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231:, the most important of which are chlorophylls a and b. In the autumn, this complex is broken down. Chlorophyll degradation is thought to occur first. Research suggests that the beginning of chlorophyll degradation is catalyzed by chlorophyll b reductase, which reduces chlorophyll b to 7‑hydroxymethyl chlorophyll a, which is then reduced to chlorophyll a. This is believed to destabilize the complex, at which point breakdown of the apoprotein occurs. An important enzyme in the breakdown of the apoprotein is FtsH6, which belongs to the FtsH family of
146:
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565:. With biological signals such as red leaves, it is argued that because they are costly to produce, they are usually honest, so signal the true quality of the signaller with low-quality individuals being unable to fake them and cheat. Autumn colors would be a signal if they were costly to produce, or be impossible to fake (for example if autumn pigments were produced by the same biochemical pathway that produces the chemical defenses against the insects).
803:
614:
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547:, lack red leaves in the autumn. A greater proportion of aphids that avoid apple trees with red leaves manage to grow and develop compared to those that do not. A trade-off, moreover, exists between fruit size, leaf color, and aphids resistance as varieties with red leaves have smaller fruits, suggesting a cost to the production of red leaves linked to a greater need for reduced aphid infestation.
976:
554:, tree species with bright leaves tend to select for more specialist aphid pests than do trees lacking bright leaves (autumn colors are useful only in those species coevolving with insect pests in autumn). One study found that simulating insect herbivory (leaf-eating damage) on maple trees showed earlier red coloration than trees that were not damaged.
279:
with the total supply of chlorophylls gradually dwindling, the "masking" effect slowly fades away. Then other pigments present (along with the chlorophylls) in the leaf's cells begin to show through. These are carotenoids and they provide colorations of yellow, brown, orange, and the many hues in between.
730:
Compared to
Western Europe (excluding Southern Europe), North America provides many more tree species (more than 800 species and about 70 oaks, compared to 51 and three, respectively, in Western Europe) which adds many more different colors to the spectacle. The main reason is the different effect of
741:
and rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere may delay the usual autumn spectacle of changing colors and falling leaves in northern hardwood forests in the future, and increase forest productivity. Specifically, higher autumn temperatures in the
Northeastern United States is delaying the color
514:
According to the photoprotection theory, anthocyanins protect the leaf against the harmful effects of light at low temperatures. The leaves are about to fall, so protection is not of extreme importance for the tree. Photo-oxidation and photoinhibition, however, especially at low temperatures, make
594:
The brilliant red autumn color of some species of maple is created by processes separate from those in chlorophyll breakdown. When the tree is struggling to cope with the energy demands of a changing and challenging season, maple trees are involved in an additional metabolic expenditure to create
501:
Deciduous plants were traditionally believed to shed their leaves in autumn primarily because the high costs involved in their maintenance would outweigh the benefits from photosynthesis during the winter period of low light availability and cold temperatures. In many cases, this turned out to be
422:
of the plant. When this happens, the sugar-breakdown process changes, leading to the production of anthocyanin pigments. The brighter the light during this period, the greater the production of anthocyanins and the more brilliant the resulting color display. When the days of autumn are bright and
278:
are present in the leaves throughout the year, but their orange-yellow colors are usually masked by green chlorophyll. As autumn approaches, certain influences both inside and outside the plant cause the chlorophylls to be replaced at a slower rate than they are being used up. During this period,
215:
cells forms at the base of each leaf. As this cork layer develops, water and mineral intake into the leaf is reduced, slowly at first, and then more rapidly. During this time, the amount of chlorophyll in the leaf begins to decrease. Often, the veins are still green after the tissues between them
538:
theory, the colors are warning signals to insects like aphids that use trees as a host for the winter. If the colors are linked to the amount of chemical defenses against insects, then the insects will avoid red leaves and increase their fitness; at the same time, trees with red leaves have an
505:
Anthocyanins, responsible for red-purple coloration, are actively produced in autumn, but not involved in leaf-drop. A number of hypotheses on the role of pigment production in leaf-drop have been proposed, and generally fall into two categories: interaction with animals, and protection from
286:, within the cells of leaves. Sometimes, they are in such abundance in the leaf that they give a plant a yellow-green color, even during the summer. Usually, however, they become prominent for the first time in autumn, when the leaves begin to lose their chlorophyll.
