Lake Petén Itza. The Franciscans returned to Nojpetén with Kan Ekʼ and baptised over 300 Itza children over the following four days. Avendaño tried to convince Kan Ekʼ to convert to Christianity and surrender to the Spanish Crown, without success. The king of the Itza, cited Itza prophecy and said the time was not yet right. 2799:

town of Tiac was even larger and was fortified with walls, watchtowers and earthworks; the town itself was divided into three individually fortified districts. Tiac was said to have been at war with the unnamed smaller town. The Kejache claimed that their towns were fortified against the attacks of their aggressive

3111:, the Maya amassed a strong force and attacked the city; the Spanish were able to fight them off, a battle in which the elder Montejo was almost killed. Aj Canul, the lord of the attacking Maya, surrendered to the Spanish. After this battle, the younger Francisco de Montejo was despatched to the northern 1331:, from whence it slowly flows to the coasts to form large submarine springs. Various freshwater springs rise along the coast to form watering holes. The filtering of rainwater through the limestone has caused the formation of extensive cave systems. These cave roofs are subject to collapse forming deep 3173:

remained behind in Dzilam to continue his attempts at conquest of the region but, finding the situation too difficult, he soon retreated to Campeche to rejoin his father and Alonso d' Ávila, who had returned to Campeche shortly before Montejo the Younger. Around this time, the news began to arrive of

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territory and reported that the Kejache towns were situated in easily defensible locations and were often fortified. One of these was built on a rocky outcrop near a lake and a river that fed into it. The town was fortified with a wooden palisade and was surrounded by a moat. Cortés reported that the

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the Spanish tried to barter for water but the Maya refused, so Grijalva opened fire against the city with small cannon; the inhabitants fled, allowing the Spanish to take the abandoned city. Messages were sent with a few Maya who had been too slow to escape but the Maya remained hidden in the forest.

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occupied the town of Conil for two months, the Spanish recorded approximately 5,000 houses in the town; the adult male population at the time has been conservatively estimated as 3,000. By 1549, Spanish records show that only 80 tributaries were registered to be taxed, indicating a population drop in

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of the Yucatán Peninsula was hindered by its politically fragmented state. The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns. Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight into inaccessible regions such as the forest

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warriors. The warriors began to mingle freely with the Spanish party and a scuffle then broke out; a dozen of the Spanish party were forced into canoes, and three of them were killed. At this point the Spanish soldiers opened fire with their muskets, and the Itza retreated across the lake with their

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were short of supplies, and the forcefully congregated Maya that they were charged with converting were disappearing back into the forest daily. Antonio de Silva ordered Avendaño to return to Mérida, and he arrived there on 17 September 1695. Meanwhile, the other group of Franciscans, led by Juan de

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and the rich plunder that his soldiers were taking there, undermining the morale of Montejo's already disenchanted band of followers. Montejo's soldiers began to abandon him to seek their fortune elsewhere; in seven years of attempted conquest in the northern provinces of the Yucatán Peninsula, very

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The Maya leader returned the following day with twelve canoes, as promised. The Spanish could see from afar that the shore was packed with natives. The conquistadors put ashore in the brigantine and the ships' boats; a few of the more daring Spaniards boarded the native canoes. The Spanish named the

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The city fell after a brief but bloody battle in which many Itza warriors died; the Spanish suffered only minor casualties. The Spanish bombardment caused heavy loss of life on the island; the surviving Itza abandoned their capital and swam across to the mainland with many dying in the water. After

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and spoke with Avendaño, arguing against the acceptance of Christianity and Spanish rule. The discussions between Avendaño, Kan Ekʼ and AjKowoj exposed deep divisions among the Itza. Kan Ekʼ learnt of a plot by the Kowoj and their allies to ambush and kill the Franciscans, and the Itza king advised

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on 2 June 1695. Avendaño continued south along the course of the new road, finding increasing evidence of Spanish military activity. The Franciscans overtook García de Paredes at Bʼukʼte, about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) before Tzuktokʼ. On 3 August García de Paredes advanced to Chunpich but tried

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city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore. On his departure from Nojpetén, Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse that the Itza treated as a deity, attempting to feed it poultry, meat and flowers, but the animal soon died.

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the Spanish sighted massed warriors and canoes but the natives did not approach. By means of interpreters, Grijalva indicated that he wished to trade and bartered wine and beads in exchange for food and other supplies. From the natives they received a few gold trinkets and news of the riches of the

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were leaking and the expedition was now running dangerously low on fresh water; the hunt for more became an overriding priority as the expedition advanced, and shore parties searching for water were left dangerously exposed because the ships could not pull close to the shore due to the shallows. On

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in Belize. In the 17th century the Yalain capital was located at the site of that name on the north shore of Lake Macanché. At the time of Spanish contact the Yalain were allied with the Itza, an alliance cemented by intermarriage between the elites of both groups. In the late 17th century, Spanish

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The northwestern and northern portions of the Yucatán Peninsula experience lower rainfall than the rest of the peninsula; these regions feature highly porous limestone bedrock resulting in less surface water. This limestone geology results in most rainwater filtering directly through the bedrock to

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religion, his submission to Spain and conversion to Christianity encouraged the lords of the western provinces to accept Spanish rule. In late 1546 an alliance of eastern provinces launched an unsuccessful uprising against the Spanish. The eastern Maya were defeated in a single battle, which marked

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to scout the island. As Bartholomew explored the island with two boats, a large canoe approached from the west, apparently en route to the island. The canoe was carved from one large tree trunk and was powered by twenty-five naked rowers. Curious as to the visitors, Bartholomew Columbus seized and

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then sent a canoe with a white flag raised bearing emissaries, who offered peaceful surrender. Ursúa received the embassy in peace and invited Kan Ekʼ to visit his encampment three days later. On the appointed day Kan Ekʼ failed to arrive; instead Maya warriors amassed both along the shore and in

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town at Chunpich, which the Kejache had fled. The company's officers sent for reinforcements from García de Paredes at Tzuktokʼ but before any could arrive some 25 Kejache returned to Chunpich with baskets to collect their abandoned food. The nervous Sajkabʼchen sentries feared that the residents

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were also employed. As well as the one-handed broadsword, a 1.7-metre (5.5 ft) long two-handed version was also used. Crossbows had 0.61-metre (2 ft) arms stiffened with hardwoods, horn, bone and cane, and supplied with a stirrup to facilitate drawing the string with a crank and pulley.

