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specific techniques to try and trick the test. Although the issues with the CQT false-positive and false-negative rates are discussed above, there are also methodological issues with how proponents of the CQT determine the accuracy of the test. Due to the fact that the accuracy of the CQT is often determined through whether an individual who is given the test provides the police a confession to a crime after the test is administered, this means that cases where someone was cleared of charges after taking a polygraph or, in a worse-case scenario, gives a false confession when they are actually innocent are not taken into account when it comes to determining the accuracy of the test. Another issue is that, due to how the CQT is administered and how the lie-detection process works, only people who are determined to be deceptive are further interrogated for a confession. This means that the polygraph outcome and the confession are not independent of one another, making it very difficult to use confessions as the sole determiner of the accuracy of the test. These methodological problems provide false evidence that supports the continued use of this test, despite the many flaws that the test possesses. While it could be said that including this test as a police tool is useful because it might sometimes provide accurate information, the probability of it causing undue hardship to people who are actually innocent, and wasting time in the process, makes this a very unreliable method for law enforcement officers to use.
201:, to conduct an analysis of written content. He claims it has accuracy in predicting lying. Pennebaker cites his method as "significantly more effective than human judges in correctly identifying deceptive or truthful writing samples"; there is a 67% accuracy rate with his method, while trained people have 52% accuracy. There were five experimental procedures used in this study. Study 1–3 asked participants to speak, hand write or type a true or false statement about abortion. The participants were randomly assigned to tell a true or false statement. Study 4 focused on feelings about friends and study 5 had the students involved in a mock crime and asked to lie. Human judges were asked to rate the truthfulness of the 400 communications dealing with abortion. The judges read or watched the statement and gave it a yes or no answer about if this statement was false or not. LIWC correctly classified 67% of the abortion communications and the judges correctly classified 52%. His studies have identified that deception carries three primary written markers. The first is fewer first-person pronouns such as 'I', 'me', 'my', 'mine', and 'myself' (singular), as well as 'we', 'us', 'our', and 'ourselves' (plural). Those lying "avoid statements of ownership, distance themselves from their stories and avoid taking responsibility for their behavior" while also using more
291:, capillary dilation, and muscular movement. While taking a polygraph test the subject wears a blood pressure device to measure blood pressure fluctuations. Respiration is measured by wearing pneumographs around the chest, and finally electrodes are placed on the subject's fingers to measure skin conductivity. To determine truth it is assumed the subject will show more signs of fear when answering the control questions, known to the examiner, compared with the relevant questions, where the answers are not known. Polygraphs focus more on the exams predictive value of guilt by comparing the responses of the participant to control questions, irrelevant questions, and relevant questions to gauge arousal, which is then interpreted as a display of fear and deception is assumed. If a person is showing a deception there will be changes in the autonomic arousal responses to the relevant questions. Results are considered inconclusive if there is no fluctuation in any of the questions.
187:(FACS) and "when combined with voice and speech measures, reaches detection accuracy rates of up to 90 percent." However, there is currently no evidence to support such a claim. It is currently being automated for use in law enforcement and is still being improved to increase accuracy. His studies use micro-expressions, which last less than one-fifth of a second, and "may leak emotions someone wants to conceal, such as anger or guilt." However, "signs of emotion aren't necessarily signs of guilt. An innocent person may be apprehensive and appear guilty," Ekman reminds us. With regard to his studies, lies about emotions at the moment have the biggest payoff from face and voice cues while lies about beliefs and actions, such as crimes use cues from gestures and words are added. Ekman and his associates have validated many signs of deception, but do not publish all of them so as not to educate criminals
352:, intensity and micro tremors. In this way voice analysis "detect minute variations in the voice thought to signal lying." It can even be used covertly over the phone, and has been used by banking and insurance companies as well as the government of the United Kingdom. Customers are assessed for truth in certain situations by banks and insurance companies where computers are used to record responses. Software then compares control questions to relevant questions assessed for deception. However, its reliability has been debated by peer-reviewed journals. "When a person lies, an involuntary interference of the nerves causes the vocal cords to produce a distorted sound wave, namely a frequency level which is different from the one produced by the same person when telling the truth."
