Indo-Pakistani war of 1965

1029:, and resulted in a significant geopolitical shift in the subcontinent. Before the war, the United States and the United Kingdom had been major material allies of both India and Pakistan, as their primary suppliers of military hardware and foreign developmental aid. During and after the conflict, both India and Pakistan felt betrayed by the perceived lack of support by the western powers for their respective positions; those feelings of betrayal were increased with the imposition of an American and British embargo on military aid to the opposing sides. As a consequence, India and Pakistan openly developed closer relationships with the Soviet Union and China, respectively. The perceived negative stance of the western powers during the conflict, and during the 1971 war, has continued to affect relations between the West and the subcontinent. Despite improved relations with the US and Britain since the end of the Cold War, the conflict generated a deep distrust of both countries within the subcontinent which to an extent lingers until now. 2862:. China had also become a foreign patron for Pakistan and had given Pakistan $ 60 million in development assistance in 1965. During the war, China openly supported the Pakistani position. It took advantage of the conflict to issue a strongly worded ultimatum to India condemning its "aggression" in Tibet and hinting at nuclear retaliation by China (China had exploded its first nuclear device the previous year). Despite strong fears of Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan, the Chinese government ultimately exercised restraint. This was partly due to the logistical difficulties of a direct Chinese military intervention against India and India's improved military strength after its defeat by China in 1962. China had also received strong warnings by the American and Soviet governments against expanding the scope of the conflict by intervening. In the face of this pressure, China backed down, extending the deadline for India to respond to its ultimatum and warning India against attacking 3318: 1971: 1090: 2989:. By the end of the 1960s, the Soviet Union emerged as the biggest supplier of military hardware to India. From 1967 to 1977, 81% of India's arms imports were from the Soviet Union. After the 1965 war, the arms race between India and Pakistan became even more asymmetric and India was outdistancing Pakistan by far. India's defence budget too would increase gradually after the war, in 1966–1967 it would rise to 17% and by 1970–1971 it would rise to 25% of its revenue. According to World Bank data, India's defence expenditure by GDP decreased from 3.871% in 1965 to 3.141% in 1969, then slightly increased to 3.652% in 1971. 2053: 1082: 1571: 1845:

17 percent of its front-line strength, while India's losses amounted to less than 10 percent. The loss rate had begun to even out, and it has been estimated that another three weeks' fighting would have seen the Pakistani losses rising to 33 percent and India's losses totalling 15 percent. Air superiority was not achieved, and they were unable to prevent IAF fighter bombers and reconnaissance Canberras from flying daylight missions over Pakistan. Thus, 1965 was a stalemate in terms of the air war with neither side able to achieve complete air superiority. After the war, India's Chief of Air Staff

1705: 2799:. During the replacement, a 24-hour pause was observed, enabling the Indian army to regroup in Akhnoor and successfully repel a sluggish assault led by General Yahya Khan. The Indian Chief of Staff of the Western Command said, "The enemy came to our rescue." Then, Akhtar Hussain Malik criticised Ayub Khan for inventing Operation Gibraltar, which ultimately failed, and for denying him command at a crucial point in the conflict. Malik said he would tell the truth about the war and how the army failed, but later decided not to because he was afraid of being banned. 160: 1436:

the post at bay. But at Maratha Hill (in Munabao) – as the post has now been christened – the Indian company could barely manage to thwart the intense attack for 24 hours. A company of three Guards with 954 heavy mortar battery ordered to reinforce the RAC post at Munabao could never reach. The Pakistani Air Force had strafed the entire area, and also hit a railway train coming from Barmer with reinforcements near Gadra road railway station. On 10 September, Munabao fell into Pakistani hands, and efforts to capture the strategic point did not succeed.

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Pakistan to maintain the existing balance of power in the subcontinent. In 1959, however, Pakistan and the United States had signed an Agreement of Cooperation under which the United States agreed to take "appropriate action, including the use of armed forces" to assist the Government of Pakistan at its request. By 1965, American and British analysts had recognised the two international groupings, CENTO and SEATO, and Pakistan's continued alliance with the West as being largely meaningless.

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possessed many essential desert survival skills which their opponents and their comrades in the Pakistan Army did not. Fighting as mainly light infantry, the Hur inflicted many casualties on the Indian forces as they entered Sindh. The Hurs were also employed as skirmishers, harassing the Indians in the Line of Control, a task they often undertook on camels. As the battle wore on, the Hurs and the Desert Force were increasingly used to attack and capture Indian villages inside

11541: 2981:. Despite repeated assurances, the United States did little to prevent extensive use of American arms by Pakistani forces during the conflict, thus irking India. At the same time, the United States and United Kingdom refused to supply India with sophisticated weaponry which further strained the relations between the West and India. These developments led to a significant change in India's foreign policy – India, which had previously championed the cause of 11528: 15493: 12587: 11511: 1637: 12948: 15503: 280: 2767: 1070: 38: 2152:). The daring attempt turned out to be an "unmitigated disaster". Only 22 commandos returned to Pakistan as planned, 93 were taken prisoner (including one of the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt), and 20 were killed in encounters with the army, police, or civilians. The reason for the failure of the commando mission is attributed to the failure to provide maps, proper briefings and adequate planning or preparation. 1560:, however, the Pakistani force advanced into the well-positioned and well-camouflaged Indian formation, which led to approximately 97 Pakistani tanks being destroyed, against only 32 Indian tanks lost. The battle was a tremendous success for India and completely halted the Pakistani advance on the Punjab front. The town where the battle was fought came to be known as Patton Nagar, named after the thoroughly destroyed US-made 12936: 267: 1825:, It flew 86 F-86 Sabres, 10 F-104 Star fighters and 20 B-57 Canberra's in a parade soon after the war was over. Thus disproving the IAF's claim of downing 73 PAF fighters, which at the time constituted nearly the entire Pakistani front-line fighter force. Indian sources have pointed out that, despite PAF claims of losing only a squadron of combat craft, Pakistan sought to acquire additional aircraft from 1805: 1893: 2304: 2372:

would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief of their own martial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their country's military defeat by “Hindu India” and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to attain their military aims on what they considered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his government.