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diseases are often mentioned only briefly in indigenous accounts, making it difficult to identify the culprit. Among the most deadly were smallpox, influenza, measles and a number of pulmonary diseases, including tuberculosis; the latter disease was attributed to the arrival of the Spanish by the

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in Tzuktokʼ, and the other was to do the same at Chuntuki. On 24 October San Buenaventura wrote to the provincial superior reporting that the warlike Kejache were now pacified and that they had told him that the Itza were ready to receive the Spanish in friendship. On that day 62 Kejache men had

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The few men who had not been wounded because they were manning the ships during the battle were reinforced with three men who had suffered relatively minor wounds; they put ashore at a remote beach to dig for water. They found some and brought it back to the ships, although it sickened those who

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Amésqueta left Mopán three days after Díaz and followed Díaz's trail to the lakeshore. He arrived at the lake over a week later with 36 men. As they scouted along the south shore near Nojpetén they were shadowed by about 30 Itza canoes and more Itzas approached by land but kept a safe distance.

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to find a safe approach through the shallows. The caravels anchored about one league from the shore. Ten large canoes powered by both sails and oars rowed out to meet the Spanish ships. Over thirty Maya boarded the vessels and mixed freely with the Spaniards. The Maya visitors accepted gifts of

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in the north; temperature varies between 12 and 40 °C (54 and 104 °F), although it does not usually drop beneath 18 °C (64 °F). Mean temperature varies from 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) in the southeast to 26.9 °C (80.4 °F) in the northeast. Highest temperatures are

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and became the first Spanish settlement on the peninsula. The provisions were soon exhausted and additional food was seized from the local Maya villagers; this too was soon consumed. Many local Maya fled into the forest and Spanish raiding parties scoured the surrounding area for food, finding

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coast, so as to be more easily accessible to the Spanish authorities. In 1561 the Spanish recorded only 250 tribute-paying inhabitants of Tixchel, which probably had a total population of about 1,100. This indicates a 90% drop in population over a 36-year span. Some of the inhabitants had fled

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friars are reported to have died in Mérida, probably the majority of the Franciscans based there and who had probably numbered not much more than twenty before the outbreak. Those areas of the peninsula that experience damper conditions, particularly those possessing swamplands, became rapidly

2225:, together with five or six of their shipmates. Aguilar and Guerrero managed to escape their captors and fled to a neighbouring lord who was an enemy of Halach Uinik; he took them prisoner and kept them as slaves. After a time, Gonzalo Guerrero was passed as a slave to the lord Nachan Can of 1137:

with a small fleet. He left garrisons on the east coast, and subjugated the northeast of the peninsula. Montejo then returned to the east to find his garrisons had almost been eliminated; he used a supply ship to explore southwards before looping back around the entire peninsula to central

2842:, a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres (20 mi), during which he lost more than two-thirds of his horses. When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition, Cortés turned upstream to the 3612:. These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695. In the 1640s internal strife in Spain distracted the government from attempts to conquer unknown lands; the Spanish Crown lacked the time, money or interest in such colonial adventures for the next four decades. 3538:, although he showed interest in the masses held by the Catholic missionaries. Attempts to convert the Itza failed, and the friars left Nojpetén on friendly terms with Kan Ekʼ. The friars returned in October 1619, and again Kan Ekʼ welcomed them in a friendly manner, but this time the 1505:

reached from April to June, while January is the coldest month; all Petén experiences a hot dry period in late August. Annual precipitation is high, varying from a mean of 1,198 millimetres (47.2 in) in the northeast to 2,007 millimetres (79.0 in) in central Petén.

2327: 2869:, with about a dozen companions, and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the next week. By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for, only to find that 3891:, with 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers, plus Maya labourers and muleteers; the final tally was more than 400 people, which was regarded as a considerable army in the impoverished Yucatán province. Ursúa also ordered two companies of Maya musketeers from 1161:

in the north. Montejo carved up the province amongst his soldiers. In mid-1533 the local Maya rebelled and laid siege to the small Spanish garrison, which was forced to flee. Towards the end of 1534, or the beginning of 1535, the Spanish retreated from Campeche to

3322:. Once there, Montejo the Younger, commanding between 300 and 400 Spanish soldiers, established the first permanent Spanish town council in the Yucatán Peninsula. Shortly after establishing the Spanish presence in Campeche, Montejo the Younger summoned the local 2070:

to protect themselves. Members of the Maya aristocracy wore quilted cotton armour, and some warriors of lesser rank wore twisted rolls of cotton wrapped around their bodies. Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins.

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The 16th-century Spanish conquistadors were armed with broadswords, rapiers, crossbows, matchlocks and light artillery. Mounted conquistadors were armed with a 3.7-metre (12 ft) lance, that also served as a pike for infantrymen. A variety of halberds and

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inhabitants of Cozumel fled the Spanish and would not respond to Grijalva's friendly overtures. The fleet sailed south from Cozumel, along the east coast of the peninsula. The Spanish spotted three large Maya cities along the coast, one of which was probably

4197:. Díaz's party was lured into an Itza trap and the expedition members were killed to a man. The two friars were captured and sacrificed. The Itza killed a total of 87 expedition members, including 50 soldiers, two Dominicans and about 35 Maya helpers. 2618:

temples were cast down and a Christian cross was put up on one of them. At Cozumel, Cortés heard rumours of bearded men on the Yucatán mainland, who he presumed were Europeans. Cortés sent out messengers to them and was able to rescue the shipwrecked