203:
needed for growth and development. In their food-manufacturing process, the chlorophylls break down, thus are continually "used up". During the growing season, however, the plant replenishes the chlorophyll so that the supply remains high and the leaves stay green.
581:
Many plants with berries attract birds with especially visible berry and/or leaf color, particularly bright red. The birds get a meal, while the shrub, vine, or typically small tree gets undigested seeds carried off and deposited with the birds' manure.
1161:
Archetti, Marco; Döring, Thomas F.; Hagen, Snorre B.; Hughes, Nicole M.; Leather, Simon R.; Lee, David W.; Lev-Yadun, Simcha; Manetas, Yiannis; Ougham, Helen J. (2011). "Unravelling the evolution of autumn colours: an interdisciplinary approach".
417:
During the summer growing season, phosphate is at a high level. It has a vital role in the breakdown of the sugars manufactured by chlorophyll, but in autumn, phosphate, along with the other chemicals and nutrients, moves out of the leaf into the
1909:
Taylor, Gail; Tallis, Matthew J.; Giardina, Christian P.; Percy, Kevin E.; Miglietta, Franco; Gupta, Pooja S.; Gioli, Beniamino; Calfapietra, Carlo; Gielen, Birgit (2007). "Future atmospheric CO2 leads to delayed autumnal senescence".
925:
515:
the process of reabsorbing nutrients less efficient. By shielding the leaf with anthocyanins, according to photoprotection theory, the tree manages to reabsorb nutrients (especially nitrogen) more efficiently.
192:, as during the growing season, the chlorophyll's green color dominates and masks out the colors of any other pigments that may be present in the leaf. Thus, the leaves of summer are characteristically green.
980:
1967:
882:
195:
Chlorophyll has a vital function: it captures solar rays and uses the resulting energy in the manufacture of the plant's food – simple sugars which are produced from water and
750:
levels, independent of temperature changes. However, the experiments over two years were too brief to indicate how mature forests may be affected over time. Other studies using 150 years of
624:
Although some autumn coloration occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, the most brightly colored autumn foliage is found in the northern hemisphere, including most of southern mainland
386:. Unlike the carotenoids, these pigments are not present in the leaf throughout the growing season, but are actively produced towards the end of summer. They develop in late summer in the
814:
1741:
Lev-Yadun, Simcha; Dafni, Amots; Flaishman, Moshe A.; Inbar, Moshe; Izhaki, Ido; Katzir, Gadi; Ne'eman, Gidi (2004). "Plant coloration undermines herbivorous insect camouflage".
735: – while in North America, species were protected in more southern regions along north–south ranging mountains, this was not the case in much of Europe.
862:
394:
interactions of many influences both inside and outside the plant. Their formation depends on the breakdown of sugars in the presence of bright light as the level of
779:
595:
anthocyanins. These anthocyanins, which create the visual red hues, have been found to aid in interspecific competition by stunting the growth of nearby saplings (
902:
1033:
57:
by which they take on, during a few weeks in the autumn season, various shades of yellow, orange, red, purple, and brown. The phenomenon is commonly called
1835:
675:
493:. These same pigments often combine with the carotenoids' colors to create the deeper orange, fiery reds, and bronzes typical of many hardwood species.
1975:
1199:"Participation of Chlorophyll b Reductase in the Initial Step of the Degradation of Light-harvesting Chlorophyll a/b-Protein Complexes in Arabidopsis"
1862:, H. Ellenberg: Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen: In ökologischer, dynamischer und historischer Sicht, UTB, Stuttgart; 5th edition, in German,
32:
998:
766:
stress can also affect the timing of fall coloration in maple trees. Also, other factors, such as increasing ozone levels close to the ground (
586:
is particularly notable for having bright-red foliage drawing birds to its off-white seeds (which are edible for birds, but not most mammals).
382:
The reds, the purples, and their blended combinations that decorate autumn foliage come from another group of pigments in the cells called
2077:
568:
The change of leaf colors prior to fall have also been suggested as adaptations that may help to undermine the camouflage of herbivores.
846:
502:
oversimplistic – other factors involved include insect predation, water loss, and damage from high winds or snowfall.
