1454:, have critiqued it for not sticking to Mao's philosophies. He writes: "Mao's insistence on the protracted nature of revolution was not taken to heart; at one point they suggested that the war for liberation would probably take ninety days. And because RAM's leaders focused their work on confronting the state head on and attacking black leaders whom they deemed reformists, they failed to build a strong base in black urban communities. Furthermore, despite their staunch internationalism, they did not reach out to other oppressed 'nationalities' in the United States."
1050:, where he argues that the black nation in America is just one faction of what he refers to as the "Land of the Blacks," a conglomeration of all racially subjugated groups around the world. RAM spokesman Malcolm X later described the black revolution in the United States as part of a "worldwide struggle of the oppressed against the oppressor." Several other political figures openly supported black internationalism, calling for people to join the revolution and be fully in conjunction "with the people in the great struggle for Africa and of suffering humanity".
919:' "adopted" kids, youth who spent a lot of time at the Boggs household and connected with their circle of activists. Prior to joining them, Stanford had been involved with militant civil rights activism since his teenage years. Through the lively discussions of revolutionary politics that thrived in the Boggs household, he developed a sharp critical consciousness and an impressive grasp of theory by adulthood. In 1962, Stanford engaged with Malcolm X and told him he was a revolutionary interested in following Malcolm in the
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Americans had to gain control of land and political power through national liberation and establish revolutionary socialism in sovereign, liberated lands. They emphasized creating a black nation on land in
Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, Virginia, South Carolina, and North Carolina that, in their eyes, rightfully belonged to black people. This push for a sovereign black nation was in some ways a reiteration of an old black leftist line from the 1930s.
1054:
1263:'s incarceration. Mallory was a Black woman arrested for her relationship with Robert F. Williams, the future international chairman of RAM who, at the time, had fled to Cuba after being exiled from the United States. Working with the institute and its allies, RAM petitioned the governor of Ohio to revoke the extradition warrant against Mallory and held a large demonstration in front of the county jail, insisting on Mallory's immediate release.
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Cleveland, and
Detroit went by pseudonyms so as to decrease public scrutiny, while the Philadelphia chapter continued to operate under RAM's name. The decision to go underground was made by leadership after they judged that the ultra-right was preparing to crush the movement and that they could no longer be public without endangering noninvolved people and exposing them to violence.
209:
1298:. It was a radical black culture magazine edited by future black power activists Bobby Seale, Huey Newton, and Ernie Allen, among others. The Soul Students' Advisory Council, in its interaction with RAM, exposed Seale and Newton to anti-imperialism, socialism, and revolutionary nationalism for the first time, which was critical in their political development.
1154:
youth as possible to their organization, particularly gang members. RAM thought gang members had the most revolutionary potential of the population, because they could be trained to fight not against each other but against white power structures. They believed they could create a fighting force of former gang members on the model of the
887:'s essay "Revolutionary Nationalism and the Afro-American" and thereafter shifted its focus from educating their participants to creating a mass black working-class nationalist movement in the North. After this drastic change of agenda, Challenge soon evolved into the Reform Action Movement, as they believed use of the word
1139:, after it had been banned within the United States. They also took a two-pronged approach to advocating their policies among other civil rights groups: disparaging those that did not advocate for armed self-defense and, simultaneously, infiltrating them to try to spread their revolutionary ideology.
1119:
from black people in the United States. They were for the creation of a new, revolutionary culture through the reclamation of
African aesthetics, creation of art only in the service of the revolution, and active attempt to root out habits, traditions, customs, and philosophies taught to black people
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RAM implemented a "system of rotating chairmen" to foster veteran leadership that would help educate the younger, less experienced members. There were three levels of membership in RAM. The first consisted of members who were "professional, full-time field organizers." The second level was made up of
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Amidst the sectarianism of the New Left, other activists and black liberation organizations also criticized RAM. In particular, the Black
Panther Party said that although RAM led the development of black nationalist thought in the US, examples of their application of revolutionary ideas was few and
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The
Afroamerican revolutionary, being inside the citadel of world imperialism and being the Vanguard against the most highly developed capitalist complex has problems no other revolutionary has had. His position is so strategic that victory means the downfall of the arch enemy of the oppressed (U.S.