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in December 1695, and an apparent formal surrender of the Itza to Spanish authority. Unable to reconcile the news with the loss of his men, and with appalling conditions in San Pedro Mártir, Amésqueta abandoned his unfinished fort and retreated to

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was also in the eastern half of the peninsula; it was southwest of Ecab and northwest of Uaymil. Its borders are poorly understood and it may have been landlocked, or have extended to occupy a portion of the Caribbean coast between the latter two

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voluntarily come to Chuntuki from Pakʼekʼem, where another 300 Kejache resided. In early November 1695, friar Tomás de Alcoser and brother Lucas de San Francisco were sent to establish a mission at Pakʼekʼem, where they were well received by the

3077:, arriving there towards the end of 1530. During a colonial power struggle in Tabasco, the elder Montejo was imprisoned for a time. Upon his release, he met up with his son in Xicalango, Tabasco, and they then both rejoined Ávila at Champotón. 2982:, where they engaged in a major battle against the Maya, killing more than 1,200 of them. After this Spanish victory, the neighbouring Maya leaders all surrendered. Montejo's party then continued to Sisia and Loche before heading back to 2537:, the Spanish attacked Champotón to avenge the previous year's defeat of the Spanish expedition led by Hernández. One Spaniard was killed and fifty were wounded in the ensuing battle, including Grijalva. Grijalva put into the port of 3899:

to join the expedition at Bʼolonchʼen Kawich, some 60 kilometres (37 mi) southeast of the city of Campeche. At the end of May three friars were assigned to join the Spanish force, accompanied by a lay brother. A second group of

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but the Spanish horses and firearms quickly decided the outcome. The defeated Chontal Maya lords offered gold, food, clothing and a group of young women in tribute to the victors. Among these women was a young Maya noblewoman called

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topography. The area is crossed by low east–west oriented ridges of Cenozoic limestone and is characterised by a variety of forest and soil types; water sources include generally small rivers and low-lying seasonal swamps known as

4100:. The Spanish friars became lost and suffered great hardships, including the death of one of Avendaño's companions, but after a month wandering in the forest found their way back to Chuntuki, and from there returned to Mérida. 3435:

and Campeche. The rebellious eastern Maya were finally defeated in a single battle, in which twenty Spaniards and several hundred allied Maya were killed. This battle marked the final conquest of the northern portion of the

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forced the friars out. Champotón was by now the last Spanish outpost in Yucatán, isolated among a hostile population. In 1541–42 the first permanent Spanish town councils in the entire peninsula were founded at Campeche and

2934:, where more supplies and horses were collected, allowing Montejo to increase his cavalry to fifty. One of the ships was left at Santo Domingo as a supply ship to provide later support; the other ships set sail and reached 1930:

depopulated after the conquest with the introduction of malaria and other waterborne parasites. An example was the one-time well-populated province of Ecab occupying the northeastern portion of the peninsula. In 1528, when

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in the second half of September 1527. Montejo was received in peace by the lord of Cozumel, Aj Naum Pat, but the ships only stopped briefly before making for the Yucatán coast. The expedition made landfall somewhere near

2229:. Guerrero became completely Mayanised and served his new lord with such loyalty that he was married to one of Nachan Chan's daughters, Zazil Ha, by whom he had three children. By 1514, Guerrero had achieved the rank of 4291:

the battle the surviving defenders melted away into the forests, leaving the Spanish to occupy an abandoned Maya town. Martín de Ursúa planted his standard upon the highest point of the island and renamed Nojpetén as

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the Spanish arrived at the lakeshore, now supported by artillery. Again a large number of canoes gathered, and the nervous Spanish soldiers opened fire with cannons and muskets; no casualties were reported among the

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united several of the northern provinces; for a time they shared a joint form of government. The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century AD with the onset of the

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that had attacked one of García de Parede's advance companies and had now retreated into the forest. He was unable to find the Kejache but did manage to get information regarding a path that led southwards to the

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once again served as pilot. Governor Velázquez provided all four ships, in an attempt to protect his claim over the peninsula. The small fleet was stocked with crossbows, muskets, barter goods, salted pork and

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and Xiu provinces remained obedient to Spanish rule. Montejo the Younger was received in friendship by Namux Chel, the lord of the Chel province, at Dzilam. In the spring of 1534 he rejoined his father in the

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on 12 October 1524 with 140 Spanish soldiers, 93 of them mounted, 3,000 Mexican warriors, 150 horses, a herd of pigs, artillery, munitions and other supplies. He also had with him the captured Aztec emperor

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the fleet discovered a large bay, which the Spanish named Bahía de la Ascensión. Grijalva did not land at any of these cities and turned back north from Ascensión Bay. He looped around the north of the

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carriers. In Acalan, Cortés believed that the captive Aztec lords were plotting against him and he ordered Cuauhtemoc and Tetlepanquetzal to be hanged. Cortés and his army left Acalan on 5 March 1525.

1219:, governor of Yucatán, launched an assault upon Nojpetén in March 1697; the city fell after a brief battle. With the defeat of the Itza, the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the 2008:

passed through Acalan in 1525 he estimated the population size as at least 10,000. In 1553 the population was recorded at around 4,000. In 1557 the population was forcibly moved to Tixchel on the

1496:, with the rainy season lasting from June to December, although these seasons are not clearly defined in the south; with rain occurring through most of the year. The climate of Petén varies from 3947:. By November Tzuktokʼ was garrisoned with 86 soldiers and more at Chuntuki. In December 1695 the main force was reinforced with 250 soldiers, of which 150 were Spanish and pardo (descendants of 1291:. Most of the peninsula is formed by a vast plain with few hills or mountains and a generally low coastline. A 15-kilometre (9.3 mi) stretch of high, rocky coast runs south from the city of 3988:

to persuade Avendaño to stay behind to minister to the prisoners from Bʼukʼte. Avendaño instead split his group and left in secret with just four Christian Maya companions, seeking the Chunpich

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The small fleet continued for six more days in fine weather, followed by four stormy days. By this time water was once again dangerously short. The ships spotted an inlet close to another city,

1626:

is situated upon the site of the former capital of Cupul. Cupul and Chinkinchel are known to have been mutually hostile, and to have engaged in wars to control the salt beds of the north coast.