461:
northern New
England – up to 70% of tree species may produce the pigment. In autumn forests, they appear vivid in the
1880:
104:
is a major contribution to economic activity. This tourist activity occurs between the beginning of color changes and the onset of
2122:
1991:"Herbaria Reveal Herbivory and Pathogen Increases and Shifts in Senescence for Northeastern United States Maples Over 150 Years"
17:
1521:
1355:
1250:"AtFtsH6 is involved in the degradation of the light-harvesting complex II during high-light acclimation and senescence"
830:
1785:
945:
2062:
Hamilton died in 2000. The paper was submitted by coauthor S.P. Brown in
December of the same year and published in 2001.
457:
Anthocyanins are present in about 10% of tree species in temperate regions, although in certain areas –
1400:"Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution"
1867:
1006:
406:
576:
2117:
242:
known as nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites. As the chlorophylls degrade, the hidden pigments of yellow
1100:
1010:
802:
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specimens found more than a one-month delay in the onset of autumn since the 19th century, and found that
1812:
2164:
889:
1932:
1062:
2159:
1690:
Forkner, Rebecca E. (May 1, 2014). "Simulated herbivory advances autumn phenology in Acer rubrum".
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426:
Anthocyanins temporarily color the edges of some of the very young leaves as they unfold from the
932:
391:
199:. These sugars are the basis of the plant's nourishment – the sole source of the
1500:
Lee, D; Gould, K (2002). "Anthocyanins in leaves and other vegetative organs: An introduction".
135:
In this leaf, the veins are still green, while the other tissue is turning red. This produces a
129:
1927:
1591:"Evidence from the domestication of apple for the maintenance of autumn colours by coevolution"
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cool, and the nights are chilly but not freezing, the brightest colorations usually develop.
401:
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In the southern hemisphere, colorful autumn foliage can be observed in southern and central
2002:
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that carry fluids into and out of the leaf are gradually closed off as a layer of special
8:
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advantage because they reduce their parasite load. This has been shown in the case of
368:. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in coloration of about 15–30% of tree species.
282:
The carotenoids occur, along with the chlorophyll pigments, in tiny structures called
145:
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1881:"Botanik online: Pflanzengesellschaften - Sommergrüne Laub- und Mischlaubwälder"
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Their brilliant yellows and oranges tint the leaves of such hardwood species as
1175:
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641:
637:
558:
224:
196:
189:
1711:
1248:
Zelisko, A.; Garcia-Lorenzo, M.; Jackowski, G.; Jansson, S.; Funk, C. (2005).
1063:"BBC - Gardening - How to be a gardener - The gardening year - Autumn's theme"
2148:
2015:
1990:
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Carotenoids are common in many living things, giving characteristic color to
258:
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In late summer, with daylight hours shortening and temperatures cooling, the
93:
36:
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in early spring. They also give the familiar color to such common fruits as
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1968:"Fall foliage was disrupted by climate change. It might be the new normal"
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pollution), can negate the beneficial effects of elevated carbon dioxide.
715:
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383:
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185:
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1307:
Hortensteiner, S. (2006). "Chlorophyll degradation during senescence".
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1883:(in German). University of Hamburg Biology Server. Archived from
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1788:. South Dakota State University. August 30, 1998. Archived from
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Consistent with red-leaved trees providing reduced survival for
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of the cells of the leaf, and this development is the result of
1839:
1197:
Horie, Y.; Ito, H.; Kusaba, M.; Tanaka, R.; Tanaka, A. (2009).
959:
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is a phenomenon that affects the normally green leaves of many
1398:
Labandeira, C. C.; Dilcher, DL; Davis, DR; Wagner, DL (1994).
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1093:"US Forest Service - Caring for the land and serving people"
939:, develop bold fall colors in subtropical or tropical areas.
2128:
Sanderson, Katharine (2007). "Why autumn leaves turn red".
746:
trees showed that they stayed greener longer with higher CO
263:
253:
208:
173:
50:
1123:"MaineFoliage.com - Maine's Official Fall Foliage Website"
2078:"Autumn Colours – Nature's Canvas is a Silk Parasol"
1908:
1160:
1070:
1034:"New England in the Fall: Trip of a Lifetime - Telegraph"
466:
427:
387:
1457:
Lee, David; Gould, Kevin (2002). "Why Leaves Turn Red".