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The overall structure of RAM was organized into three types of cells or units: area units, work units, and political units. Area units were designed to gain community influence by organizing around local issues. Work units were set up in factories or other industrial type settings, and the League of
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Don
Freeman was black student at Case Western who originally organized Challenge at Central State and then went on to be one of the leaders of the Cleveland branch of RAM. He questioned, however, during RAM's early years, the validity of RAM as a Marxist organization since traditional Marxist theory
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The purpose of this new counterintelligence endeavor is to expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize the activities of black nationalist, hate-type organizations and groupings, their leadership, spokesmen, membership, and supporters, and to counter their propensity for violence
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The revolutionary nationalists of RAM believed that colonized peoples around the world must rise up and destroy the "universal slavemaster". They also believed that all people have a right to self-determination, including the "internal black colony" of the United States. In their opinion, African
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particularly embodied the contradictions of racial capitalism, and if properly brought into the movement, this group could form a "revolutionary intelligentsia capable of leading black
America to true liberation." They also used public street meetings to try to attract as many black working-class
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was a national armed youth self-defense group run by RAM that argued for protecting the interests of black
America by fighting directly against its enemies. The Black Guard, in Max Stanford's words, " to stop our youth from fighting amongst themselves, teach them a knowledge of history ... and
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Though it initially started as a small student group at
Central State College and Case Western Reserve University in Ohio, RAM at its peak had chapters all over the nation. The full spread of RAM remains hard to discern because RAM was semi-clandestine in nature. Chapters in New York, Oakland,
1226:
Throughout its existence, RAM supported mass action all over
Philadelphia, canvassed to try to listen to community needs, and provided public services that they thought were lacking. These actions ranged from responding to local residents' medical emergencies to providing weekly black history
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through a conjoined effort of all oppressed groups to overthrow pan-European racism and the exploitative global capitalist system. The movement had a global vision, bigger than just the race relations of the United States. They saw the main battle as being between Western imperialism and the
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The Afro-American Institute organized lectures by revolutionary black artists and intellectuals, and distributed leaflets to inform and inculcate the public in their revolutionary opinions. The subjects of the leaflets were wide-ranging, from elections to the arms race to the Black struggle.
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The revolutionary spirit of black Americans in the 1960s was by no means the sole example of rebellion in the world at that time. The decade brought forth revolutions and mass uprisings in countries all over the world, and though the people were protesting in different regions, most of these
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was founded in Cleveland. Through this organization, RAM members held free public lectures and worked with other activists to improve the black community in Cleveland. The following year, Max Stanford and other RAM members traveled to Cleveland and joined CORE to assist in demanding better
1223:. During their time in the city, RAM actively supported Leon Sullivan's 1962 selective patronage campaign. This was the beginning of the "don't buy where you can't work" method of direct boycott action that serves as an example of the effectiveness of the black masses to black liberation.
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movements sought to achieve a similar goal: the universal elimination of racism and capitalism. Members of RAM understood that black nationalism, the formation of an independent nation of blacks in the US, was a concept inseparable from black internationalism, which had the goal of ending
1105:, chairman of RAM, came back from his exile in China, he also emphasized that all young black revolutionaries must "...undergo personal and moral transformation. There is a need for a stringent revolutionary code of moral ethics. Revolutionaries are instruments of righteousness."
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within US borders and around the world. The context of black liberation was the entire world revolution, rather than cultural nationalism, which RAM considered reactionary and bourgeois. RAM members saw themselves as colonial subjects fighting a "colonial war at home."
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In Cleveland, Ohio, RAM was governed by a secret committee named the "Soul Circle", which was essentially a small selection of black men involved in the local community, as well as civil rights, and student groups. In 1962, a policy-oriented think tank named the
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and less on actual community organizing. As a result, RAM has received less attention from historians than the Black Panther Party, even though they blazed the 1960s revolutionary black nationalist ideological trail and heavily influenced the Panthers.
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in their fight against imperialism. At the same time RAM was explicitly anti-draft, arguing and organizing around the hypocrisy of drafting black Americans to fight in a war against, in their eyes, other people victimized by US imperialism.
1227:
classes. By making their presence known throughout the streets and establishing a consistent presence throughout black neighborhoods in the city, RAM was able to effectively mobilize people for anti-union discrimination protests in 1963.