3829:. At the beginning of March 1695, Captain Alonso García de Paredes led a group of 50 Spanish soldiers, accompanied by native guides, muleteers and labourers. The expedition advanced south into 3444:, in the extreme south of the peninsula. The Spanish only achieved dominance in the north and the polities of Petén remained independent and continued to receive many refugees from the north. 3161:

in large part due to Xiu support. The Montejos, after reuniting at Dzikabal, founded a new Spanish town at Dzilam, although the Spanish suffered hardships there. Montejo the Elder returned to

1891:

These diseases swept through Yucatán in the 1520s and 1530s, with periodic recurrences throughout the 16th century. By the late 16th century, the reports of high fevers suggest the arrival of

1579:

with more centralised forms of government were likely to have had more stable boundaries than those of loose confederations of provinces. When the Spanish discovered Yucatán, the provinces of

3020:

before turning around and heading back up the coast to finally meet up with his lieutenant at Xamanha. Late in 1528, Montejo left Ávila to oversee Xamanha and sailed north to loop around the

1790:

were the second in importance; they were hostile towards their Itza neighbours. The Kowoj were located to the east of the Itza, around the eastern Petén lakes: Lake Salpetén, Lake Macanché,

2520:, where the inhabitants had routed Hernández and his men, the fleet was approached by a small number of large war canoes, but the ships' cannon soon put them to flight. At the mouth of the 4018:

arrived in Chuntuki on 30 August 1695, and found that the army had opened the road southwards for another seventeen leagues (approximately 44.2 miles or 71.1 km), almost half way to

4060:

and across steep karst hills to a watering hole by some ruins. From there they followed the small Acté River to a Chakʼan Itza town called Saklemakal. They arrived at the western end of

3530:. Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita were accompanied by some Christianised Maya. After an arduous six-month journey the travellers were well received at Nojpetén by the current 1958:, including a large number of refugees from other areas. It is estimated that 88% of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war. In 2021:, while convenient for Spanish administration, were vulnerable to pirate attacks; in the case of Tixchel, pirate attacks and contagious European diseases led to the eradication of the 7775:

Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice; Timothy W. Pugh; Rómulo Sánchez Polo (2009). "Defensive architecture and the context of warfare at Zacpetén". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.).

2205:. They set themselves adrift in one of the ship's boats, with bad oars and no sail; after thirteen days during which half of the survivors died, they made landfall upon the coast of 1984:). Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring 3588:

Following these killings, Spanish garrisons were stationed in several towns in southern Yucatán, and rewards were offered for the whereabouts of AjKʼin Pʼol. The Maya governor of

135: 3983:

independently. This second group was headed by friar Andrés de Avendaño. Avendaño was accompanied by another friar, a lay brother, and six Christian Maya. This latter group left

3565:, Delgado believed that the soldiers' treatment of the Maya was excessively cruel, and he left the expedition to make his own way to Nojpetén with eighty Christianised Maya from 1610:. Chakan was largely landlocked with a small stretch of coast on the north of the peninsula. Cehpech was a coastal province to its east; further east along the north coast were 3264:

to Champotón to take command. His diplomatic overtures to the Champotón Kowoj were successful and they submitted to Spanish rule. Champotón was the last Spanish outpost in the

2853:, where their guides abandoned them to their fate. The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety. 8286: 1450:. The canopy height of the forest gradually decreases from Petén northwards, averaging from 25 to 35 metres (82 to 115 ft). This dense forest covers northern Petén and 11702: 3841:. He rounded up some natives to be moved into colonial settlements, but met with armed Kejache resistance. García de Paredes decided to retreat around the middle of April. 3600:

church and items belonging to Mirones. The prisoners were taken back to the Spanish Captain Antonio Méndez de Canzo, interrogated under torture, tried, and condemned to be

2421: 2383: 2351: 2256: 1078: 7565: 3415:

united in a concerted effort to drive the invaders from the peninsula; the uprising lasted four months. Eighteen Spaniards were surprised in the eastern towns, and were

1323:, terminating some 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the Caribbean coast near the border of Quintana Roo. The hills reach a maximum altitude of 170 metres (560 ft). 2986:. Montejo arrived at Xelha with only 60 of his party, and found that only 12 of his 40-man garrison survived, while the garrison at Pole had been entirely wiped out. 206: 2930:

and permission to colonise the Yucatán Peninsula. In 1527, he left Spain with 400 men in four ships, with horses, small arms, cannon and provisions. He set sail for

2378:, where they found good drinking water, although they lost one man to the local Indians and another drank so much water that he died. The ships finally made port in 1575:

in the northern Yucatán vary from sixteen to twenty-four. The boundaries between polities were not stable, being subject to the effects of alliances and wars; those

7250:(in Spanish). Mexico City, Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) and Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA). Archived from 1346:

In contrast, the northeastern portion of the peninsula is characterised by forested swamplands. The northern portion of the peninsula lacks rivers, except for the

6961: 1935:

Conil of more than 90% in 21 years. The native population of the northeastern portion of the peninsula was almost eliminated within fifty years of the conquest.

1746:

Although there is insufficient data to accurately estimate population sizes at the time of contact with the Spanish, early Spanish reports suggest that sizeable

8319: 3943:

Around 3 August García de Paredes moved his entire army forward to Chunpich, and by October Spanish soldiers had established themselves near the source of the

63: 10832: 7247: 3876:, the Spanish encountered such a large force of Itzas that they retreated south, back to their main camp. Interrogation of an Itza prisoner revealed that the 2390:

describing the voyage, the cities, the plantations, and, most importantly, the discovery of gold. Hernández died soon after from his wounds. The two captured

1879:, suggest that smallpox was rapidly transmitted throughout the Maya area the same year that it arrived in central Mexico with the forces under the command of 3206:, who also claimed Honduras as part of his jurisdiction. Alvarado's claim ultimately turned out successful. In Montejo the Elder's absence, first in central 2579:

was believed to be a land of riches waiting to be plundered. A new expedition was organised, with a fleet of eleven ships carrying 500 men and some horses.