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making the deception the most likely ground truth. With 48% accurate classification, VSA performed at chance level. Several other studies showed similar results (Damphousse, 2008; Harnsberger, Hollien, Martin, & Hollien, 2009). In 2003, the
National Research Council concluded "Overall, this research and the few controlled tests conducted over the past decade offer little or no scientific basis for the use of the computer voice stress analyser or similar voice measurement instruments."
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component allows researchers to see activation in the brain over time and assess efficiency and connectivity by comparing blood use in the brain, which allows for the identification of which portions of the brain are using more oxygen, and thus being used during a specific task. FMRI data have been examined through the lens of machine learning algorithms to decode whether subjects believed or disbelieved statements, ranging from mathematical, semantic to religious belief statements.
459:. A pattern of blood-flow-velocity changes is obtained in response to questions that include correct and incorrect answers. The wrong answer will elicit bi-hemispheric activation, from correct answer that activates unilateral response. Cognitive polygraphy based on this system is devoid of any subjective control of mental processes and, hence, high reliability and specificity; however, this is yet to be tested in forensic practice. See also cognitive
574:(historically speaking) are used for the purposes of obtaining accurate information from an unwilling subject. Information obtained by publicly disclosed truth drugs has been shown to be highly unreliable, with subjects apparently freely mixing fact and fantasy. Much of the claimed effect relies on the belief of the subjects that they cannot tell a lie while under the influence of the drug.
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constant physiological response. As technology and research have developed many have moved away from polygraphing because of the drawbacks of this style of detection. Supporters of polygraphing claim it has a 70% accuracy rate, 16% better than lie detection in the general population. Someone who has failed the test is more likely to confess than someone who has passed, contributing to
244:(GKT) is a multiple-choice format in which answer choices or one correct answer and additional incorrect answers are read and the physiological response is recorded. The controls are the incorrect alternative answers. The greater physiological response should be to the correct answer. Its point is to determine if the subject has knowledge about a particular event.
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suggests that the DKS model may have a correlate in mnemonic operations. In other words, the DKS model may have a discrete knowledge base (DKB) of essential components needed for task resolution, while for nDKS, DKB is absent and, hence, a "global" or bi-hemispheric search occurs. Based on the latter premise, a 'lie detector' system was designed as described in
119:"...there is at present only limited scientific evidence for establishing the validity of polygraph testing. Even where the evidence seems to indicate that polygraph testing detects deceptive subjects better than chance, significant error rates are possible, and examiner and examinee differences and the use of countermeasures may further affect validity."
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deception. While fMRI studies on deception have claimed detection accuracy as high as 90% many have problems with implementing this style of detection. Only yes or no answers can be used which allows for flexibility in the truth and style of lying. Some people are unable to take one such as those with medical conditions, claustrophobia, or implants.
498:, or EEG, measures brain activity through electrodes attached to the scalp of a subject. The object is to identify the recognition of meaningful data through this activity. Images or objects are shown to the subject while questioning techniques are implemented to determine recognition. This can include crime scene images, for example.