879:(SNCC). Largely made up of formerly expelled students and veteran activists, Challenge was created to further political awareness, particularly in relation to the black community. At the request of Donald Freeman, who was enrolled at
1214:
Despite numerous chapters all over the country, by 1964, RAM's home base in Philadelphia was the main branch available to the public eye. The Philadelphia chapter was responsible for the publication of RAM's bimonthly newspaper,
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program targeted RAM for political destruction. However, RAM was just one of many civil rights or black nationalist groups targeted because of their politics. Tactics used to suppress RAM were also used to suppress and target
932:
focused on class, while ignoring racism. So although Freeman believed in collectively owned black enterprises, he also argued that white "socialists and Marxists do not possess the solutions to the ills of black America."
1185:
Everywhere except for Philadelphia, RAM operated as a semi-clandestine group, existing behind front organizations, and under multiple names and branches. Due to this underground status, RAM focused more on producing
1427:, and by 1969 had practically dissolved. Many of its members went back to their communities or joined other civil rights groups to continue pushing their ideology of black internationalism and armed self-defense.
1132:, Pennsylvania; and a west coast branch in Oakland, California. Though the branches all had different local goals and accomplished different things, RAM engaged in several unifying national political activities.
1142:
Because RAM was made up of mostly college-educated intellectuals (though many dropped out to organize full-time), they thought a lot about who they were trying to mobilize, eventually settling upon the black
1287:. He also coincidentally met and talked to Max Stanford, who was in Cuba visiting Robert Williams at the time. This confluence of events resulted in Allen establishing a branch of RAM in Oakland at
911:(now Muhammad Ahmad) was one of the founding members of RAM, and served as both its national chairman and Philadelphia head for much of the group's existence. He was a Philadelphia native, and one of
1313:
and civil disorder ... Intensified action under this program should be afforded to the activities of ... Revolutionary Action Movement ... Particular emphasis should be given to extremists such as
1070:, and related their black freedom struggle to Mao's strategy of encircling capitalist countries to challenge imperialism. In solidarity and fighting alongside anti-colonial struggles in
1439:
condemned RAM, describing the organization as a "militant black nationalist hate group." During its existence, RAM was the target of denigration from a wide range of critics, including
945:
members who paid their dues to the organization and "met the standards for the main criteria for cadre." The third group included undisclosed members who only donated money to RAM.
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far between, and mostly limited to students, rather than the black underclass "lumpenproletariat" they claimed to represent. RAM often struggled to meld theory and practice.
1234:
in 1968 by providing protection and political education to students while they protested unequal conditions and a lack of community control in their educational environment.
2299:
953:, was eventually created through these units. Political units were used to gain access into the Civil Rights Movement and transform it into a movement for black liberation.
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1400:
1415:. Stanford went underground to avoid arrest and indictment, but the rest of the Queens 17, as they were called, went to trial and had to pay a $ 200,000 bail bond.
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would stir fear in the university administration. Led by Freeman, Wanda Marshall, and Maxwell Stanford, RAM became a study/action group that hoped to turn the
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RAM was a semi-clandestine organization and articulated a revolutionary program for Black Americans that fused Black Nationalism with Marxism-Leninism.
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1836:""RAM: A case study of an urban revolutionary movement in Western capitalist society" A thesis submitted to the faculty of Atlanta University"
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into a coherent and applicable theory that called for revolution "inside the citadel of world imperialism," meaning the United States.
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RAM's Northern California branch operated under the name the "Soul Students' Advisory Council" and started after then-member of the
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imperialism) and the beginning of the birth of a new world. --"The African American War of National-Liberation," RAM's Black America
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magazine, Max Stanford and 16 other RAM members were arrested on conspiracy charges and for allegedly plotting to assassinate the
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and future-Black Panther, Ernie Allen, went on a trip to Cuba in 1964. There Allen traveled alongside the future organizers of
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Muhammad Ahmad (formerly Maxwell Stanford), the leader of the Philadelphia branch of RAM, discussing the Black Power movement
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1498:"The Black Revolutionary Organization That You Probably Never Heard Of: The Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM) 1962-1969"
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healthcare for black hospital patients and more inclusion of Black history in the Cleveland public school curriculum.
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1018:. Many of these older revolutionaries played a role of ideological and political mentorship to RAM activists.