1815:

on Lake Salpetén. Other groups in Petén are less well known, and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure; among them were the

401: 286: 3440:. As a result of the uprising and the Spanish response, many of the Maya inhabitants of the eastern and southern territories fled to the still unconquered 2993:, and Montejo used it to sail south along the coast, while he sent Ávila over land. Montejo discovered the thriving port city of Chaktumal (capital of the 128: 3260:

resisted his attempts to assert Spanish dominance of the region. This resistance was sufficiently tenacious that Montejo the Younger sent his cousin from

9841: 3553:

with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas from Yucatán. His expedition was later joined by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado. In May the expedition advanced to

2974:

inhabitants under cover of darkness. The following morning, the inhabitants attacked the Spanish party but were defeated. The Spanish then continued to

1962:

the population of approximately 30,000 was reduced by an estimated 90%, with measles, smallpox, catarrhs, dysentery and fevers being the main culprits.

1295:

on the Gulf Coast. A number of bays are situated along the east coast of the peninsula, from north to south they are Ascensión Bay, Espíritu Santo Bay,

10852: 9767: 8279: 3753: 231: 6779: 3326:

lords and commanded them to submit to the Spanish Crown. A number of lords submitted peacefully, including the ruler of the Xiu Maya. The lord of the

2339:

23 February 1517, the day of Saint Lazarus, another city was spotted and named San Lázaro by the Spanish – it is now known by its original Maya name,

2283:. The expedition sailed west from Cuba for three weeks, and weathered a two-day storm a week before sighting the coast of the northeastern tip of the 11770: 2822:, who was said to be so impressed that he pledged to worship the cross and to destroy his idols. Cortés accepted an invitation from Kan Ekʼ to visit 1038:

fought with flint-tipped spears, bows and arrows and stones, and wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves. The Spanish introduced a number of

8076:

White, D. A.; C. S. Hood (April 2004). "Vegetation Patterns and Environmental Gradients in Tropical Dry Forests of the Northern Yucatan Peninsula".

4002:

San Buenaventura Chávez, continued following the roadbuilders into Kejache territory, through IxBʼam, Bʼatkabʼ and Chuntuki (modern Chuntunqui near

1802:

central Petén, alongside the Itza and the Kowoj. The Yalain territory had its maximum extension from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to

1474:

The climate becomes progressively drier towards the north of the peninsula. In the north, the annual mean temperature is 27 °C (81 °F) in

4283:

with 108 soldiers, two secular priests, five personal servants, the baptised Itza emissary AjChan and his brother-in-law and an Itza prisoner from

7243: 4022:, but returned to Chuntuki due to the seasonal rains. San Buenaventura was accompanied by two friars and a lay brother. With Avendaño's return to 3004:

The Maya at Chaktumal fed false information to the Spanish, and Montejo was unable to find Ávila and link up with him. Ávila returned overland to

1807:

colonial records document hostilities between Maya groups in the lakes region, with the incursion of the Kowoj into former Yalain sites including

827: 11317: 8160:

Graham, Elizabeth; David M. Pendergast; Grant D. Jones (8 December 1989). "On the Fringes of Conquest: Maya-Spanish Contact in Colonial Belize".

7166:

Astronomers, Scribes, and Priests: Intellectual Interchange Between the Northern Maya Lowlands and Highland Mexico in the Late Postclassic Period

121: 10812: 7578:. Biblioteca Básica de Yucatán (in Spanish). Vol. 18. Merida, Yucatan, Mexico: Secretaría de Educación del Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán. 2193:

in Darién. The ship foundered upon a reef known as Las Víboras ("The Vipers") or, alternatively, Los Alacranes ("The Scorpions"), somewhere off

406: 11884: 1871:. Modern estimates of native population decline vary from 75% to 90% mortality. The terrible plagues that swept the peninsula were recorded in 7203:[Map and Description of the Jungle of Petén and Itza. Interpretation of a Document from the Years Soon After the Conquest of Tayasal] 2634:, which Cortés renamed as the Grijalva River in honour of the Spanish captain who had discovered it. In Tabasco, Cortés anchored his ships at 17: 11775: 10862: 8272: 2958:

Montejo garrisoned Xelha with 40 soldiers under his second-in-command, Alonso d'Avila , and posted 20 more at nearby Pole. Xelha was renamed

7670:

Rice, Prudence M. (2009). "The Archaeology of the Kowoj: Settlement and Architecture at Zacpetén". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.).

3360:

also rose up against the newly imposed Spanish domination, and also their opposition was quickly put down. Montejo continued to the eastern

11974: 10467: 9825: 8314: 11864: 7201:"Mapa y Descripción de la Montaña del Petén e Ytzá. Interpretación de un documento de los años un poco después de la conquista de Tayasal" 4026:, provincial superior Antonio de Silva despatched two additional friars to join San Buenaventura's group. One of these was to convert the 3157:. The Xiu Maya maintained their friendship with the Spanish throughout the conquest and Spanish authority was eventually established over 3001:

was in the region, and Montejo sent messages to him, inviting him to return to join his compatriots, but the Mayanised Guerrero declined.

1762:. The Itza were warlike, and their martial prowess impressed both neighbouring Maya kingdoms and their Spanish enemies. Their capital was 7452: 4189:

friars and by AjKʼixaw, an Itza nobleman who had been taken prisoner on Díaz's previous expedition. When they drew close to the shore of

4056:

around 14 January 1696, accompanied by four companions. From Chuntuki they followed an Indian trail that led them past the source of the

6697: 3545:

In March 1622, the governor of Yucatán, Diego de Cárdenas, ordered Captain Francisco de Mirones y Lezcano to launch an assault upon the

7815: 7705:

Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice (2009). "Introduction to the Kowoj and their Petén Neighbors". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.).