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Machine learning algorithms applied to EEG data have also been used to decode whether a subject believed or disbelieved a statement reaching ~90% accuracy. This work was an extension to work by Sam Harris and colleagues and further demonstrated that belief preceded disbelief in time, suggesting that
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Both are considered to be biased against those that are innocent, because the guilty who fear the consequences of being found out can be more motivated to cheat on the test. Various techniques (which can be found online) can teach individuals how to change the results of the tests, including curling
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assess recognition, and therefore may or may not be effective in assessing deception. In ERP studies P3 amplitude waves are assessed, with these waves being large when an item is recognized. However, P100 amplitudes have been observed to have significant correlation to trustworthiness ratings, the
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Several studies published in peer reviewed journals showed VSA to perform at chance level when it comes to detecting deception. Horvath, McCloughan, Weatherman, and Slowik, (2013), for example, tested VSA on the recordings of interrogation of 74 suspects. Eighteen of these suspects later confessed,
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In the 2007 peer-reviewed academic article "Charlatanry in forensic speech science", the authors reviewed 50 years of lie detector research and came to the conclusion that there is no scientific evidence supporting that voice analysis lie detectors actually work. Lie detector manufacturer
Nemesysco
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technique showed that successful problem-solving employs a discrete knowledge strategy (DKS) that selects neural pathways represented in one hemisphere, while unsuccessful outcome implicates a non-discrete knowledge strategy (nDKS). A polygraphic test could be viewed as a working memory task. This
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In addition to the test skewing towards not finding people innocent, there are also issues where some offenders might have a greater physiological response to the control question than to the specific question, making it difficult to determine guilt using this method even when people are not using
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to give a continuous blood pressure and pulse curve and used it to study 4,000 criminals. In the 1990s, a team of scientists, Stanley Abrams, Jean M. Verdier and Oleg
Maltsev developed a new methodology contributing six coefficients that positively affect the accuracy of the lie detector analysis
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Perceived trustworthiness is interpreted by the individual from looking at a face, and this decreases when someone is lying. Such observations are "too subtle to be explicitly processed by observers, but affect implicit cognitive and affective processes." These results, in a study by
Heussen,
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Two meta-analyses conducted by 2004 found an association between lying and increased pupil size and compressed lips. Liars may stay still more, use fewer hand gestures, and make less eye contact. Liars may take more time to answer questions but on the other hand, if they have had time to prepare,
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is an assessment of a verbal statement with the goal to reveal a possible intentional deceit. Lie detection may refer to a cognitive process of detecting deception by evaluating message content as well as non-verbal cues. It also may refer to questioning techniques used along with technology that
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that they consider a polygraph alternative. This is not an emotional reaction like the polygraph and other methods but rather a cognitive reaction. This technology measures pupil dilation, response time, reading and rereading time, and errors. Data is recorded while subjects answer true or false
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Dr. Alan Hirsch, from the department of
Neurology and Psychiatry at the Rush Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center in Chicago, explained the "Pinocchio syndrome" or "Pinocchio effect" as: blood rushes to the nose when people lie. This extra blood may make the nose itchy. As a result, people who
240:(CQT) uses control questions, with known answers, to serve as a physiological baseline in order to compare them with questions relevant to a particular incident. The control question should have a greater physiological response if truth was told and a lesser physiological response for lying. The
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fMRIs use electromagnets to create pulse sequences in the cells of the brain. The fMRI scanner then detects the different pulses and fields that are used to distinguish tissue structures and the distinction between layers of the brain, matter type, and the ability to see growths. The functional
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The cumulative research evidence suggests that machines do detect deception better than chance, but with significant error rates and that strategies used to "beat" polygraph examinations, so-called countermeasures, may be effective. Despite unreliability, results are admissible in court in some
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has no scientific validity because it is not a scientific procedure. People have found ways to try and cheat the system, such as taking sedatives to reduce anxiety; using antiperspirant to prevent sweating; and positioning pins or biting parts of the mouth after each question to demonstrate a
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More recently evidence has been provided by the work of CA Morgan III and GA Hazlett that a computer analysis of cognitive interview derived speech content (i.e. response length and unique word count) provides a method for detecting deception that is both demonstrably better than professional
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can cause problems with data as certain disorders can lead a person to make a statement they believe to be truth but is actually a fabrication. As well as with all testing, the examiner can cause biases within the test with their interaction with the subject and interpretation of the data.
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Historically, fMRI lie detector tests have not been allowed into evidence in legal proceedings, the most famous attempt being Harvey Nathan's insurance fraud case in 2007. The lack of legal support has not stopped companies like No Lie MRI and CEPHOS from offering private fMRI scans to test
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the brain may initially accept statements as valid descriptions of the world (belief) prior to rejecting this notion (disbelief). Understanding how the brain assesses the veracity of a descriptive statement may be an important step in building neuroimaging based lie detection methods.
159:, with which he reported 90–100% accuracy. His studies used students and actual court cases. Then in 1913 W.M. Marston determined systolic blood-pressure by oscillatory methods and his findings cite definite changes in blood pressure during the deception of criminal suspects. In 1921,
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Eye-tracking claims to offer several benefits over the polygraph: lower cost, 1/5th of the time to conduct, subjects do not need to be "hooked up" to anything, and it does not require qualified polygraph examiners to give the test. The technology has not been subject to peer review.