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923:. Malcolm told Stanford that if he was truly revolutionary, he would be better off working outside the NOI.
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There were three main branches of RAM: the founding branch in Cleveland, Ohio; the headquarters branch in
2249:
1615:
Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections between African Americans and Asian Americans
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Ahmad, Akbar Muhammed (2006). "RAM: The Revolutionary Action Movement". In Jeffries, Judson L. (ed.).
1390:, black student unions at universities across the US, and black churches and community organizations.
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organisation which was active from 1962 to 1968. They were the first group to apply the philosophy of
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1198:(OAAU) was intended to be the popular front organization to RAM's underground black liberation army.
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Many RAM activists derived their ideology from an older generation of revolutionary black leftists:
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The Soul Students' Advisory Council published a widely distributed prose and poetry journal called
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to conditions of black people in the United States and informed the revolutionary politics of the
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Some RAM materials about their revolutionary code of ethics take quotations nearly verbatim from
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2050:"Reproducing Racial Globality: W.E.B Du Bois and the Sexual Politics of Black Internationalism"
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2006:
The End of White World Supremacy: Black Internationalism and the Problem of the Color Line.
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into a comprehensive theory of revolutionary black nationalism. They combined socialism,
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joined prior to 1964. The group's political formation deeply influenced the politics of
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In Cleveland, RAM's most notable accomplishment was their open protestation against
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1990:
In Search of the Black Panther Party: New Perspectives on a Revolutionary Movement.
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As exemplified by police repression of RAM in Philadelphia in the summer 1967, the
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Malcolm X became a RAM officer in 1964. Max Stanford has claimed that Malcolm X's
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1938:
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gained momentum, RAM blazed an ideological trail, expressing solidarity with the
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Waiting 'Till The Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America
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was instrumental in implementing COINTELPRO and dismantling Black Power groups
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2178:
War at Home: Covert Action against U.S. Activists and What We Can Do about It
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Is It Nation Time?: Contemporary Essays on Black Power and Black Nationalism
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In this context of government repression, RAM transformed itself into the
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RAM called for a "cultural revolution" of sorts: one that would purge the
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RAM was the first group in the United States to synthesize the thought of
2090:
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Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party
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Though RAM claimed to be a Maoist organization, some scholars, such as
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The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era.
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867:, came together to form "Challenge," a small conglomerate group of
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The Political Leader Considered as the Representative of a Culture
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By the end of 1968 RAM was dissolved as an official organization.
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youth and black working-class youth. RAM thought that the black
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prepare them ... to protect our community from racist attacks."
1973:
Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama
1940:
Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan
828:
127:
2114:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:
1910:"Part 4: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers, 1965–1976"
1040:
The theory of black internationalism was first publicized in
1897:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61.
1230:
RAM also advocated for the black students in Philadelphia's
2141:
Pure Fire: Self-Defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era
1066:
Some RAM activists saw themselves as an all-black cadre of
864:
1374:(CORE), the Black Panther Party, the Nation of Islam, the
1135:
All branches helped distribute Robert Williams' magazine,
1094:, RAM activists saw themselves as playing a global role.
835:. RAM was the only secular political organization which
1773:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 252–80.
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208:
2163:
Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia
1296:
Soulbook: The Revolutionary Journal of the Black World
2300:
Political parties of minorities in the United States
2112:
The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History
2008:
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009. Print.
2143:. Athens: University of Georgia. pp. 184–186.
1908:Bracey, John H. Jr.; Harley, Sharon, eds. (2004).
1895:Black Nationalism in American Politics and Thought
2260:Defunct Maoist organizations in the United States
1710:. Chicago: University of Chicago. pp. 72–87.
2216:
1551:"A History of the Revolutionary Action Movement"
2190:
2235:Anti-racist organizations in the United States
1864:. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company.
1822:Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination.
1727:"The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University"
1721:
1719:
1717:
1252:Eventually the leaflets became the newsletter
16:US-based revolutionary black nationalist group
1291:through the Soul Students' Advisory Council.
797:
2245:Black political parties in the United States
1907:
2295:Defunct organizations based in Pennsylvania
2285:1968 disestablishments in the United States
2165:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
1992:Durham: Duke University Press, 2006. Print.
1714:
1671:Kelley, Robin (2002). Glaude, Eddie (ed.).