2829:, later stated that it is the Pakistan Army that should be held accountable for initiating the conflict, rather than India. However, propaganda about the war continued in Pakistan, with most of the blame being placed on the leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures. This pattern persisted until the disastrous outcome of the Indo-Pakistani war in 1971. 2866:. Ultimately, Pakistan rejected Chinese offers of military aid, recognising that accepting it would only result in further alienating Pakistan internationally. International opinion considered China's actions to be dangerously reckless and aggressive, and it was soundly rebuked in the world press for its unnecessarily provocative stance during the conflict. 7809:, p. 311: "In a dramatic and emotional speech, Bhutto declared that Pakistan was bound to prevail as justice was with it, but concluded the speech by confirming that Pakistan would give the UN a final chance to resolve the Kashmir issue and would observe the ceasefire call and would 'stop firing' on 0300 hours, 23 September." 1549:. India then launched a counter-offensive. After India breached the Madhupur canal on 11 September, the Khem Karan counter-offensive was halted, affecting Pakistan's strategy substantially. The Pakistani forces engaged with an outnumbered Indian force comprising only the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade commanded by 3107:

strain on its economy. In 1970–71, the expenditure on defence accounted for 32% or 55.66% of the total government expenditure. According to veterans of the war, the war greatly cost Pakistan economically, politically, and militarily. Nuclear theorist Feroze Khan maintained that the 1965 war was a last

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was criticised by senior Pakistani officials and military experts, which ultimately led to the conflict. The Tashkent declaration was also criticised in Pakistan, even though few people were aware of the seriousness of the situation at the end of the conflict. Political leaders were also subjected to

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For political reasons, Pakistan claims victory in the 1965 war. In my opinion, the war ended in a kind of stalemate. We were in a position of strength. Had the war continued for a few more days, we would have gained a decisive victory. I advised then prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri not to agree to

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managed an upper hand over the combat zones despite being numerically inferior. Although the two countries fought to a standoff, the conflict is seen as a strategic and political defeat for Pakistan, as it had not succeeded in fomenting an insurrection in Kashmir and was instead forced to shift gears

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One notes an almost geometrical progression in the defense expenditure in both countries between the years 1966 and 1971. In 1966–1967, Pakistan's budget was US $ 473 million, or about 19 percent of government revenue. India's defense expenditure was US$ 1171 million or 17 percent of its budget. By

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leaders accused the central government of not providing adequate security for East Pakistan during the conflict, even though large sums of money were taken from the east to finance the war for Kashmir. In fact, despite some Pakistan Air Force attacks being launched from bases in East Pakistan during

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India's chief of army staff urged negotiations on the ground that they were running out of ammunition and their number of tanks had become seriously depleted. In fact, the army had used less than 15% of its ammunition compared to Pakistan, which had consumed closer to 80 percent and India had double

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Following the start of the 1965 war, both the United States and Britain took the view that the conflict was largely Pakistan's fault, and suspended all arms shipments to both India and Pakistan. While the United States maintained a neutral stance, the British Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, condemned

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In three weeks, the second Indo-Pak War ended in what appeared to be a draw when the embargo placed by Washington on U.S. ammunition and replacements for both armies forced the cessation of conflict before either side won a clear victory. India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to,

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At the outbreak of war in 1965, Pakistan had about 15 armoured cavalry regiments, each with about 45 tanks in three squadrons. Besides the Patton, there were about 200 M4 Shermans re-armed with 76 mm guns, 150 M24 Chaffee light tank and a few independent squadrons of M36B1 tank destroyers. Most

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The hostilities in the Rajasthan Front commenced on 8 September. Initially, the Pakistan Desert Force and the Hur militia (followers of Pir Pagaro) were placed in a defensive role, a role for which they were well suited as it turned out. The Hurs were familiar with the terrain and the local area and

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Pakistan was surprised by the lack of support from the United States, an ally with whom the country had signed an Agreement of Cooperation. The US turned neutral in the war when it cut off military supplies to Pakistan (and India); an action that the Pakistanis took as a sign of betrayal. After the

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and an ally of the West in its struggle against communism. Well before the conflict began, however, Britain and the United States had suspected Pakistan of joining both alliances out of opportunism to acquire advanced weapons for a war against India. They had therefore limited their military aid to

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A brief, but furious 1965 war with India began with a covert Pakistani thrust across the Kashmiri cease-fire line and ended up with the city of Lahore threatened with encirclement by the Indian Army. Another UN-sponsored cease-fire left borders unchanged, but Pakistan's vulnerability had again been

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India won the war. It held on to the Vale of Kashmir, the prize Pakistan vainly sought. It gained 1,840 km of Pakistani territory: 640 km in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan's portion of the state; 460 km of the Sailkot sector; 380 km far to the south of Sindh; and

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claimed that the IAF was able to achieve air superiority within three days of the Pakistani air strikes. However, according to Kenneth Werrell, the Pakistan Air Force "did well in the conflict and probably had the edge". When hostilities broke out, the Pakistan Air Force with around 100 F-86s faced