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judgments of professionals and useful at distinguishing between genuine and false adult claims of exposure to highly stressful, potentially traumatic events. This method shows particular promise as it is non confrontational as well as scientifically and cross culturally valid.
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People often evaluate lies based on non-verbal behavior, but are quick to place too much merit in misleading indicators, such as: avoidance of eye contact, increased pauses between statements, and excessive movements originating from the hands or feet. Devices such as the
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was the first to work on practical deception tests based on physiological changes. He detected changes in inspiration-expiration ratio—findings confirmed by N.E. Burtt. Burtt conducted studies that emphasized the changes in quantitative systolic blood-pressure.
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threatened to sue the academic publisher for libel resulting in removal of the article from online databases. In a letter to the publisher, Nemesysco's lawyers wrote that the authors of the article could be sued for defamation if they wrote on the subject again.
440:. It is isolated and easier to generate because it lacks cross-checking into the larger picture. This style contrasts memorized lies that aren't as rich in detail but are retrieved from memory. They often fit into an actual scenario to make recall easier.
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They have found that more effort is required by lying than giving the truth and thus their aim is to find indications of hard work. Individuals not telling the truth might, for instance, have dilated pupils while also taking longer to answer the question.
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Nevertheless, extraneous "noise" on the polygraph can come from embarrassment or anxiety and not be specific to lying. When subjects are aware of the assessment their resulting emotional response, especially anxiety, can impact the data. Additionally,
283:. Micro-expressions are the brief and incomplete nonverbal changes in expression while the rest show an activation of the nervous system. These changes in body functions are not easily controlled by the conscious mind. They also may consider
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paradigm including two conditions within the experiment: truthful faces and lying faces. Faces flashed for 100ms and then the participants rated them. However, the limitations of this study would be that it only had 15 participants and the
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was found to be ineffective by at least one study, especially in students counting backward by seven. A study has found that in the guilty knowledge test subjects can focusing on the alternative answers and make themselves look innocent.
433:(fNIRS) also detects oxygen and activity in the brain like the fMRI, but instead it looks at blood oxygen levels. It is advantageous to the fMRI because it is portable, however its image resolution is of lower quality than the fMRI.
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importance of which will be discussed in the EEG section. This, along with other studies leads some to purport that because ERP studies rely on quick perceptual processes they "are integral to the detection of deception."
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Relevant questions are compared against comparison questions (which should represent false answers) and irrelevant questions (which should represent true answers). They are about whatever is particularly in question.
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DePaulo, Bella M.; Morris, Wendy L. (2004). "Chapter 2: Discerning lies from truth: behavioural cues to deception and the indirect pathway of intuition". In
Granhag, Pär Anders; Strömwall, Leif A. (eds.).
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Horvath, F., McCloughan, J., Weatherman, D., & Slowik, S. (2013). "The
Accuracy of auditors' and layered voice Analysis (LVA) Operators' Judgments of Truth and Deception During Police Questioning".
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record physiological functions to ascertain truth and falsehood in response. The latter is commonly used by law enforcement in the United States, but rarely in other countries because it is based on
413:, or the measurement of the time taken to perform mental operations, can be used to distinguish lying from truth-telling. One recent instrument using cognitive chronometry for this purpose is the
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they may answer more quickly than people telling the truth would, and talk less, and repeat phrases more. They do not appear to be more fidgety, blink more, or have a less-relaxed posture.
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of existing research concluded that there was "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy." There is no evidence to substantiate that
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over time slots and encodes them into large vectors which are classified as showing truthful or deceptive behavior by artificial intelligence or statistical classifiers.
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words such as "hate, worthless and sad." Second, they use "few exclusionary words such as except, but or nor" when "distinguish what they did from what they did not do."
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Morgan CA 3rd; et al. (2011). "Efficacy of forensic statement analysis in distinguishing truthful from deceptive eyewitness accounts of highly stressful events".
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Douglas, Pamela K; Edward Lau; Ariana
Anderson; Wesley Kerr; Austin Head; Margalit Wollner; Daniel Moyer; Michael Durnhofer; Wei Li; Jen Bramen; Mark S Cohen (2013).