2160:
1936:
1612:
804:
790:
2184:
2180:. Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press.
1364:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
1021:
877:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
2280:1962 establishments in the United States
2047:
1892:
1833:
1706:Glaude, Eddie (2002). "Stormy Weather".
1368:Southern Christian Leadership Conference
1341:
1301:
1200:
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1975:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
1675:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1393:In 1967, following an exposé on RAM in
1123:
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2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
1970:
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1771:Black Power: In the Belly of the Beast
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1165:In mid-1965, before opposition to the
949:Black Workers, the predecessor to the
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2089:
2037:. Berkeley: University of California.
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1285:League of Revolutionary Black Workers
1062:Influence of Maoism and Maoist ethics
951:League of Revolutionary Black Workers
863:, a historically black university in
433:League of Revolutionary Black Workers
2270:Organizations disestablished in 1968
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1988:Lazerow, Jama, and Yohuru Williams.
1788:
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1435:On multiple occasions, FBI director
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1376:National Welfare Rights Organization
1171:Vietnamese National Liberation Front
847:, and many other future influential
2290:Organizations based in Philadelphia
2011:
1842:
1613:Kelley, Robin; Esch, Betsy (2008).
1196:Organization of Afro-American Unity
895:into a worldwide black revolution.
755:United States civil rights movement
438:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
13:
2147:
2048:Weinbaum, Alys Eve (Summer 2001).
1995:
1979:
1957:
1923:
1881:
1824:Boston: Beacon Press, 2003. Print.
1801:
1621:
1461:
1380:Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement
1281:Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement
854:
14:
2311:
2275:Organizations established in 1962
1943:. New York: New York University.
1919:. Black Studies Research Sources.
1777:
1743:
1567:
1219:, and the single-page newsletter
1057:RAM subscribed to Maoist ideology
926:
869:Students for a Democratic Society
652:Black Power and the American Myth
478:Revolutionary Black Panther Party
2191:Russell Sackett (10 June 1966).
1617:. Durham: Duke University Press.
1523:"Freedom Archives Search Engine"
393:Black Revolutionary Assault Team
353:African People's Socialist Party
207:
2169:
2132:
2083:
2041:
1901:
1868:
1862:We Will Return in the Whirlwind
1827:
1209:
903:
881:Case Western Reserve University
458:National Joint Action Committee
443:May 19th Communist Organization
2255:Communism in the United States
2225:African-American organizations
2199:. Time Inc. pp. 100–112.
1699:
1542:
1515:
1490:
1445:
1:
1834:Stanford, Maxwell C. (1986).
1483:
1010:, and Abner Berry as well as
898:
817:Revolutionary Action Movement
473:Revolutionary Action Movement
398:Black Riders Liberation Party
24:Revolutionary Action Movement
2193:"Plotting a War on "Whitey""
2161:Countryman, Matthew (2006).
2139:Strain, Christopher (2005).
1937:Van Deburg, William (1997).
1549:Jones, John (May 19, 2019).
1237:
989:Third World internationalism
935:
883:at the time, Challenge read
705:Black Power in the Caribbean
403:Black Women's Defense League
7:
2069:10.1215/01642472-19-2_67-15
1372:Congress of Racial Equality
1112:included Mao on its cover.
956:
873:Congress of Racial Equality
59:; 62 years ago
10:
2316:
2230:African-American socialism
2099:(Speech). Conakry, Guinea.
1527:search.freedomarchives.org
1388:Congress of Afrikan People
1110:The World Black Revolution
488:Symbionese Liberation Army
1558:Marxists Internet Archive
1273:Afro-American Association
1004:Queen Mother Audley Moore
168:Politics of United States
163:
151:
108:
100:
86:
71:
53:
38:
30:
21:
1917:The Black Power Movement
1860:Ahmad, Muhammad (2007).
861:Central State University
191:This article is part of
47:(formerly Max Stanford)
2110:Crean, Jeffrey (2024).
1893:Robinson, Dean (2001).
1878:Routledge, 2013. Print.
1797:. New York: Henry Holt.
1793:Joseph, Peniel (2006).
1245:Afro-American Institute
1158:guerrilla army and the
710:Black Power in Montreal
581:Martin Luther King, Jr.