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The two air forces were rather equal in the conflict because much of the Indian air force remained farther east to guard against the possibility of China entering the war. According to independent sources, the PAF lost 20 aircraft while the Indians lost 60–75. Pakistan ended the war having depleted

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forced the Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its starting point. Although 3 Jats suffered minimal casualties, the bulk of the damage being taken by ammunition and store vehicles, the higher commanders had no information of 3 Jats' capture of Dograi and misleading information led to the command to

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Careful analysis available in the public domain tends to list IAF losses as sixty-five aircraft to all causes and PAF losses at twenty-five aircraft….Finally, there was agreement that the losses suffered by the IAF were not commensurate with the value gained in terms of the effect on the adversary

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The economic contraction in Pakistan was one of the most significant outcomes of the conflict. Pakistan had experienced impressive economic growth since the early 1960s, but the war ended that. Between 1964 and 1966, Pakistan's defence spending rose from 4.82% to 9.86% of GDP, putting a tremendous

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After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965, the balance of military power had decisively shifted in favor of India. Pakistan had found it difficult to replace the heavy equipment lost during that conflict while her adversary, despite her economic and political problems, had been determinedly building up

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On 8 September 1965, a company of five Maratha Light Infantry was sent to reinforce a Rajasthan Armed Constabulary (RAC) post at Munabao – a strategic hamlet about 250 kilometers from Jodhpur. Their brief was simple. To hold the post and to keep Pakistan's infantry battalions from overrunning

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on 30 June 1965. A tribunal was set to resolve the dispute, the verdict which came later in 1968, saw Pakistan awarded 780 square kilometres (301 square miles) of the Rann of Kutch, as against its original claim of 9,100 km (3,500 sq mi). Pakistan's purpose for this operation was to

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to precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule. The seventeen-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armoured vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. Hostilities between the two countries ended after a ceasefire was declared

8326:"Defense aid was restricted to the extent that Pakistan would be able to present only a limited defense in the event of communist aggression … Western strategists sought to keep Pakistan … in a position where it did not feel itself powerful enough to initiate a confrontation with India." 3078:

The Pakistani air force, on the other hand, racked up considerable acclaim and esteem among the military and international warfare critics for its defence of Lahore and other crucial parts of the country and its hefty retaliation against India the day afterward. The air force's vigilance was also

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was pressing for a ceasefire, the Indian Prime Minister asked commanding Gen. Chaudhuri if India could possibly win the war, were he to delay accepting the ceasefire. The general replied that most of India's frontline ammunition had been used up, and the Indian Army had suffered considerable tank

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The ceasefire was criticised by many Pakistanis who, relying on fabricated official reports and the controlled Pakistani press, believed that the leadership had surrendered military gains. The protests led to student riots. Pakistan State's reports had suggested that their military was performing

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Conflict resumed again in early 1965, when Pakistani and Indian forces clashed over disputed territory along the border between the two nations. Hostilities intensified that August when the Pakistani army attempted to take Kashmir by force. The attempt to seize the state was unsuccessful, and the

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The war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some territory belonging to the other. Losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting

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and the Indian army. Neither side revealed its battle plans to the other. The battle plans, drafted by the Ministry of Defence and General Chaudhari, did not specify a role for the Indian Air Force in the order of battle. This attitude of Gen. Chaudhari was referred to by ACM Lal as the "Supremo

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The thrust against Lahore consisted of the 1st Infantry Division supported by the three tank regiments of the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade; they quickly advanced across the border, reaching the Ichhogil (BRB) Canal by 6 September. The Pakistani Army held the bridges over the canal or blew up

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Internationally, the level of support which Pakistan received was limited at best. Iran and Turkey issued a joint communiqué on 10 September which placed the blame on India, backed the United Nations' appeal for a cease-fire and offered to deploy troops for a UN peacekeeping mission in Kashmir.

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Pakistani soldiers began patrolling in territory controlled by India in January 1965, which was followed by attacks by both countries on each other's posts on 8 April 1965. Initially involving border police from both nations, the disputed area soon witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the

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point that the PAF's superior strategy enabled it to win air superiority by 5 September bears serious consideration. The preemptive air strike over the Indian air fields and the subsequent provocation of the IAF to fight over the heavily defended Pakistani airfields did indeed result in heavy

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Although both sides lost heavily in men and material, and neither gained a decisive military advantage, India had the best of the war. New Delhi achieved its basic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to seize Kashmir by force. Pakistan gained nothing from a conflict which it had instigated.

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The two countries have made contradictory claims of combat losses during the war, and few neutral sources have verified the claims of either country. The PAF claimed it shot down 104 IAF planes and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes and lost 59. According to

1387:. The battle involved the air forces, armoured, infantry divisions and artillery brigades from both sides. The town fell by 11 September. A great amount of Pakistani ammunition was captured from Barki which helped Indian forces after the battle. The Indian artillery stood within the range of 2758:

The Pakistani Army's failures began with the supposition that a generally discontented Kashmiri people would revolt against their Indian rulers, bringing about a swift and decisive victory. The Kashmiri people, on the other hand, remained calm and collected. The Indian Army was given enough

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The war was heading for a stalemate, with both nations holding territory of the other. The Indian army suffered 3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered 3,800. The Indian army was in possession of 1,920 km (740 sq mi) of Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held

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This time, India's victory was nearly total: India accepted a cease-fire only after it had occupied 740 square miles , though Pakistan had made marginal gains of 210 square miles of territory. Despite the obvious strength of the Indian win, both countries claim to have been victorious.