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criticized
Marston's intermittent blood pressure method because emotional changes were so brief they could be lost. To adjust for this he modified the Erlanger
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As there are different styles of lying, a spontaneous or artificial deception is constructed based on a mixture of information already stored in semantic and
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and the multiple voxels activated in the brain evoked by a stimulus to determine what the brain has detected, and so whether it is familiar.
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Harnsberger, J. D.; Hollien, H.; Martin, C. A.; Hollien, K. A. (2009). "Stress and
Deception in Speech: Evaluating Layered Voice Analysis".
1989:"Performance comparison of machine learning algorithms and number of independent components used in fMRI decoding of belief vs. disbelief"
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Rothwell, J. McLean; Bandar, J.; O'Shea, Z. (2006). "Charting the behavioural state of a person using a Backpropagation Neural Network".
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Comparison questions have an indirect relationship to the event or circumstance, and they are designed to encourage the subject to lie.
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studied blood-pressure and noted increase in systolic blood pressure of 10 mm Hg or over indicated guilt through using the tycos
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lie detection, such as by looking at body language, is an effective way to detect lies, even if it is widely used by law enforcement.
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which can be from lying or significance to the subject. The problem becomes that they are also associated with mental effort and
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Irrelevant questions establish a baseline to compare other answers by asking simple questions with clear true and false answers.
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Njemanze, P. C. (2005). "Cerebral lateralization and general intelligence: Gender differences in a transcranial Doppler study".
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to compare time and topography of activity in the brain for lie detection. While a polygraph detects changes in activity in the
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302:, so they can be influenced by fear, anger, and surprise for example. This technique may also be used with CQT and GKT.
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Detecting Deception: Current Challenges and Cognitive Approaches (Wiley Series in Psychology of Crime, Policing and Law)
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The study of physiological methods for deception tests measuring emotional disturbances began in the early 1900s.
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There are a wide variety of technologies available for this purpose. The most common and long used measure is the
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1911:"Single trial decoding of belief decision making from EEG and fMRI data using independent components features"
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In 1983 the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment published a review of the technology and found:
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Langleben, D. D.; Dattilio, F. M. (2008). "Commentary: The future of forensic functional brain imaging".
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There are typically three types of questions used in polygraph testing or voice stress analysis testing:
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Hollien, H.; Harnsberger, J. D.; Martin, C. A.; Hollien, K. A. (2008). "Evaluation of the NITV CVSA".
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countries, such as Japan. Lie detector results are very rarely admitted in evidence in the US courts.
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Akehurst; Koehnken (1996). "Lay persons' and police officers' beliefs regarding deceptive behavior".
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currently use polygraphs. They are regularly used by these agencies to screen employees.
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John Kircher, Doug Hacker, Anne Cook, Dan Woltz and David Raskin have developed
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reactions, such as micro-expressions, breathing rate, skin conductivity, and
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stretch the truth tend to either scratch their nose or touch it more often.
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not learning about mistakes they have made and thus improving.
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Recent developments that permit non-invasive monitoring using
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Binkofski, and Jolij, were obtained through a study with an
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537:, fMRI has the potential to catch the lie at the 'source'.
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These measures are supposed to indicate a short-term
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1798:"Can 'Pinocchio Syndrome' solve the niqab dilemma?"
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305:United States government agencies, such as the
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107:General accuracy and limitations of assessment
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1240:
1210:
627:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 205.
324:Critics claim that "lie detection" by use of
1763:Journal of Neural Computing and Applications
1438:
811:
809:
656:
654:
652:
650:
648:
646:
644:
519:Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
2131:
1980:
1953:
1283:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2124:
2110:
1877:
1875:
1796:Dr. Game W. Gifford Jones (26 July 2010).