463:New Black Panther Party
428:Huey P. Newton Gun Club
153:Political position
138:Revolutionary socialism
2033:Bloom, Joshua (2013).
1971:Fujino, Diane (2005).
1441:Martin Luther King Jr.
1425:Black Liberation Party
1384:Republic of New Afrika
1350:
1340:
1206:
1058:
1022:Black internationalism
965:
851:founders and members.
664:The Diary of Malcolm X
468:Republic of New Afrika
423:George Jackson Brigade
408:British Black Panthers
388:Black Radical Congress
363:Black Guerrilla Family
239:Black Power Revolution
2176:Glick, Bryan (1989).
1345:
1310:
1302:Political suppression
1204:
1120:by white oppressors.
1056:
960:
893:Civil Rights Movement
859:In 1961, students at
671:Revolutionary Suicide
378:Black Panther Militia
373:Black Liberation Army
1820:Kelley, Robin D. G.
1124:Political activities
833:Black Power movement
234:Black power movement
2116:Bloomsbury Academic
2004:Bush, Roderick D.,
1267:Northern California
1099:The Little Red Book
849:Black Panther Party
498:Weather Underground
418:Five-Percent Nation
413:Conscious Community
383:Black Panther Party
224:Black Arts Movement
2250:COINTELPRO targets
2093:(2 October 1959).
1874:Peniel, Joseph E.
1673:Is It Nation Time?
1473:Robert F. Williams
1419:Dissolution of RAM
1351:
1315:Stokely Carmichael
1307:FBI and COINTELPRO
1207:
1160:Mau Mau guerrillas
1103:Robert F. Williams
1059:
740:Red Power movement
695:Black Lives Matter
621:Stokely Carmichael
611:Robert F. Williams
591:Malik Zulu Shabazz
541:Fay Bellamy Powell
358:Assata's Daughters
229:Black is beautiful
2125:978-1-350-23394-2
2063:(2 (67)): 15–41.
1431:Criticisms of RAM
1151:petit bourgeoisie
1146:petit bourgeoisie
985:black nationalism
825:black nationalist
814:
813:
735:Political hip hop
658:Ten-Point Program
626:Wadsworth Jarrell
551:Gloria Richardson
310:Black nationalism
280:Africana womanism
275:African socialism
186:
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173:Political parties
123:Black Nationalism
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1731:www.columbia.edu
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1337:, 25 August 1967
1327:Maxwell Stanford
821:Marxist-Leninist
806:
799:
792:
700:Black Power gang
645:A Taste of Power
536:Eldridge Cleaver
368:Black Liberators
330:Intercommunalism
320:Black separatism
290:Anti-Americanism
211:
188:
187:
133:Marxism–Leninism
82:
80:
67:
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60:
19:
18:
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1464:
1462:Notable members
1448:
1437:J. Edgar Hoover
1433:
1421:
1347:J. Edgar Hoover
1339:
1335:J. Edgar Hoover
1333:
1323:Elijah Muhammad
1309:
1304:
1289:Merritt College
1269:
1240:
1232:Bok High School
1212:
1156:Congolese Youth
1126:
1117:slave mentality
1064:
1042:W. E. B. DuBois
1029:white supremacy
1024:
1016:Grace Lee Boggs
959:
938:
929:
921:Nation of Islam
917:Grace Lee Boggs
906:
901:
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855:Group formation
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685:
677:
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586:Maulana Karenga
526:Donald DeFreeze
511:
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493:US Organization
453:Nation of Islam
348:
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325:Black supremacy
295:Black anarchism
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1560:. p. 87.
