1796:
1711:
2214:
2331:, carbon isotopes of organic material, isotope mass balance and forward modelling. Results from these different methods for the Carboniferous vary. For example, the increasing occurrence of charcoal produced by wildfires from the Late Devonian into the early Carboniferous indicates increasing oxygen levels, with calculations showing oxygen levels above 21% for much of the Carboniferous, whilst halite gas inclusions from the Visean give estimates at c. 15.3%, although with large uncertainties. Combined results from the different methods, to give an estimate of atmospheric oxygen levels, show levels climbed rapidly from c. 20% at the start of the Carboniferous to c. 30% by its end. The rise in atmospheric oxygen is attributed to the increased burial of organic matter in the widespread coal swamps.
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4160:
4189:
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1895:
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3809:
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3407:
3658:
3492:
4259:
4113:
3383:
3639:
4141:
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3281:
1501:
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2444:. The concentration of calcium in seawater is largely controlled by ocean pH, and as this increased the calcium concentration was reduced. At the same time, the increase in weathering, increased the amount of magnesium entering the marine environment. As magnesium is removed from seawater and calcium added along mid-ocean ridges where seawater reacts with the newly formed lithosphere, the reduction in length of mid-ocean ridge systems increased the Mg/Ca ratio further. The Mg/Ca ratio of the seas also affects the ability of organisms to
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4658:
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2116:
deposition including, during more temperate intervals, coal swamps in
Western Australia. The Mexican terranes along the northwestern Gondwana margin, were affected by the subduction of the Rheic Ocean. However, they lay to west of the Ouachita orogeny and were not impacted by continental collision but became part of the active margin of the Pacific. The Moroccan margin was affected by periods of widespread dextral strike-slip deformation, magmatism and metamorphism associated with the Variscan orogeny.
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Devonian, even if the specific enzymes used by basidiomycetes had not. The second theory is that the geographical setting and climate of the
Carboniferous were unique in Earth's history: the co-occurrence of the position of the continents across the humid equatorial zone, high biological productivity, and the low-lying, water-logged and slowly subsiding sedimentary basins that allowed the thick accumulation of peat were sufficient to account for the peak in coal formation.
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9168:
3342:
4320:
2615:
3426:
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2548:
3447:
2644:
124:
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epicontinental seas relative to the more open waters. However, large scale trends can still be determined. δC rose rapidly from c. 0 to 1‰ (parts per thousand) to c. 5 to 7‰ in the Early
Mississippian and remained high for the duration of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (c. 3–6‰) into the early Permian. Similarly from the Early Mississippian there was a long-term increase in δO values as the climate cooled.
2311:
regions c. -23 °C (-10 °F), whilst during the Early
Tournaisian Warm Interval (358-353 Ma) the GAT was c. 22 °C (72 °F), the tropics c. 30 °C (86 °F) and polar regions c. 1.5 °C (35 °F). Overall, for the Ice Age the GAT was c. 17 °C (62 °F), with tropical temperatures c. 26 °C and polar temperatures c. -9.0 °C (16 °F).
1718:. A marine limestone at the base of the cliff is overlain by an orange-coloured fluvial sandstone. Subaerial exposure of the limestone during a period of falling sea level resulted in the formation of a karstic surface, which has then been infilled by the river sands. A thin, estuarine silty mudstone overlays the sandstone, which in turn is overlain by a second marine limestone.
2522:
case was caused by increased continental weathering of the growing
Central Pangean Mountains and the influence of the orogeny on precipitation and surface water flow rather than increased burial of organic matter. δC values show more regional variation, and it is unclear whether there is a positive δC excursion or a readjustment from previous lower values.
4490:). Synapsids quickly became huge and diversified in the Permian, only for their dominance to stop during the Mesozoic. Sauropsids (reptiles, and also, later, birds) also diversified but remained small until the Mesozoic, during which they dominated the land, as well as the water and sky, only for their dominance to stop during the Cenozoic.