557:
The coevolution theory of autumn colors was proposed by
1647:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1595:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
176:
is green because of the presence of a pigment known as
1836:"The 5 Best Places in Australia to See Autumn Colours"
820:
Autumn leaf color and Mount Fuji with snow seen from
223:
membrane of the chloroplast and it is composed of an
1371:
Thomas, H; Stoddart, J L (1980). "Leaf
Senescence".
1196:
151:
A North
American leaf with multiple colors across it
2123:Identifying Common trees in Autumn by their colors
2031:"Forests Could Benefit When Fall Color Comes Late"
2146:
1988:
1032:Wade, Paul; Arnold, Kathy (September 16, 2014).
543:where some domesticated apple varieties, unlike
27:Phenomenon that affects the leaves during autumn
1989:Garretson, Alexis; Forkner, Rebecca E. (2021).
1404:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1364:
1254:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
262:Autumn coloration at the Kalevanpuisto park in
1370:
120:Chlorophyll and the green/yellow/orange colors
108:, usually around September to November in the
1640:
1536:
1306:
165:Cross-section of a leaf showing color changes
2075:
496:
1636:
1634:
1584:
1582:
1961:
1959:
1833:
1643:"Autumn tree colours as a handicap signal"
1539:"The coevolution theory of autumn colours"
1156:
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2076:Guy, Robert D.; Krakowski, Jodie (2003).
2014:
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1321:10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105212
674:
660:(including much of northern and eastern
612:
522:
400:
257:
254:Pigments that contribute to other colors
31:
1965:
1956:
1692:International Journal of Biometeorology
1689:
1537:Archetti, M; Brown, S. P. (June 2004).
1141:
999:"The Science of Color in Autumn Leaves"
896:, attracts many tourists during autumn.
14:
2147:
1995:Frontiers in Forests and Global Change
1899:
1810:
1641:Hamilton, W. D.; Brown, S. P. (2001).
1341:
561:in 2001 as an example of evolutionary
216:have almost completely changed color.
2118:Autumnal tints by Henry David Thoreau
1974:. National Geographic. Archived from
1344:Plant pigments and their manipulation
852:Autumn coloration at Karasawa of the
725:
1966:Gibbens, Sarah (November 24, 2021).
1834:Hutchinson, Carrie (March 2, 2019).
1778:
238:Chlorophylls degrade into colorless
1811:Altman, Daniel (November 8, 2006).
1385:10.1146/annurev.pp.31.060180.000503
24:
2069:
808:English country lane in the autumn
509:
25:
2181:
2111:
1373:Annual Review of Plant Physiology
1164:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1009:. October 6, 2011. Archived from
1942:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01473.x
1813:"Fall foliage sets Japan ablaze"
1007:United States National Arboretum
979: This article incorporates
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1804:
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1391:
1335:
1203:Journal of Biological Chemistry
577:Plant defense against herbivory
527:Fall foliage peak times in the
371:
1502:Advances in Botanical Research
1309:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1300:
1241:
1190:
1115:
1085:
1055:
1025:
991:
589:
518:
270:
219:Chlorophyll is located in the
188:. When abundant in the leaf's
13:
1:
1514:10.1016/S0065-2296(02)37040-X
969:
628:, some areas of the northern
1101:United States Forest Service
7:
2091:(4): 111–20. Archived from
1775:(Frey & Eldridge, 2005)
908:A variety of colors around
702:, eastern and southeastern
10:
2186:
1176:10.1016/j.tree.2008.10.006
682:showing Autumn leaf color
606:
602:
570:
375:
1712:10.1007/s00484-013-0701-8
1342:Davies, Kevin M. (2004).
931:Some trees, such as this
890:Stirling, South Australia
742:change. Experiments with
497:Function of autumn colors
2049:
2016:10.3389/ffgc.2021.664763
1425:10.1073/pnas.91.25.12278
868:Autumn orange colors in
785:Typical fall foliage in
398:in the leaf is reduced.
112:and March to May in the
1275:10.1073/pnas.0503472102
1216:10.1074/jbc.M109.008912
506:nonbiological factors.
1659:10.1098/rspb.2001.1672
1607:10.1098/rspb.2009.0355
1555:10.1098/rspb.2004.2728
981:public domain material
838:Arrowtown, New Zealand
683:
621:
531:
414:
267:
40:
18:Color change in leaves
2138:10.1038/news.2007.202
1978:on November 24, 2021.