3103:, the foreign minister of Pakistan. Nonetheless, the failure of Pakistan to attain its military objectives during the conflict resulted in a political liability for Ayub. After the defeat of its Kashmiri ambitions, an increasingly vocal opposition challenged the army's invincibility. 1850:

an enemy with five times as many combat aircraft; the Indians were also equipped with comparatively modern aircraft inventory. Despite this, Werrell credits the PAF as having the advantage of a "decade's experience with the Sabre" and experienced pilots. One Pakistani fighter pilot,

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was undergoing major changes in personnel and equipment. During this period, despite being numerically smaller than the Indian military, Pakistan's armed forces had a qualitative edge in air power and armour over India, which Pakistan sought to use before India completed its defence

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Arjan Singh, the last surviving armed force commander of the conflict, gave his assessment that the war ended in a stalemate, but only due to international pressure for a ceasefire, and that India would have achieved a decisive victory had hostilities continued for a few days more:

2096:, as it is known, is a significant naval operation of the 1965 war contested as a nuisance raid by some. The attack on Dwarka led to questions being asked in India's parliament and subsequent post-war modernisation and expansion of the Indian Navy, with an increase in budget from 6445: 2520:

The 1965 Indo-Pak war lasted barely a month. Pakistan made gains in the Rajasthan desert, but its main push against India's Jammu-Srinagar road link was repulsed, and Indian tanks advanced to within a sight of Lahore. Both sides claimed victory, but India had most to celebrate.

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In the brief 1965 war between India and Pakistan, the two air forces were heavily engaged. The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) was able to inflict greater casualties despite being smaller. This owed much to the technical superiority of the PAF's F-86 Sabres over the IAF's Hunters and

1341:. Kargil town was in Indian hands, but Pakistan occupied high ground overlooking Kargil and Srinagar-Leh road. However, after the launch of a massive anti-infiltration operation by the Indian army, the Pakistani infiltrators were forced out of that area in the month of August. 2837:

The United States and the United Kingdom have been the principal suppliers of military matériel to India and Pakistan since 1947. Both India and Pakistan were Commonwealth republics. While India had pursued a policy of nominal non-alignment, Pakistan was a member of both

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There have been several neutral assessments of the losses incurred by both India and Pakistan during the war. Most of these assessments agree that India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared. Some neutral assessments are mentioned below —

3970:"Losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan." 2873:

yielded little support from its members. Support given by Indonesia to Pakistan was seen as a major Indian diplomatic failure, as Indonesia had been among the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement along with India. Despite its close relations with India, the

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The Pakistani Army didn't know that Indian leaders wanted to attack the southern part of the country to start a new war. Pakistan had to send troops to the southern part of the country to protect Sialkot and Lahore instead of using them to help get to Kashmir.

2037:, was also equipped with Centurions. Despite the qualitative and numerical superiority of Pakistani armour, Pakistan was outfought on the battlefield by India, which made progress into the Lahore-Sialkot sector, whilst halting Pakistan's counteroffensive on 1742:

above 40,000 feet (12.19 km)," rather than engage in dogfights with agile fighters at low altitudes, it was "unsuited to the tactical environment of the region". In combat the Starfighter was not as effective as the IAF's far more agile, albeit much slower,

5893: 1333:. India then decided to open up the theatre of attack into Pakistani Punjab and forced the Pakistani army to relocate troops engaged in the Chumb operation to defend Punjab. Operation Grand Slam therefore failed, as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture 2855:

Pakistan received support from Indonesia, Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia in the form of six naval vessels, jet fuel, guns, and ammunition and financial support, respectively. Pakistan didn't gain meaningful support at an international level.</ref>

7797:: "After his meetings, made an appeal for an unconditional and immediate ceasefire to be effect as of September 14. India immediately accepted the proposal, but not Pakistan, which having gambled, now wanted to take something away from the table." 2405:

The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time the United Nations intervened on September 22, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.

2567:, which noted that its previous two resolutions went "unheeded" and now "demanded" an unconditional ceasefire from both nations within 48 hours. India immediately accepted, while Pakistan accepted it on 23 September, with some notable dramatics. 2782:

Pakistan's attempt to capture Ahnoor, a town north-east of Jammu and a key region for communications between Kashmir and the rest of India, was a failure. Many Pakistani commentators said that the Ayub Khan administration was indecisive during

7938:"The Pakistani people were told by the state that they had been victims of aggression and that the aggression had been repelled thanks to God. … official propaganda convinced the people of Pakistan that their military had won the war.” 2953:

As a consequence, India focussed on enhancing communication and coordination within and among the tri-services of the Indian Armed Forces. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering preceding the war, India established the

8659: 8796: 6423: 1762:, as he lacked the fuel to return to his base, and was captured by the Pakistan Army. According to the pilot, he got separated from his formation due to a malfunctioning compass and radio. This Gnat is displayed as a war trophy in the 4534:"The legacy of the Johnson arms cut-off remains alive today. Indians simply do not believe that America will be there when India needs military help … the legacy of the U.S. “betrayal” still haunts U.S.-Pakistan relations today." 4280:"… the war itself was a disaster for Pakistan, from the first failed attempts by Pakistani troops to precipitate an insurgency in Kashmir to the appearance of Indian artillery within range of Lahore International Airport." 2690:, reportedly exposed Pakistani fabrications about the war, but all copies of the book were bought by the Pakistan Army to prevent circulation because the topic was "too sensitive". The book was published with the revised title 2570:

India and Pakistan accused each other of ceasefire violations; India charged Pakistan with 585 violations in 34 days, while Pakistan countered with accusations of 450 incidents by India. In addition to the expected exchange of

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While the overall performance of the Indian military was praised, military leaders were criticised for their failure to effectively deploy India's superior armed forces to achieve a decisive victory over Pakistan. In his book

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losses. It was determined later that only 14% of India's frontline ammunition had been fired, and India held twice the number of tanks as Pakistan. By this time, the Pakistani Army had used close to 80% of its ammunition.