2852:, continuing through the end of the Carboniferous, although cephalopod and nektonic conodont diversity declined. This evolutionary radiation was known as the Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event. For the first time foraminifera took a prominent part in the marine faunas. The large spindle-shaped genus
4811:
Amphibians, the dominant vertebrates at the time, fared poorly through this event with large losses in biodiversity; reptiles continued to diversify through key adaptations that let them survive in the drier habitat, specifically the hard-shelled egg and scales, both of which retain water better than
2529:
concentrations rapidly rose. There was a steady increase in arid conditions across tropical regions and a major reduction in the extent of tropical rainforests, as shown by the widespread loss of coal deposits from this time. The resulting reduction in productivity and burial of organic matter led to
2464:
isotopic composition (Sr/Sr) of seawater represents a mix of strontium derived from continental weathering which is rich in Sr and from mantle sources e.g. mid-ocean ridges, which are relatively depleted in Sr. Sr/Sr ratios above 0.7075 indicate continental weathering is the main source of Sr, whilst
2253:
The
Carboniferous climate was dominated by the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA), the most extensive and longest icehouse period of the Phanerozoic, which lasted from the Late Devonian to the Permian (365 Ma-253 Ma). Temperatures began to drop during the late Devonian with a short-lived glaciation in the
2162:
developed above an east-dipping subduction zone, whilst further south, the Zharma-Saur arc formed along the northeastern margin of
Kazakhstania. By the late Carboniferous, all these complexes had accreted to the Siberian craton as shown by the intrusion of post-orogenic granites across the region. As
2062:
during the
Devonian. At the beginning of the Carboniferous it lay at low latitude in the southern hemisphere and drifted north during the Carboniferous, crossing the equator during the mid-to-late Carboniferous and reaching low latitudes in the northern hemisphere by the end of the Carboniferous. The
1808:
swamps, known as peat mires, and is then buried, compressing the peat into coal. The majority of Earth's coal deposits were formed during the late
Carboniferous and early Permian. The plants from which they formed contributed to changes in the Carboniferous Earth's atmosphere, and the coal fueled the
2297:
The LPIA peaked across the
Carboniferous-Permian boundary. Widespread glacial deposits are found across South America, western and central Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Tasmania, the Arabian Peninsula, India, and the Cimmerian blocks, indicating trans-continental ice sheets across southern Gondwana
1854:
capable of breaking down lignin, supports this theory by suggesting this fungi evolved in the Permian. However, significant Mesozoic and Cenozoic coal deposits formed after lignin-digesting fungi had become well established, and fungal degradation of lignin may have already evolved by the end of the
1763:
were high, meaning they were often periods of non-deposition. Erosion during sea level falls could also result in the full or partial removal of previous cyclothem sequences. Individual cyclothems are generally less than 10 m thick because the speed at which sea level rose gave only limited time for
2468:
Sr/Sr values varied through the Carboniferous, although they remained above 0.775, indicating continental weathering dominated as the source of Sr throughout. The Sr/Sr during the Tournaisian was c. 0.70840, it decreased through the Visean to 0.70771 before increasing during the Serpukhovian to the
2375:
The oscillating climate conditions also led to repeated restructuring of Laurasian tropical forests between wetlands and seasonally dry ecosystems, and the appearance and diversification of tetrapods species. There was a major restructuring of wetland forests during the Kasimovian glacial interval,
2037:
of the island arc was complete by the Tournaisian, but subduction of the Ural Ocean between Kazakhstania and Laurussia continued until the Bashkirian when the ocean finally closed and continental collision began. Significant strike-slip movement along this zone indicates the collision was oblique.
1824:
in Laurussia, and around the margins of the North and South China cratons. During glacial periods, low sea levels exposed large areas of the continental shelves. Major river channels, up to several kilometres wide, stretched across these shelves feeding a network of smaller channels, lakes and peat
1650:
within many sequences of this age. This has created difficulties in finding suitable marine fauna that can used to correlate boundaries worldwide. The Kasimovian currently lacks a defined GSSP; potential sites in the southern Urals, southwest USA and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are
4799:
occurred. On land this event is referred to as the Carboniferous rainforest collapse. Vast tropical rainforests collapsed suddenly as the climate changed from hot and humid to cool and arid. This was likely caused by intense glaciation and a drop in sea levels. The new climatic conditions were not
2266:
levels dropped. Its onset was accompanied by a global fall in sea level and widespread multimillion-year unconformities. This main phase consisted of a series of discrete several million-year-long glacial periods during which ice expanded out from up to 30 ice centres that stretched across mid- to
2171:
The Kazakhstanian microcontinent is composed of a series of Devonian and older accretionary complexes. It was strongly deformed during the Carboniferous as its western margin collided with Laurussia during the Uralian orogen and its northeastern margin collided with Siberia. Continuing strike-slip
2521:
The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary positive δO excursion occurred at the same time as global sea level falls and widespread glacial deposits across southern Gondwana, indicating climate cooling and ice build-up. The rise in Sr/Sr just before the δO excursion suggests climate cooling in this
2188:
to northwest China, is the remains of this accretionary complex and forms the suture between Kazakhstania and Tarim. A continental magmatic arc above a south-dipping subduction zone lay along the northern North China margin, consuming the Paleoasian Ocean. Northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys
1758:
Ideally, this sequence would be reversed as sea levels began to fall again; however, sea level falls tend to be protracted, whilst sea level rises are rapid, ice sheets grow slowly but melt quickly. Therefore, the majority of a cyclothem sequence occurred during falling sea levels, when rates of
4064:, an order of holocephalans that greatly resembled modern day flying fish that could have also "flown" in the water with their massive, elongated pectoral fins. They were further characterized by their large eye sockets, club-like structures on their tails, and spines on the tips of their fins.