1912:Global Change Biology
1589:Archetti, M. (2009).
678:
616:
526:
404:
261:
180:, which is inside an
35:
1073:. September 17, 2014
791:Adirondack Mountains
2098:on October 19, 2013
2007:2021FrFGC...4.4763G
1924:2008GCBio..14..264T
1792:on October 20, 2006
1704:2014IJBm...58..499F
1471:2002AmSci..90..524L
1416:1994PNAS...9112278L
1266:2005PNAS..10213699Z
1042:The Daily Telegraph
1013:on January 11, 2018
985:USDA Forest Service
718:, particularly the
619:Canberra, Australia
227:along with several
114:Southern Hemisphere
110:Northern Hemisphere
1887:on October 6, 2014
1755:10.1002/bies.20112
1479:10.1511/2002.6.524
1459:American Scientist
768:tropospheric ozone
726:Climate influences
684:
622:
532:
415:
405:Autumn foliage at
268:
41:
1653:(1475): 1489–93.
1601:(1667): 2575–80.
1549:(1545): 1219–23.
1523:978-0-12-005937-9
1357:978-1-4051-1737-1
1260:(38): 13699–704.
933:American sweetgum
892:, located in the
876:, in October 2018
664:, and as well as
563:signalling theory
534:According to the
88:In some areas of
44:Autumn leaf color
16:(Redirected from
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2165:Plant physiology
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1127:MaineFoliage.com
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83:American English
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1860:Heinz Ellenberg
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1749:(10): 1126–30.
1739:
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1639:
1632:
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1580:
1543:Proc. Biol. Sci
1535:
1531:
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1348:Wiley-Blackwell
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1038:telegraph.co.uk
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1026:
1016:
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992:
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952:Webster's Falls
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510:Photoprotection
499:
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67:British English
28:
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2112:External links
2110:
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1981:
1955:
1898:
1872:
1852:
1826:
1815:. Taipei Times
1803:
1777:
1768:
1733:
1698:(4): 499–507.
1682:
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1465:(6): 524–531.
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822:Lake Kawaguchi
819:
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784:
777:
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773:
772:
747:
739:Global warming
727:
724:
714:) and most of
642:Northern Italy
638:Western Europe
604:
601:
591:
588:
559:W. D. Hamilton
520:
517:
511:
508:
498:
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407:Blue Mountains
376:Main article:
373:
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250:are revealed.
197:carbon dioxide
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63:autumn foliage
59:autumn colours
37:Japanese maple
26:
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1350:. p. 6.
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525:
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494:
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459:most famously
455:
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413:in April 2022
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338:yellow poplar
335:
331:
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305:, as well as
304:
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248:beta-carotene
245:
241:
240:tetrapyrroles
236:
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217:
214:
210:
205:
202:
201:carbohydrates
198:
193:
191:
187:
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161:
147:
139:-like pattern
138:
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111:
107:
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99:
95:
94:United States
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
49:
45:
39:autumn leaves
38:
34:
30:
19:
2170:Pigmentation
2129:
2100:. Retrieved
2093:the original
2088:
2084:
2058:
2035:. Retrieved
2025:
1998:
1994:
1984:
1976:the original
1971:
1915:
1911:
1889:. Retrieved
1885:the original
1875:
1855:
1843:. Retrieved
1829:
1819:November 28,
1817:. Retrieved
1806:
1796:November 28,
1794:. Retrieved
1790:the original
1786:"Pest Alert"
1780:
1771:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1695:
1691:
1685:
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1302:
1257:
1253:
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1167:
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1126:
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1105:. Retrieved
1096:
1087:
1075:. Retrieved
1066:
1057:
1045:. Retrieved
1037:
1027:
1015:. Retrieved
1011:the original
1002:
993:
973:
937:Keokea, Maui
888:The town of
737:
729:
720:South Island
685:
680:Harvard Yard
658:Eastern Asia
623:
609:Leaf peeping
593:
580:
567:
556:
549:
533:
513:
504:
500:
487:cherry trees
456:
448:strawberries
425:
416:
384:anthocyanins
381:
372:Anthocyanins
350:black cherry
323:
288:
281:
274:
244:xanthophylls
237:
218:
206:
194:
171:
98:leaf peeping
87:
78:
77:, or simply
75:fall foliage
74:
70:
62:
58:
43:
42:
29:
1972:Environment
716:New Zealand
706:(including
698:regions of
597:allelopathy
590:Allelopathy
541:apple trees
536:coevolution
519:Coevolution
440:blueberries
432:cranberries
378:Anthocyanin
276:Carotenoids
271:Carotenoids
246:and orange
186:chloroplast
178:chlorophyll
71:fall colors
2149:Categories
2085:Davidsonia
2037:August 17,
2033:. Newswise
1379:: 83–111.