1591:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
964:Threats over Swedish lie detector research
2642:Social (pragmatic) communication disorder
2012:
1936:
1926:
1884:International Journal of Psychophysiology
1839:
1745:
1545:
1535:
1384:
806:
790:
737:
641:
68:Learn how and when to remove this message
16:Assessment of statements to reveal deceit
2510:Basic interpersonal communicative skills
1825:
1170:Personality and Social Psychology Review
415:timed antagonistic response alethiometer
336:
2577:
1986:
1959:
1902:
1872:
1734:Journal of Applied Cognitive Psychology
1492:. Electronic Privacy Information Center
1136:
1123:
1037:
1020:
878:
862:"Telling the truth about lie detectors"
2911:
2085:
1310:
1068:
1062:
776:
450:functional transcranial Doppler (fTCD)
444:Functional transcranial Doppler (fTCD)
359:
2576:
2498:
2372:High-context and low-context cultures
2143:
2105:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1455:. psychologialscience.org. 2010-07-12
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
770:
431:Functional near-infrared spectroscopy
405:
95:. A comprehensive 2003 review by the
2721:Computer processing of body language
2499:
2065:"Torture, terrorist and truth serum"
271:Lie detection commonly involves the
197:and Word Count (LIWC), published by
18:
2736:List of facial expression databases
2726:Emotion recognition in conversation
1311:Iacono, William G. (October 2008).
739:10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103135
691:. National Research Council. 2003.
13:
2029:
1504:
1351:
1071:American Journal of Police Science
910:Eriksson, A.; Lacerda, F. (2007).
849:American Psychological Association
456:United States Patent No. 6,390,979
219:Polygraph § Testing procedure
213:Questioning and testing techniques
14:
2930:
2620:Childhood disintegrative disorder
777:Seigel, Jessica (25 March 2021).
252:the toes, and biting the tongue.
2005:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.002
1672:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2007.00596.x
1629:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2009.01026.x
1255:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01896.x
1038:Preston, Elizabeth (July 2002).
1001:. 14.2 2007: 169. Archived from
23:
2079:
2056:
1915:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
1819:
1789:
1754:
1721:
1694:
1651:
1608:
1585:
1571:
1562:
1524:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
1478:
1467:
1413:
1401:
1234:
1204:
1161:
1097:
982:
957:
934:
903:
688:The Polygraph and Lie Detection
380:
171:
141:
2144:
1896:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.06.006
884:"Skeptoid #422: Lie Detection"
872:
854:
838:
713:
616:
467:Event-related potentials (ERP)
1:
1317:Criminal Justice and Behavior
1137:Adelson, Rachel (July 2004).
845:The Truth About Lie Detectors
609:
315:Customs and Border Protection
1703:Applied Cognitive Psychology
1660:Journal of Forensic Sciences
1617:Journal of Forensic Sciences
1580:Journal of Forensic Sciences
1243:Journal of Forensic Sciences
826:(OTA-TM-H-15). November 1983
485:Electroencephalography (EEG)
260:
97:National Academy of Sciences
7:
2637:Nonverbal learning disorder
2215:Speech-independent gestures
2188:Facial Action Coding System
1962:J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law
1850:10.1016/j.bandl.2004.06.104
1410:. BBC Science & Nature.
1182:10.1207/s15327957pspr1003_2
928:10.1558/ijsll.2007.14.2.169
726:Annual Review of Psychology
577:
185:Facial Action Coding System
10:
2935:
2377:Interpersonal relationship
2178:Body-to-body communication
552:
522:
488:
470:
367:Silent Talker Lie Detector
264:
216:
136:
2868:
2842:
2782:
2775:
2749:
2713:
2677:
2650:
2587:
2583:
2572:
2505:
2494:
2450:
2427:
2390:
2342:
2277:
2156:
2152:
2139:
1775:10.1007/s00521-006-0055-9
792:10.1146/knowable-032421-1
535:peripheral nervous system
394:questions on a computer.
369:monitor large numbers of
2792:Behavioral communication
1928:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00392
1537:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00594
1329:10.1177/0093854808321529
548:
478:Event-related potentials
473:Event-related potentials
37:may need to be rewritten
2232:Interpersonal synchrony
2133:Nonverbal communication
1386:10.1093/cercor/13.8.830
779:"The truth about lying"
387:eye-tracking technology
153:William Moulton Marston
130:psychological disorders
39:. The reason given is:
2829:Monastic sign lexicons
2520:Emotional intelligence
594:Thought identification
589:Forensics in antiquity
531:central nervous system
496:Electroencephalography
491:Electroencephalography
2819:Impression management
1143:Monitor on Psychology
1139:"Detecting Deception"
1040:"Detecting Deception"
662:"Detecting Deception"
411:Cognitive chronometry
342:Voice stress analysis
337:Voice stress analysis
307:Department of Defense
242:guilty knowledge test
238:control question test
2834:Verbal communication
2787:Animal communication
2705:Targeted advertising
2222:Haptic communication
1987:Douglas, PK (2011).