7451:. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Vol. VII. Cambridge, Massachusetts, US: 7200: 6720: 3685: 3427:

were forewarned of the impending attack; Montejo the Younger and his cousin were in Campeche. Montejo the Elder arrived in Mérida from

715: 663: 56: 3330:

refused to submit and Montejo the Younger sent his cousin against them; Montejo himself remained in Campeche awaiting reinforcements.

2742:, whom he had sent to conquer Honduras; Olid had, however, set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory. Cortés left 11814: 9116: 3920:. García de Paredes ordered the construction of a fort at Chuntuki, some 25 leagues (approximately 65 miles or 105 km) north of 3578: 1546:

after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources.

1203:

in the south remained independent and received many refugees fleeing from Spanish jurisdiction. In 1618 and in 1619 two unsuccessful

1081:

made landfall on the tip of the peninsula. His expedition continued along the coast and suffered heavy losses in a pitched battle at

3183:

little gold had been found. Towards the end of 1534 or the beginning of the next year, Montejo the Elder and his son retreated from

11682: 10786: 9464: 8346: 7163:

Hernández, Christine; Anthony P. Andrews; Gabrielle Vail (2010). "Introduction". In Gabrielle Vail; Christine L. Hernández (eds.).

720: 611: 10766: 8799: 2401:

Based upon Hernández de Córdoba's report and the testimony of the interrogated Indian prisoners, Governor Velázquez wrote to the

2139: 1525:

as far back as the Middle Preclassic (c. 600–350 BC), and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the

296: 4222:' continued resistance had become a major embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities, and soldiers were despatched from 695: 6790: 3746: 3100:

fiercely resisted the placement of the new Spanish colony and Ávila and his men were forced to abandon Villa Real and make for

9904: 7597: 7344:

Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.).

11540: 9651: 8133: 8029: 7932: 7796: 7757: 7722: 7687: 7583: 7546: 7511: 7388: 7334: 7010: 6675: 4185:, arriving on 25 February 1696. On 7 March, Captain Díaz de Velasco led a party ahead to the lake; he was accompanied by two 3715: 2849:

On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz. With local guides they headed into the hills north of

767: 730: 606: 49: 10502: 10371: 9998: 9994: 6562:

Andrews, Anthony P. (Winter 1984). "The Political Geography of the Sixteenth Century Yucatan Maya: Comments and Revisions".

1430:

measures approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) east–west by 30 kilometres (19 mi) north–south. The largest lake is

11635: 11630: 10998: 10404: 10047: 9500: 8525: 8368: 8295: 4295:("Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul, Lake of the Itza"). The Itza nobility fled, dispersing to Maya settlements throughout 3655: 3387:

On 8 November 1546, an alliance of eastern provinces launched a coordinated uprising against the Spanish. The provinces of

3012:, which Montejo considered to be a better port. After waiting for Ávila without result, Montejo sailed south as far as the 2707: 2242: 994: 854: 837: 762: 321: 251: 6780:""Fide, Non Armis": Franciscan Reducciónes and the Maya Mission Experience on the Colonial Frontier of Yucatán, 1602–1640" 1002:

groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish. Among the Maya, ambush was a favoured tactic. Spanish weaponry included

11697: 10817: 8329: 2529:

to the west. The expedition continued far enough to confirm the reality of the gold-rich empire, sailing as far north as

678: 616: 306: 9686: 2444:

served on the crew; he was able to secure a place on the expedition as a favour from the governor, who was his kinsman.

2287:. The ships could not put in close to the shore due to the shallowness of the coastal waters. However, they could see a 396: 11894: 11889: 11464: 10781: 10717: 10439: 10419: 9894: 9626: 9589: 7413: 7296:(Map) (2nd ed.). 1:1000000. International Travel Maps. Richmond, British Columbia, Canada: ITMB Publishing. 2000. 3952: 2374:

drank it. The two ships sailed through a storm for two days and nights; Alaminos, the pilot, then steered a course for

1529:(c. AD 250–900). The 16th century Maya provinces of northern Yucatán are likely to have evolved out of polities of the 844: 11829: 10933: 8575: 7270:(Map) (3rd ed.). 1:500000. International Travel Maps. Richmond, British Columbia, Canada: ITMB Publishing. 1998. 3245:. Godoy and Testera were soon in conflict and the friar was forced to abandon Champotón and return to central Mexico. 1992:

often fell victim to contagious diseases. An example of the effect on populations of this strategy is the province of

196: 11530: 11439: 10837: 10381: 9934: 9564: 8341: 8058: 7990: 7901: 7875: 7629: 7484: 7421: 7353: 7301: 7275: 7178: 7066: 7035: 6979: 6907: 6873: 6843: 6798: 3739: 822: 750: 547: 416: 7135:(in Spanish) (9). Tordesillas, Valladolid, Spain: Seminario Iberoamericano de Descubrimientos y Cartografía: 53–60. 3337:, not far from Tʼho. On 6 January 1542, he founded the second permanent town council, calling the new colonial town 2694:. Montejo remained in Spain for seven years, and eventually succeeded in acquiring the hereditary military title of 201: 179: 11730: 10414: 9898: 9676: 8789: 8663: 8611: 7529:

Pugh, Timothy W. (2009). "Residential and Domestic Contexts at Zacpetén". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.).