970:References
912:temple in
836:Autumn in
648:region of
617:Autumn in
607:See also:
584:Poison ivy
571:See also:
491:persimmons
436:red apples
358:cottonwood
315:buttercups
266:, Finland.
225:apoprotein
1928:CiteSeerX
1743:BioEssays
1487:209833569
1315:: 55–77.
1097:fs.fed.us
1067:bbc.co.uk
910:TĹŤfuku-ji
787:red maple
752:herbarium
704:Australia
696:southeast
688:Argentina
654:Black Sea
652:near the
573:Deciduous
545:wild ones
475:sweetgums
411:Australia
396:phosphate
362:sassafras
326:hickories
311:rutabagas
307:egg yolks
303:daffodils
233:proteases
221:thylakoid
184:called a
182:organelle
106:leaf fall
48:deciduous
1950:86176515
1891:July 29,
1845:July 22,
1763:15382135
1728:24879283
1720:23832182
1677:11454293
1625:19369261
1573:15306345
1508:: 1–16.
1444:11607501
1329:16669755
1294:16157880
1235:19403948
1184:19178979
1133:June 18,
1107:June 18,
1077:June 18,
1047:June 18,
1017:June 18,
856:in Japan
824:, Japan.
733:Ice ages
712:Tasmania
646:Caucasus
634:Northern
479:dogwoods
471:sourwood
444:cherries
354:sycamore
299:canaries
284:plastids
172:A green
92:and the
2102:May 18,
2003:Bibcode
2001:: 185.
1920:Bibcode
1700:Bibcode
1668:1088768
1616:2684696
1564:1691721
1467:Bibcode
1412:Bibcode
1285:1224624
1262:Bibcode
1226:2719385
956:Ontario
874:Finland
870:Heinola
764:drought
603:Tourism
483:tupelos
392:complex
319:bananas
291:carrots
229:ligands
137:fractal
102:tourism
79:foliage
2155:Autumn
2130:Nature
1948:
1930:
1870:, 1996
1866:
1840:Qantas
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1129:. 2013
1103:. 2014
960:Canada
762:, and
756:insect
744:poplar
700:Brazil
690:, the
656:, and
650:Russia
644:, the
626:Canada
552:aphids
489:, and
463:maples
450:, and
364:, and
317:, and
301:, and
90:Canada
55:shrubs
2096:(PDF)
2081:(PDF)
2050:Notes
1946:S2CID
1724:S2CID
1483:S2CID
1435:45420
918:Japan
914:Kyoto
760:viral
692:south
670:Japan
666:Korea
662:China
452:plums
366:alder
346:birch
342:aspen
334:maple
209:veins
190:cells
51:trees
2104:2007
2039:2008
1893:2020
1864:ISBN
1847:2019
1821:2006
1798:2006
1759:PMID
1716:PMID
1673:PMID
1621:PMID
1569:PMID
1518:ISBN
1440:PMID
1352:ISBN
1325:PMID
1290:PMID
1231:PMID
1180:PMID
1135:2015
1109:2015
1079:2015
1049:2015
1019:2015
731:the
710:and
694:and
668:and
636:and
575:and
467:oaks
428:buds
420:stem
295:corn
264:Pori
213:cork
174:leaf
69:and
53:and
2134:doi
2011:doi
1938:doi
1751:doi
1708:doi
1663:PMC
1655:doi
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1611:PMC
1603:doi
1599:276
1559:PMC
1551:doi
1547:271
1510:doi
1475:doi
1430:PMC
1420:doi
1381:doi
1317:doi
1280:PMC
1270:doi
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1221:PMC
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1207:284
1172:doi
1071:BBC
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