1109:Western Morning News
952:Stockholm University
319:Department of Energy
161:John Augustus Larson
2843:Non-verbal language
2731:Gesture recognition
2578:Further information
2468:Emotion recognition
2419:Silent service code
1592:Damphousse (2008).
1486:"Polygraph Testing"
1408:Forensic Psychology
979:. January 27, 2009.
599:Voice risk analysis
360:Non-verbal behavior
331:polygraph examiners
193:uses the method of
2869:Art and literature
2824:Meta-communication
2812:Passive-aggressive
2741:Sentiment analysis
2442:Non-verbal leakage
2088:Florida Law Review
1828:Brain and Language
969:2010-12-07 at the
946:2009-04-13 at the
584:Ecological fallacy
525:fMRI lie detection
406:Brain observations
391:University of Utah
195:Linguistic Inquiry
2906:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2894:
2893:
2600:Asperger syndrome
2568:
2567:
2550:Social competence
2490:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2292:Emotional prosody
2198:Subtle expression
2183:Facial expression
1323:(10): 1295–1308.
783:Knowable Magazine
706:978-0-309-26392-4
564:sodium thiopental
311:Homeland Security
254:Mental arithmetic
78:
77:
70:
50:lead layout guide
2926:
2780:
2779:
2757:Ray Birdwhistell
2585:
2584:
2574:
2573:
2500:Broader concepts
2496:
2495:
2473:First impression
2154:
2153:
2141:
2140:
2126:
2119:
2112:
2103:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2016:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1940:
1930:
1906:
1900:
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1879:
1870:
1869:
1843:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1810:
1808:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1769:(4–5): 327–339.
1758:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1747:10.1002/acp.1204
1725:
1719:
1718:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1655:
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1612:
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1539:
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1471:
1465:
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1411:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1388:
1364:
1349:
1348:
1308:
1289:
1288:
1282:
1274:
1249:(5): 1227–1234.
1238:
1232:
1231:
1219:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1134:
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1120:
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1116:
1111:. 3 October 2018
1101:
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1094:
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1059:
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1018:
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1008:on 2 August 2016
1007:
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767:
741:
717:
711:
710:
683:
674:
673:
671:
669:
658:
639:
638:
620:
458:
371:microexpressions
285:respiration rate
203:negative emotion
199:Lawrence Erlbaum
191:James Pennebaker
157:sphygmomanometer
148:Vittorio Benussi
73:
66:
62:
59:
53:
46:improve the lead
27:
26:
19:
2934:
2933:
2929:
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2927:
2925:
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2923:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2890:
2881:Mimoplastic art
2864:
2855:Tactile signing
2838:
2771:
2745:
2709:
2673:
2646:
2579:
2564:
2540:Social behavior
2501:
2482:
2446:
2437:Microexpression
2423:
2407:One-bit message
2386:
2338:
2273:
2193:Microexpression
2148:
2135:
2130:
2100:
2099:
2084:
2080:
2061:
2057:
2034:
2030:
1985:
1981:
1958:
1954:
1907:
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1880:
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1841:10.1.1.532.5734
1824:
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1373:Cerebral Cortex
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1103:
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1021:
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1009:
1005:
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987:
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971:Wayback Machine
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948:Wayback Machine
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882:(8 July 2014).
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621:
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487:
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469:
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438:episodic memory
408:
383:
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339:
317:, and even the
300:emotional state
296:stress response
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2762:Charles Darwin
2759:
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2458:Affect display
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2344:Social context
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2283:
2281:
2275:
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2271:
2266:
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2256:
2255:
2254:
2252:Pupil dilation
2249:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
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2212:
2202:
2201:
2200:
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2166:
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2149:
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2136:
2129:
2128:
2121:
2114:
2106:
2098:
2097:
2078:
2055:
2028:
1999:(2): 544–553.
1979:
1968:(4): 491–498.
1952:
1901:
1871:
1834:(3): 234–239.