7251: 4324: 4311:

king (Aj Kowoj) was also soon captured, together with other Maya nobles and their families. With the defeat of the

4231: 3818: 3771: 3695: 3311: 3242: 3170: 3054: 2898: 2299:. Although the location is not now known with certainty, it is believed that this first sighting of Yucatán was at 2222: 1863:. The European diseases that ravaged the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas also severely affected the various 1216: 1147: 552: 421: 261: 226: 11106: 11041: 8475: 8008:

Vayhinger-Scheer, Temis (2011) . "Kanekʼ: El Último Rey Maya Itzaj" [Kanekʼ: The Last Itza Maya King]. In

6632: 6603: 3645: 2013:

Tixchel for the forest, while others had succumbed to disease, malnutrition and inadequate housing in the Spanish

11899: 11874: 11869: 11667: 11459: 11246: 11046: 10595: 10530: 10116: 10018: 9366: 9356: 8925: 8460: 8400: 2691: 2413: 2387: 2359: 2218: 1843: 658: 381: 356: 341: 276: 211: 11585: 11101: 10545: 10429: 9381: 3994: 3811: 3542:

were hostile and the missionaries were expelled without food or water, but survived the journey back to Mérida.

3475: 2334:

Over the next fifteen days the fleet slowly followed the coastline west, and then south. The casks brought from

2311:

beads, and the leader indicated with signs that they would return to take the Spanish ashore the following day.

2221:

with four of his companions, and their flesh was served at a feast. Aguilar and Guerrero were held prisoner and

1739:

by that name) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning southwestern Petén in

169: 11687: 11625: 11424: 10842: 10555: 10535: 10507: 10424: 10399: 10259: 10067: 9974: 9914: 9881: 8644: 8351: 8324: 6693: 3979:; the first group was to join up with García de Parede's military expedition. The second group was to head for 3277: 1711:, where their capital was located. In the southern portion of the peninsula, a number of polities occupied the 832: 812: 331: 164: 11904: 11479: 11236: 6898:. Ancient Peoples and Places (6th edition, fully revised and expanded ed.). London, UK and New York, US: 3806:

to build the northern section and for Guatemala to build the southern portion, with both meeting somewhere in

3352:

Montejo the Younger next sent his cousin to Chauaca where most of the eastern lords greeted him in peace. The

725: 503: 11802: 11780: 11735: 11677: 11655: 11469: 11241: 10923: 10712: 10697: 9782: 9646: 9599: 8693: 8410: 8383: 7371:

Jones, Grant D. (2009). "The Kowoj in Ethnohistorical Perspective". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.).

7212: 3660: 3625: 3592:, Fernando Kamal, set out with 150 Maya archers to track the warleader down; they succeeded in capturing the 3534:. They stayed for some days in an attempt to evangelise the Itza, but the Aj Kan Ekʼ refused to renounce his 3119:. Montejo carved up the province amongst his soldiers and gave each of his men two to three thousand Maya in 777: 740: 735: 586: 576: 562: 557: 518: 371: 271: 216: 92: 31: 11031: 8565: 8465: 2295:

inland, upon a low hill. The Spanish called it Gran Cairo (literally "Great Cairo") due to its size and its

11909: 11879: 11672: 11640: 11171: 11036: 10472: 9852: 9661: 9457: 9391: 9341: 8683: 8495: 8470: 8405: 8373: 7784: 6812: 3675: 2690:

with treasure for the king. While he was in Spain, Montejo pleaded Cortés' cause against the supporters of

807: 797: 772: 567: 301: 281: 73: 11660: 10993: 8698: 8388: 7409:

Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821

3670: 3453: 3115:

province, where the lord Naabon Cupul reluctantly allowed him to found the Spanish town of Ciudad Real at

508: 97: 35: 11959: 11954: 11949: 11645: 11545: 11176: 10628: 10560: 9529: 8688: 8378: 7444: 6731:(in Spanish). XII (1998). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 788–795. 4348:

Belma has been tentatively identified with the modern settlement and Maya archaeological site of El Meco.

4253: 4057: 3944: 3727: 3601: 1395: 817: 792: 476: 266: 221: 87: 11096: 11003: 8455: 7021: 6957: 3833:

territory, which began at Chunpich, about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of the modern border between

2604: 2583:

was placed in command, and his crew included officers that would become famous conquistadors, including

2441: 2358:. They decided to abandon their smallest ship, the brigantine, although it was purchased on credit from 2280: 11969: 11964: 11854: 11580: 10943: 10590: 10477: 10389: 10361: 9988: 9958: 9763: 9594: 9346: 9105: 8794: 8750: 8570: 7085: 6835: 4315:, the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to the European colonisers. 4279:

A waterbourne assault was launched upon Kan Ek's capital on the morning of 13 March. Ursúa boarded the

2630:

From Cozumel, the fleet looped around the north of the Yucatán Peninsula and followed the coast to the

2151: 1434:, near the centre of the drainage basin; it measures 32 by 5 kilometres (19.9 by 3.1 mi). A broad 802: 745: 710: 643: 523: 10963: 10918: 4072:

travelled across the lake with 80 canoes to greet the visitors at the Chakʼan Itza (a subgroup of the

3880:

was in a state of high alert to repel the Spanish; the expedition almost immediately withdrew back to

3169:

lord Namux Chel, who travelled on horseback, and two of the lord's cousins, who were taken in chains.

11499: 11449: 11307: 11206: 10702: 10575: 10540: 10492: 10394: 10006: 9890: 9579: 9549: 9544: 9361: 9021: 8920: 8903: 8893: 7867: 7326: 3710: 3604:. They were decapitated, and the heads were displayed in the plazas of towns throughout the colonial 3574: 2843: 2159: 2098: 889: 859: 683: 493: 471: 456: 451: 446: 441: 411: 336: 256: 236: 10124: 8490: 7854: 7662: 11944: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11859: 11444: 11327: 11287: 11226: 11221: 11161: 10580: 10570: 10356: 10059: 9970: 9671: 9326: 8485: 7170: 6721:"Los estilos tecnológicos de la cerámica Postclásica con engobe de la región de los lagos de Petén" 6668:

Roads in the Forest: Migration, Commerce and Resistance: Yucatec and Itza Maya, 17th–19th Centuries