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or paratroopers. Meanwhile, in Pakistan, rumours spread that India had retaliated with its own covert operations, sending commandos deep into Pakistan territory, but these rumours were later determined to be unfounded.

1513:. The Indian offensive was repulsed and stopped successfully. Pakistan claimed that Indians lost 120 tanks at Chawinda. compared to 44 of its own But later, Indian official sources confirmed India lost only 29 tanks at 1272:, which would sever communications and cut off supply routes to Indian troops. Ayub Khan calculated that "Hindu morale would not stand more than a couple of hard blows at the right time and place" although by this time 4054:

Quote: India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's

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India's strategic aims were modest – it aimed to deny the Pakistani Army victory, although it ended up in possession of 720 square miles of Pakistani territory for the loss of just 220 square miles of its own.

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under the command of Maj Gen Har Kishan Sibal attempted an offensive on canal on 6 September. The forces advanced through Khalra-Barki- Lahore road and reached Barki by 7 September. The forces engaged heavily at the

2067:) or the Indian 1st Armoured Division at Chawinda. In contrast, both proved adept with smaller forces in a defensive role, such as India's 2nd Armoured Brigade at Asal Uttar and Pakistan's 25th Cavalry at Chawinda. 5877: 4011: 9712: 8698: 4733:…and the balance of military capabilities: India was in the early stages of a military buildup against China, which prompted Pakistani military decision-makers to exploit what they saw as a window of opportunity. 3090:

Furthermore, Pakistan had lost more ground than it had gained during the conflict, and, perhaps even more crucial, it had failed to secure Kashmir. Many people consider this outcome to be a setback for Pakistan.

4754: 2918:, was hailed as a national hero in India. However, India failed to achieve its objective of military deterrence and did not capitalise on its advantageous military situation before the ceasefire was declared. 1353:

on the Western front on 6 September. President Ayub Khan, on the same day, declared a state of emergency through radio broadcast proclaiming that Pakistan was in a state of war with India. On 6 September, the

1190:. Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success, capturing three important mountain positions after a prolonged artillery barrage. By the end of August, Pakistan had made progress in areas such as 1337:; it became one of the turning points in the war, when India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south. In the valley, another area of strategic importance was 1176:. Indian forces, tipped off by the local populace, captured several Pakistani soldiers who revealed that Pakistan was attempting to ignite the resistance movement employing a covert infiltration, code-named 1469:. They first engaged in the town of Phillora. Failure on the Pakistani side to cause damage to the Indian advance forced the 6th Armoured Division to retreat to the town of Chawinda on 11 September and the 8224: 3131:: "to go slow, not to push India hard, and avoid a fight over Kashmir, 'for at least, 20–30 years, until you have developed your economy and consolidated your national power'." General Majid maintained in 4600: 2420:

The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.

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Towards the end of the Sialkot offensive, the Pakistani Armoured arsenal was left heavily damaged with more than 200 tanks destroyed and 36 captured which was very heavy compared to the Indian damages.

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The Martial Races Theory had firm adherents in Pakistan and this factor played a major role in the under-estimation of the Indian Army by Pakistani soldiers as well as civilian decision makers in 1965.

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said that though Pakistan "lost heavily" during the 1965 war, India's hasty decision to call for negotiations prevented further considerable damage to the Pakistan Armed Forces. He elaborates —

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criticism. Ayub Khan had espoused high expectations among the Pakistani populace regarding the superiority, if not invincibility, of its armed forces, in accordance with the guidance of

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550 km (210 sq mi) of Indian territory. The territory occupied by India was mainly in the fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors, while Pakistani ground gains were primarily in

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The conflict was short, but nasty. After seventeen days, both sides accepted a UN Security Council call for a cease-fire. Although the two militaries fought to a standoff, India won by not losing.

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The 1965 war with India proved that Pakistan could neither break the formidable Indian defenses in an intense violent military campaign fashion nor could she sustain an all-out conflict for long.

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Most people agree that the idea of a mobile, hard-hitting Pakistan Army was badly hurt during the war because important breakthroughs were not made. The military's ill-founded belief that their "

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The PAF's aircraft were largely of American origin, whereas the IAF flew an assortment of British and Soviet airplanes. However, the PAF's American aircraft were superior to those of the IAF's.

6015: 1302:. India's Army Headquarters was taken by surprise. Attacking with an overwhelming ratio of troops and technically superior tanks, Pakistan made gains against Indian forces under the command of 9607: 2694:, published by Services Book Club, a part of the Pakistan military and printed by Oxford University Press, Karachi. A few copies of the book have survived. A version was published in India as 9588: 1416:

was the first Indian unit to cross the Icchogil canal and capture it alongside Dograi. The same day, a counteroffensive consisting of an armoured division and infantry division supported by

8437:"Mao had decided that China would intervene under two conditions—that India attacked East Pakistan, and that Pakistan requested Chinese intervention. In the end, neither of them obtained." 8024: 1912:. At the beginning of the war, the Pakistani Army had both a numerical advantage in tanks, and better equipment overall. Pakistani armour was largely American-made; it consisted mainly of 3060:, and begins with the Indian counter-offensive on the Lahore front. The Pakistan Army is claimed to have put up a "valiant defense of the motherland" and forced the attack in its tracks. 2895:

Despite the declaration of a ceasefire, India was perceived by many as the victor due to its success in halting the Pakistan-backed insurgency in Kashmir. In its October 1965 issue, the

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most critical, 360 km on the Lahore front. Pakistan took 540 km of Indian territory: 490 km in the Chhamb sector and 50 km around Khem Karan.