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1319:H. "Rap" Brown
1308:
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1068:Mao's Red Army
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1218:
1217:Black America
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889:revolutionary
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347:Organizations
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318:
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305:Black leftism
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104:Black America
103:
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56:
52:
46:
43:
41:
37:
33:
29:
20:
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2171:
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2140:
2134:
2111:
2105:
2095:
2091:Touré, Sekou
2085:
2060:
2056:
2043:
2034:
2005:
1989:
1972:
1939:
1916:
1903:
1894:
1875:
1870:
1861:
1829:
1821:
1794:
1770:
1734:. Retrieved
1730:
1707:
1701:
1672:
1614:
1561:
1557:
1544:
1536:
1530:. Retrieved
1526:
1517:
1506:. Retrieved
1504:. 2020-06-07
1501:
1492:
1456:
1452:Robin Kelley
1449:
1434:
1424:
1422:
1409:Urban League
1394:
1392:
1352:
1311:
1295:
1293:
1270:
1258:
1253:
1250:
1241:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1213:
1210:Philadelphia
1193:
1184:
1176:
1164:
1150:
1144:
1141:
1137:The Crusader
1136:
1134:
1130:Philadelphia
1127:
1114:
1109:
1107:
1096:
1065:
1045:
1039:
1025:
1008:Harold Cruse
997:
993:
966:
961:
947:
943:
939:
930:
909:Max Stanford
907:
904:Max Stanford
888:
885:Harold Cruse
875:(CORE), and
858:
819:(RAM) was a
816:
815:
765:Youth rights
750:The Troubles
669:
662:
650:
643:
546:Fred Hampton
531:Elaine Brown
516:Angela Davis
472:
285:Afrocentrism
95:Pennsylvania
91:Philadelphia
87:Headquarters
31:Abbreviation
2240:Black Power
2057:Social Text
1689:|work=
1478:Bobby Seale
1446:Revisionism
1405:Roy Wilkins
1261:Mae Mallory
1179:Black Guard
1167:Vietnam War
1108:RAM's text
1034:Third World
1012:James Boggs
845:Bobby Seale
841:Huey Newton
760:White power
566:John Africa
556:Hakim Jamal
315:Black pride
249:Raised fist
201:Black power
118:Anti-racism
2219:Categories
1736:2018-11-29
1532:2023-06-21
1508:2023-06-21
1484:References
1359:COINTELPRO
1357:and their
1283:, and the
1254:Afropinion
1221:RAM Speaks
1032:oppressed
899:Leadership
725:Hutu Power
616:Rosa Parks
606:Obi Egbuna
269:Ideologies
251:events of
2205:0024-3019
2077:144875056
1691:ignored (
1681:cite book
1502:Red Voice
1468:Malcolm X
1238:Cleveland
1088:Indonesia
981:Malcolm X
936:Structure
837:Malcolm X
745:Socialism
715:Communism
690:Anarchism
596:Michael X
571:Malcolm X
178:Elections
101:Newspaper
72:Dissolved
2265:New Left
1407:and the
1382:(DRUM),
1370:(SCLC),
1366:(SNCC),
1332:—
1188:agitprop
1101:. When
1076:Zanzibar
957:Ideology
778:Category
730:New Left
720:Feminism
193:a series
158:Far-left
110:Ideology
1386:(RNA),
1092:Algeria
1084:Vietnam
871:(SDS),
684:Related
244:Kwanzaa
218:History
77: (
62: (
54:Founded
2203:
2122:
2075:
1947:
1325:, and
1279:, the
1090:, and
987:, and
979:, and
829:Maoism
510:People
128:Maoism
40:Leader
2073:S2CID
2053:(pdf)
1913:(PDF)
1554:(PDF)
1401:NAACP
1277:Uhuru
1072:China
973:Lenin
913:James
638:Works
195:about
2201:ISSN
2197:Life
2120:ISBN
1945:ISBN
1693:help
1396:Life
1177:The
1080:Cuba
1014:and
969:Marx
915:and
865:Ohio
483:SNCC
448:MOVE
257:1972
255:and
253:1968
79:1968
75:1968
64:1962
57:1962
2065:doi
1411:'s
1403:'s
1355:FBI
977:Mao
34:RAM
2221::
2195:.
2149:^
2118:.
2071:.
2061:19
2059:.
2055:.
2013:^
1997:^
1981:^
1959:^
1925:^
1915:.
1883:^
1844:^
1803:^
1779:^
1745:^
1729:.
1716:^
1685::
1683:}}
1679:{{
1623:^
1569:^
1556:.
1535:.
1525:.
1500:.
1378:,
1321:,
1317:,
1256:.
1162:.
1086:,
1082:,
1078:,
1074:,
1044:'
1006:,
1002:,
975:,
971:,
843:,
823:,
93:,
2207:.
2128:.
2079:.
2067::
1953:.
1838:.
1739:.
1695:)
1511:.
1329:.
805:e
798:t
791:v
81:)
66:)
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