2043:

Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks, especially in the humid tropical climate of the

1280: 916: 782: 705: 653: 542: 431: 426: 361: 326: 311: 11824: 10903: 10136: 9656: 6937:(in Spanish) (4). Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos: 23–26. 2190: 1157:, where they repulsed a significant Maya attack. After this battle, the Spanish founded a town at 11494: 11352: 11196: 11136: 11086: 10988: 10585: 10550: 10497: 10132: 10002: 9966: 9696: 9569: 9554: 9450: 8821: 8510: 7320: 6663:

Caminos en la selva: migración, comercio y resistencia: Mayas yucatecos e itzaes, siglos XVII–XIX

3690: 3498: 3282: 2862: 1880: 967: 884: 700: 626: 366: 10687: 3419:. A contemporary account described the slaughter of over 400 allied Maya, as well as livestock. 3210:, and then in Honduras, Montejo the Younger acted as lieutenant governor and captain general in 11785: 11357: 11292: 10796: 10682: 10565: 10525: 10169: 9962: 9621: 9611: 7788: 7679: 7538: 7439: 3896: 3589: 2664: 2500: 2369:

Governor Diego Velázquez de Cuellar claimed the discovery of wealthy cities and gold in Yucatán

2110: 1603: 1319:, with a steep initial scarp running 160 kilometres (99 mi) east from the Gulf coast near 1143: 668: 581: 532: 488: 241: 10928: 9091: 7774: 7749: 7714: 7617: 7443: 7380: 3432: 3315: 3253: 3230: 3165:, where he was received with friendship by the local Maya. He was accompanied by the friendly 3074: 2970:

In the spring of 1528, Montejo left Conil for the city of Chauaca, which was abandoned by its

2620: 2517: 2394:

survived the voyage to Cuba and were interrogated; they swore that there was abundant gold in

2347: 2198: 1754:, particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers. Before their defeat in 1697 the 1688: 1684: 1623: 1320: 1175: 1082: 1070: 11231: 10641: 10462: 10351: 10290: 10218: 10128: 9829: 9509: 9316: 9224: 8898: 8811: 8762: 8678: 8560: 8520: 7841: 7058: 6723:[The Technological Styles of Postclassic Slipped Ceramics in the Petén Lakes Region] 4125: 3948: 3084:. Alonso d' Ávila was sent overland to Chauaca in the east of the peninsula, passing through 3045: 2624: 2402: 2296: 2087: 1922: 1872: 1696: 1568: 1539: 1050: 894: 648: 11765: 11166: 10953: 10913: 10872: 9846: 9351: 8500: 7953:(1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". 7822: 7776: 7741: 7706: 7671: 7530: 7372: 6740: 1252: 11740: 11409: 11372: 11362: 11302: 11201: 11181: 11076: 10888: 10707: 9584: 9574: 9194: 9084: 9046: 8779: 8745: 8505: 8435: 8169: 7924: 7469: 7125: 6926: 6670:] (in Spanish). Mexico City, Mexico: El Colegio de México, Fondo de Cultura Económica. 4235: 4202: 4190: 4140: 4117: 4093: 4061: 4049: 4023: 4019: 3984: 3980: 3956: 3921: 3865: 3775: 3634: 3597: 3582: 3554: 3523: 3479: 3420: 3338: 3303: 3150: 3139: 3040: 2909: 2894: 2890: 2807: 2683: 2643: 2600: 2433: 2428:. He organised a new expedition consisting of four ships and 240 men. He placed his nephew 2276: 2247: 2118: 2102: 2083: 1955: 1931: 1918: 1876: 1767: 1475: 1447: 1446:

forms another interior drainage region. To the south the plain gradually rises towards the

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Rice, Prudence M. (2009). "Who were the Kowoj?". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.).

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that was described as having 5,000 houses, where the Spanish party halted for two months.

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The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 2

4268: 4152: 4077: 3700: 3364:, reaching the east coast at Pole. Stormy weather prevented the Spanish from crossing to 3294: 3081: 2788: 2592: 1783: 1723:

and east of Acalan, between the Petén lakes and what is now Campeche, and to the west of

864: 638: 601: 596: 591: 461: 246: 184: 11555: 11256: 8173: 7196: 4003: 2731: 1775: 1284: 11570: 11560: 11535: 11489: 11454: 11312: 11021: 10898: 10771: 10269: 10249: 9909: 9797: 9524: 9331: 9159: 9098: 8930: 8858: 8637: 8606: 8545: 8480: 8264: 8241: 8201: 8185: 8101: 8089: 8048: 7966: 7647: 6899: 6716: 6587: 6579: 3877: 3857: 3680: 3507: 3483: 3346: 3154: 3085: 3066: 2959: 2917: 2854: 2760: 2711: 2580: 2553: 2549: 2436:, who would eventually conquer much of the peninsula, was captain of one of the ships; 2005: 1599: 1587:

were two of the most important polities in the region. They were mutually hostile; the

1580: 1543: 1375: 1188: 1154: 1098: 1066: 936: 537: 513: 498: 10893: 10822: 2182: 2162:, were probably recorded around this time, and in due course passed into the books of 1431: 1347: 1264: 11750: 11692: 11525: 11297: 11271: 11261: 11251: 11186: 11141: 11071: 11051: 11026: 10973: 10948: 10213: 9740: 9681: 9636: 9495: 9199: 8730: 8653: 8540: 8530: 8450: 8334: 8249: 8233: 8193: 8139: 8129: 8109: 8093: 8064: 8054: 8035: 8025: 7996: 7986: 7938: 7928: 7907: 7897: 7896:(6th (fully revised) ed.). Stanford, California, US: Stanford University Press. 7871: 7802: 7792: 7777: 7763: 7753: 7742: 7728: 7718: 7707: 7693: 7683: 7672: 7635: 7625: 7622:

The Postclassic to Spanish-Era Transition in Mesoamerica: Archaeological Perspectives

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The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala

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