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influenced by the fact that some pilots were frantically re-enlisted six times in a single hour when they detected Indian air raids. In Pakistan, the air force and army are honored on

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India and Pakistan make widely divergent claims about the damage they inflicted on each other and the amount of damage suffered by them. The following summarises each nation's claims.

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light tanks. Pakistan fielded a more significant number and more modern artillery; its guns out-ranged those of the Indian artillery, according to Pakistan's Major General T.H. Malik.

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The myth of ‘victory’ was created after the war had ended, to counter Indian claims of victory on the one hand and to shield the Ayub regime and the army from criticism on the other.

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Neither the Indian nor Pakistani Army showed any great facility in the use of armoured formations in offensive operations, whether the Pakistani 1st Armoured Division at Asal Uttar (

7746:, pp. 303–304: "There was now a deadline for Pakistan, 0700 hours GMT, 22 September, to either accept or reject this resolution, barely 48 hours for Ayub to decide what to do…" 5854: 1183:

On 6 and 7 August, Indian forces engaged in skirmishes with several columns of Pakistani soldiers, who tried to cut communication lines and mix with the locals during celebrations.

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the war, India did not retaliate in that sector, although East Pakistan was defended only by an understrengthed infantry division (14th Division), sixteen planes and no tanks.

2722:

Indian military intelligence gave no warning of the impending Pakistan invasion. The Indian Army failed to recognise the presence of heavy Pakistani artillery and armaments in

4816: 2814:, have consistently commented that the Pakistan Army had "acquired an exaggerated view of the weakness of both India and the Indian military … the 1965 war was a shock." 8982:

1970–1971, Pakistan's military budget had grown to 32 percent of its revenue, that is US$ 625 million. India's defense budget had increased by 25 percent to US$ 1466 million.

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Quote: The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time the

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was critical of the disparity in military resources deployed in East and West Pakistan, calling for greater autonomy for East Pakistan, an action that ultimately led to the

5345: 4904:"Pakistan Boundaries – Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System" 5163: 9244: 6858:

Working paper, Issue 192, Australian National University. Strategic and Defense Studies Center, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1989,

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to cut Indian supply lines but after a meeting with CAOS Chaudhari, the area was not reinforced. Instead, XV Corps under Lt Gen Katoch was tasked with securing Nowshera.

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Remembering Our Warriors Brig (Retd) Shamim Yasin Manto S.I.(M), S.Bt, Q&A session: ("How would you assess the failures and successes of the SSG in the 1965 War?")

4746: 1141:. Pakistan believed that the population of Kashmir was generally discontented with Indian rule, and that a resistance movement could be ignited by a few infiltrating 5240: 3135:

that the "sane, philosophical and political critical thinking" was missing in Pakistan, and that the country had lost extensive human resources by fighting the war.

1022:. India also failed to achieve its objective of military deterrence and did not capitalise on its advantageous military situation before the ceasefire was declared. 779: 9445: 8630: 1109:

successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities. Both countries signed an agreement to settle the disputed border through international arbitration by the

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in the United States might have encouraged Pakistan. The exercise concluded that Pakistan would prevail in the event of a conflict with India. Other authors like

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dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir. These infiltrators carried out intelligence collection with the help of locals in cities like

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The army officers of that period were convinced that they were a martial race and the Hindus of Indian Army were cowards. This myth was largely disproved in 1965

4584: 3067:" of soldiers could defeat "Hindu India" in the conflict was criticised by several Pakistani writers. Rasul Bux Rais, a Pakistani political analyst wrote – 1283:

Commander of the Western army, Lt Gen Harbaksh Singh had suggested after the capture of Haji Pir, that Pakistani forces would carry out a major offensive in the

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tanks; some were up-gunned with the French high velocity CN 75 50 guns and could hold their own, whilst some older models were still equipped with the inferior

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fighter. Yet it zoomed into an ongoing dogfight between Sabres and Gnats, at supersonic speed, successfully broke off the fight and caused the Gnats to egress.

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Again, India appeared, logistically at least, to be in a superior position, but neither side was able to mobilize enough strength to gain a decisive victory.

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if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.

11146: 9795: 4876: 9624: 7995: 3957: 2104:. Indian sources claim that it was not their intention to get into a naval conflict with Pakistan, and wished to restrict the war to a land-based conflict. 11131: 10614: 10565: 9072: 8246: 2787:". The critics contend that the mission was unsuccessful due to Ayub Khan's awareness of the significance of Akhnoor to India, referring to it as India's ' 1612:. Pakistan claims that it held 1,600 km (620 sq mi) of Indian territory, while losing 1,200 km (450 sq mi) of its territory. 594: 13127: 6037: 2618:

used significant diplomatic tools to prevent any further escalation in the conflict between the two South Asian nations. The Soviet Union, led by Premier

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China's repeated threats to intervene in the conflict supporting Pakistan increased pressure on the government to take an immediate decision to develop

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Since before the war, the People's Republic of China had been a major military associate of Pakistan and a military opponent of India, with whom it had

1053:. The issue first arose in 1956, which ended with India regaining control over the disputed area. In the 1960s Pakistan received 700 million dollars of 12486: 12193: 12188: 11085: 11058: 11053: 11026: 7338: 1967:

of these regiments served in Pakistan's two armoured divisions, the 1st and 6th Armoured divisions – the latter being in the process of formation.