1818:
1788:
1753:
1740:(6): 757–777.
1720:
1709:(6): 461–471.
1693:
1666:(1): 183–193.
1650:
1623:(3): 642–650.
1607:
1584:
1582:, 58, 385–392.
1570:
1561:
1503:
1477:
1466:
1437:
1412:
1400:
1379:(8): 830–836.
1350:
1290:
1233:
1227:978-0521541572
1226:
1203:
1176:(3): 214–234.
1160:
1122:
1096:
1061:
1019:
981:
956:
933:
902:
880:Dunning, Brian
871:
853:
837:
805:
769:
732:(1): 295–317.
712:
705:
697:10.17226/10420
675:
640:
634:978-1118509661
633:
614:
613:
611:
608:
607:
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596:
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586:
579:
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553:Main article:
550:
547:
523:Main article:
520:
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489:Main article:
486:
483:
471:Main article:
468:
465:
445:
442:
407:
404:
382:
379:
361:
358:
338:
335:
289:blood pressure
265:Main article:
262:
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214:
211:
173:
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143:
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138:
135:
121:
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108:
105:
76:
75:
32:The article's
31:
29:
22:
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9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2931:
2920:
2919:Lie detection
2917:
2916:
2914:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2850:Sign language
2848:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2832:
2830:
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2820:
2817:
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2768:
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2748:
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2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2695:Freudian slip
2693:
2691:
2690:Lie detection
2688:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2670:
2669:Mirror neuron
2667:
2665:
2661:
2660:Limbic system
2658:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2626:
2625:Rett syndrome
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2575:
2571:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2555:Social skills
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2530:People skills
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2515:Communication
2513:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2497:
2493:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2451:Multi-faceted
2449:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2410:
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2375:
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2362:Display rules
2360:
2358:
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2349:
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2332:Voice quality
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2194:
2191:
2189:
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2174:
2170:
2169:Body language
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2015:
2010:
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2002:
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2678:Applications
2652:Neuroanatomy
2297:Paralanguage
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2664:Limbic lobe
2429:Unconscious
2412:Missed call
2382:Social norm
2357:Conventions
2247:Eye contact
1813:pressreader
1598:NIJ Journal
1430:4 September
1012:3 September
988:Online at:
830:3 September
560:Truth drugs
555:Truth serum
417:, or TARA.
2797:Aggressive
2767:Paul Ekman
2750:Key people
2714:Technology
2700:Poker tell
2545:Social cue
2352:Chronemics
2302:Intonation
2146:Modalities
1993:NeuroImage
1890:(3): 206.
798:8 December
610:References
461:biometrics
326:polygraphy
281:heart rate
217:See also:
181:Paul Ekman
101:non-verbal
2802:Assertive
2610:Fragile X
2595:Aprosodia
2588:Disorders
2535:Semiotics
2463:Deception
2269:Proxemics
2259:Olfaction
2242:Oculesics
2227:Imitation
1836:CiteSeerX
1807:12 August
1688:205767046
1645:205767994
1345:143302792
1337:0093-8548
1115:26 August
976:The Local
748:0066-4308
604:Deception
350:frequency
277:autonomic
273:polygraph
267:Polygraph
261:Polygraph
168:results.
93:polygraph
2913:Category
2632:Dyssemia
2478:Intimacy
2398:Emoticon
2307:Loudness
2237:Laughter
2173:Kinesics
2164:Blushing
2157:Physical
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2023:21073969
1974:19092066
1947:23914164
1866:12440401
1858:15721956
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1556:24065912
1490:epic.org
1459:26 April
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1271:25246267
1263:21854383
1198:15248114
1190:16859438
1153:26 April
1054:26 April
1044:Observer
967:Archived
944:Archived
889:Skeptoid
764:58562467
756:30609913
668:26 April
578:See also
572:cannabis
562:such as
2886:Subtext
2807:Passive
2776:Related
2367:Habitus
2312:Prosody
2264:Posture
2205:Gesture
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568:ethanol
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137:History
2860:Tadoma
2605:Autism
2560:Unsaid
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1267:S2CID
1194:S2CID
1087:JSTOR
1006:(PDF)
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2001:doi
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