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from the United States, by signing a defence agreement in 1954, which significantly modernised Pakistan's military equipment. After the defeat in 1962

887: 882: 9649: 6007: 5691: 5665: 4113: 4041: 3684: 2791:', and his reluctance to invade it and initiate a conflict. Although progress was made in Akhnoor, General Ayub Khan relieved the commanding officer, 2774:: “Continuing propaganda regarding achievements of PAK forces seems to have convinced most that only PAK forbearance saved the Indians from disaster.” 14234: 12030: 9604: 7537:

http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft0489n6j7&chunk.id=d0e4022&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e4019&brand=eschol&query=martial%20arts#

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Despite failing to sabotage the airfields, Pakistan sources claim that the commando mission affected some planned Indian operations. As the Indian

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on 11 January 1966. As a consequence, the public outcry in India against the peace declaration transformed into a wave of sympathy for the ruling

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On 8 September, the Pakistani 1st Armoured Division and 11 Infantry Division under the command of Maj Gen Nasir Khan pushed an offensive towards

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After the war, a significant number of Pakistanis regarded their military performance to be positive. In Pakistan, 6 September is celebrated as

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India held 1,840 km (710 sq mi) of Pakistani territory and Pakistan held 540 km (210 sq mi) of Indian territory

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was the fastest fighter operating in the subcontinent at that time and was often referred to as "the pride of the PAF". However, according to

14984: 12398: 11680: 7818: 6639: 6547: 6234: 2033:, the two first named being equipped with Centurions. There was also the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade, one of whose three regiments, the 1777:, and later tested and evaluated its flight performance, presumed that Gnat was no "Sabre Slayer" when it came to dog fighting. Three Indian 860: 772: 8114: 6120: 2745:

Air Chief Marshal (retd.) P.C. Lal, who was the Vice Chief of Air Staff during the conflict, points to the lack of coordination between the

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Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and other politicians visit Shauryanjali, a commemorative exhibition on the 1965 war, 17 September 2015

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A declassified US State Department letter that confirms the existence of hundreds of "infiltrators" in the Indian-administered part of the

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The army “misled the nation with a big lie” – that India rather than Pakistan provoked the war – and that Pakistan won a “great victory”.

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128 Indian tanks, 152 Pakistani tanks captured, 150 Pakistani tanks destroyed. Officially, 471 Pakistani tanks destroyed and 38 captured

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Army: 169 commissioned officers (1 brigadier, 9 lieutenant-colonels, 30 majors, 39 captains, 11 lieutenants, 79 second lieutenants), 80

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every year to commemorate 6 September 1965 to pay tribute to the soldiers killed in the war. However, Pakistani journalists, including

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And since the “lie” was never rectified, the Pakistani “army came to believe its fiction, (and) has continued to fight unwanted wars,”

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Pakistan had been seeking urgent help from Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey and China, for additional aircraft within 10 days of the war.

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of the Pakistan Navy commanded by Commodore S.M. Anwar, carried out a bombardment of the Indian Navy's radar station coastal town of

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and his wife. The Pakistan Air Force had fought well in countering the much larger Indian Air Force and supported the ground forces.

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The Pakistani government was accused of spreading misinformation about the consequences of the war among its citizens. In his book

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The Indian Army of the time possessed 17 cavalry regiments, and in the 1950s had begun modernising them by the acquisition of 164

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in 1992, was a long-suppressed document that revealed other miscalculations. According to the document, on 22 September when the

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was diverted to hunt for paratroopers, the Pakistan Air Force found the road filled with transport, and destroyed many vehicles.

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The transfer of American arms under these two pacts included… Patton… Star fighter…Sabre…Canberra…estimated about $ 700 million.

1738:, the F-104 did not deserve this reputation. Being "a high-level interceptor designed to neutralise Soviet strategic bombers at 14705: 14626: 13782: 11456: 9340: 9241: 8719: 7976: 7451: 12023: 8734: 7403: 7042: 6989: 4887: 15450: 15400: 14683: 14441: 14241: 14144: 14037: 13122: 12626: 12413: 12008: 11702: 11329: 10492: 10428: 10407: 10375: 10355: 10320: 10299: 10269: 10218: 10187: 10135: 10114: 10093: 10073: 10032: 9999: 9966: 9917: 9849: 9547: 9513: 9439: 9403: 9321: 9272: 9189: 9125: 8946: 8919: 8894: 8869: 8827: 8772: 8692: 8602: 8568: 8519: 8459: 8430: 8402: 8377: 8319: 8294: 8268: 8183: 7890: 7779: 7660: 7635: 7610: 7585: 7521: 7496: 7350: 7020: 6944: 6903: 6880: 6766: 6670: 6588: 6529: 6439: 6291: 6209: 6170: 6140: 6047: 5887: 5821: 5569: 5544: 5517: 5420: 5159: 4997: 4970: 4945: 4826: 4594: 4560: 4527: 4463: 4302: 4273: 4242: 4076: 4035: 3991: 3908: 3871: 3789: 3716: 3653: 3569: 3442: 3245:

For bravery, the following soldiers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries, the Indian award

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in 1966 by the Government of India for his role in the 1965 war, becoming the first Indian Army officer to receive the award.

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The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare Edited by Chris Bishop (amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384–387

9036: 7443: 5236: 3115:, began to deteriorate from the point the war started, while on the other hand, the alliance with China saw improvements. 15542: 15527: 14787: 14496: 14284: 13907: 13756: 13228: 12712: 12257: 12092: 12060: 11722: 11685: 11177: 10987: 10652: 10600: 9427: 8342: 6849:

India's Quest for Security: defense policies, 1947–1965 By Lorne John Kavic, 1967, University of California Press, pp 190

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was able to defend itself against the Indian army. The performance of the Pakistani Air Force was particularly praised.

2646:, the agreement was criticised because it did not contain a no-war pact or any renunciation of guerrilla warfare across 2575:

and artillery fire, India reported that Pakistan used the ceasefire to capture the Indian village of Chananwalla in the

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in Korea and was distributed to friendly nations including France, where it was used in Indo-China (Vietnam), Pakistan.

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India for aggression after its army advanced towards Lahore; his statement was met with a furious rebuttal from India.

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Syndrome", a patronising attitude sometimes held by the Indian army towards the other branches of the Indian Military.

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Strategic miscalculations by both India and Pakistan ensured that the war ended in a stalemate. In part, this inspired

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The Centurion battle tank, with its 105 mm gun and heavy armour, performed better than the overly complex Patton.

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Indian Army crossed the cease fire line on 15 August and captured several previously infiltrated peaks overlooking the

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assess the response of the Indian government and military and to draw Indian armour southward to Kutch, away from the

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to snatch Kashmir by military force, and Pakistan's own position in the international community, especially with the

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war, Pakistan would increasingly look towards China as a major source of military hardware and political support.

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was shot down on 16 December, killing one Pakistani army captain; on 2 February 1967, an AOP was shot down by IAF

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engaging in combat for the first time since independence. Although the two forces had previously faced off in the

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border of India and Pakistan. The General's entourage itself was ambushed, and he was forced to flee his vehicle.

164: 15344: 14860: 14797: 14745: 14149: 14011: 13996: 13797: 13310: 13233: 13190: 12908: 12366: 12262: 11781: 11610: 11493: 11414: 7992: 3947: 3049: 2940: 2914:, the outcome of the 1965 war was viewed as a "politico-strategic" victory for India. The Indian prime minister, 2560: 9228: 9069: 7318: 7227:"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 27 November 1965. pp. 624–626. 7216:"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 13 November 1965. pp. 587–588. 2314: 15405: 15294: 14837: 14688: 14668: 14658: 14621: 14528: 14042: 13932: 12687: 12557: 12491: 11675: 11620: 11600: 11419: 11279: 10930: 10727: 9734: 9529: 7205:"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 6 November 1965. pp. 571–573. 7194:"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 16 October 1965. pp. 538–540. 2967: 2807: 2730: 1854:, was credited with the record of downing five Indian aircraft in less than a minute, becoming the first known 1640:

Pakistani Sabre being shot down in combat by an Indian Gnat in September 1965 as seen from the Indian aircraft.

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Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age By Peter Paret, 1986, Oxford University Press,

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Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War By Victoria Schofield Published 2003, by I.B.Tauris

7183:"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 9 October 1965. pp. 520–522. 5133: 15537: 15430: 15379: 15299: 15163: 15011: 14832: 14730: 14431: 14346: 14016: 13353: 13021: 12760: 12567: 12338: 11839: 11697: 11223: 11073: 7249:"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 29 January 1966. pp. 59–61. 5062: 4917: 2010: 2002: 1450: 1362:

veteran Major General Niranjan Prasad, battled a massive counterattack by Pakistan near the west bank of the

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was more neutral than other nations during the war, inviting both nations to peace talks under its aegis in

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was seen as having forfeited the gains. Some recent books written by Pakistani authors, including one by ex-

2041:; they were sometimes employed faultily, such as charging prepared defences during the defeat of Pakistan's 1556:

The Pakistani tanks were more numerous and superior in quality, giving them a significant advantage. At the

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admirably in the war – which they incorrectly blamed as being initiated by India – and thus the

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that took place from August 1965 to September 1965. The conflict began following Pakistan's unsuccessful

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Tarapore, Arzan. 2019. "Defence without deterrence: India’s strategy in the 1965 war." Security Studies.

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In the final analysis Pakistan maintained air superiority over the combat zones from 6 September onwards

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to address various shortcomings and the positive impact of these changes was clearly visible during the

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and that they were battling not insurgents, as they had initially thought, but Pakistani Army regulars.

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https://web.archive.org/web/20061105001826/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Books/Review-Airwar65.html

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and the 1st Armoured under Rajinder Singh from 14 to 19 September in the largest tank battle since the

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withdraw from Batapore and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move brought extreme disappointment to Lt-Col

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was the predominant issue dividing the nations, other border disputes existed, most notably over the

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Another negative consequence of the war was growing resentment against the Pakistani government in

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of Pakistan, is used as the official history of the war, which omits any mention of the operations

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Richard N. Haass "Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy", 1998, Council on Foreign Relations,

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Brigadier Desmond E Hayde, "The Battle of Dograi and Batapore", Natraj Publishers, New Delhi, 2006

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An army, its role and rule: a history of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1967–1999

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Now it's apparent to everybody that India is going to emerge as an Asian power in its own right.

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Indo-Russian military and nuclear cooperation: lessons and options for U.S. policy in South Asia

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in 1967, for his contributions during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965, as the General Manager of

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on 10 January 1966, agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines no later than 25 February 1966. In

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during the late 1940s, that engagement was very limited in scale compared to the 1965 conflict.

1567:

During the battle, Pakistani rail bound reinforcements were attacked and destroyed by IAF Gnats.

1133:

would be unable to defend itself against a quick military campaign in the disputed territory of

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An introduction to the causes of war: patterns of interstate conflict from World War I to Iraq

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