3200:
were highly numerous during the Carboniferous, though they suffered a gradual decline in diversity during the Middle Mississippian. Dense submarine thickets of long-stemmed crinoids appear to have flourished in shallow seas, and their remains were consolidated into thick beds of rock. Prominent
2493:
preserved in the fossil record can be affected by regional factors. Carboniferous δO and δC records show regional differences between the South China open-water setting and the epicontinental seas of Laurussia. These differences are due to variations in seawater salinity and evaporation between
4465:
The Carboniferous rainforest collapse slowed the evolution of amphibians who could not survive as well in the cooler, drier conditions. Amniotes, however, prospered because of specific key adaptations. One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which
2310:
Temperatures across the Carboniferous reflect the phases of the LPIA. At the extremes, during the Permo-Carboniferous Glacial Maximum (299-293 Ma) the global average temperature (GAT) was c. 13 °C (55 °F), the average temperature in the tropics c. 24 °C (75 °F) and in polar
2274:
levels was triggered by tectonic factors with increased weathering of the growing Central Pangean Mountains and the influence of the mountains on precipitation and surface water flow. Closure of the oceanic gateway between the Rheic and Tethys oceans in the early Bashkirian also contributed to
2371:
The main phase of the LPIA was considered a crisis for marine biodiversity with the loss of many genera, followed by low biodiversity. However, recent studies of marine life suggest the rapid climate and environmental changes that accompanied the onset of the main glacial phase resulted in an
2258:
levels, caused by the increased burial of organic matter and widespread ocean anoxia led to climate cooling and glaciation across the south polar region. During the Visean Warm Interval glaciers nearly vanished retreating to the proto-Andes in Bolivia and western Argentina and the Pan-African
2115:
are widespread across Gondwana and indicate multiple ice centres and long-distance movement of ice. The northern to northeastern margin of Gondwana (northeast Africa, Arabia, India and northeastern West Australia) was a passive margin along the southern edge of the Paleo-Tethys with cyclothem
1898:
Position of the continents in the late Carboniferous. Gondwana, Laurussia and Kazakhstania are already amalgamated as Pangea. Key: PA Panthalassa; S Siberia; AR Amuria; NC North China; SC South China; AN Annamia; PT Paleo-Tethys; red line approximate position of Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita
2200:
South China and Annamia (Southeast Asia) rifted from Gondwana during the Devonian. During the Carboniferous, they were separated from each other and North China by the Paleoasian Ocean with the Paleo-Tethys to the southwest and Panthalassa to the northeast. Cyclothem sediments with coal and
1833:
of the foreland basins and continental margins allowed this accumulation and burial of peat deposits to continue over millions of years resulting in the formation of thick and widespread coal formations. During the warm interglacials, smaller coal swamps with plants adapted to the temperate
1799:
Hyden Formation over Pikeville Formation in the Pennsylvanian of Kentucky, US. The exposure has Pennsylvanian-aged cyclothemic sedimentary rocks of the Breathitt Group. The upper part of the roadcut is Hyden Formation, consisting of mixed siliciclastics and coal. The lower part is Pikeville
1586:
led to major climate and sea level changes, which restricted marine fauna to particular geographic areas thereby reducing widespread biostratigraphic correlations. Extensive volcanic events associated with the assembling of Pangea means more radiometric dating is possible relative to the
4758:
The first 15 million years of the Carboniferous had very limited terrestrial fossils. While it has long been debated whether the gap is a result of fossilisation or relates to an actual event, recent work indicates there was a drop in atmospheric oxygen levels, indicating some sort of
2469:
lowermost Gzhelian where it plateaued at 0.70827, before decreasing again to 0.70814 at the Carboniferous-Permian boundary. These variations reflect the changing influence of weathering and sediment supply to the oceans of the growing Central Pangean Mountains. By the Serpukhovian
7974:
Menning, M.; Alekseev, A.S.; Chuvashov, B.I.; Davydov, V.I.; Devuyst, F.X.; Forke, H.C.; Grunt, T.A.; et al. (2006). "Global time scale and regional stratigraphic reference scales of Central and West Europe, East Europe, Tethys, South China, and North America as used in the
1282:) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. Only the boundaries of the Carboniferous System and three of the stage bases are defined by global stratotype sections and points because of the complexity of the geology. The ICS subdivisions from youngest to oldest are as follows:
2339:
The changing climate was reflected in regional-scale changes in sedimentation patterns. In the relatively warm waters of the Early to Middle Mississippian, carbonate production occurred to depth across the gently dipping continental slopes of Laurussia and North and South China
5607:
Floudas, Dimitrios; Binder, Manfred; Riley, Robert; Barry, Kerrie; Blanchette, Robert A.; Henrissat, Bernard; Martínez, Angel T.; Otillar, Robert; Spatafora, Joseph W.; Yadav, Jagjit S.; Aerts, Andrea; Benoit, Isabelle; Boyd, Alex; Carlson, Alexis; Copeland, Alex (2012-06-01).
2179:
During the Carboniferous, the Tarim craton lay along the northwestern edge of North China. Subduction along the Kazakhstanian margin of the Turkestan Ocean resulted in collision between northern Tarim and Kazakhstania during the mid Carboniferous as the ocean closed. The
2497:
Both δC and δO records show significant global isotope changes (known as excursions) during the Carboniferous. The mid-Tournaisian positive δC and δO excursions lasted between 6 and 10 million years and were also accompanied by c. 6‰ positive excursion in organic matter
1734:. The growth of ice sheets led global sea levels to fall as water was lock away in glaciers. Falling sea levels exposed large tracts of the continental shelves across which river systems eroded channels and valleys and vegetation broke down the surface to form
4278:
1841:
There is ongoing debate as to why this peak in the formation of Earth's coal deposits occurred during the Carboniferous. The first theory, known as the delayed fungal evolution hypothesis, is that a delay between the development of trees with the wood fibre
1754:
developed; their sediments deposited over the peat mires. As fully marine conditions were established, limestones succeeded these marginal marine deposits. The limestones were in turn overlain by deep water black shales as maximum sea levels were reached.
1516:. These changes are now thought to be ecologically driven rather than caused by evolutionary change, and so this has not been used as the location for the GSSP. Instead, the GSSP for the base of the Visean is located in Bed 83 of the sequence of dark grey
2152:. The northwest to eastern margins of Siberia were passive margins along the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean on the far side of which lay Amuria. From the mid Carboniferous, subduction zones with associated magmatic arcs developed along both margins of the ocean.
1251:
In 1975, the ICS formally ratified the Carboniferous System, with the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian subsystems from the North American timescale, the Tournaisian and Visean stages from the Western European and the Serpukhovian, Bashkirian, Moscovian,
1698:
at its base. Whilst individual cyclothems are often only metres to a few tens of metres thick, cyclothem sequences can be many hundreds to thousands of metres thick and contain tens to hundreds of individual cyclothems. Cyclothems were deposited along
4493:
Reptiles underwent a major evolutionary radiation in response to the drier climate that preceded the rainforest collapse. By the end of the Carboniferous amniotes had already diversified into a number of groups, including several families of synapsid
2362:
The glacial grinding and erosion of siliciclastic rocks across Gondwana and the Central Pangaean Mountains produced vast amounts of silt-sized sediment. Redistributed by the wind, this formed widespread deposits of loess across equatorial Pangea.
1977:
where early deformation in the Alleghanian orogeny was predominantly strike-slip. As the West African sector of Gondwana collided with Laurussia during the Late Pennsylvanian, deformation along the Alleghanian orogen became northwesterly-directed
2278:
Warmer periods with reduced ice volume within the Bashkirian, the late Moscovian and the latest Kasimovian to mid-Gzhelian are inferred from the disappearance of glacial sediments, the appearance of deglaciation deposits and rises in sea levels.
1256:
and Gzhelian from the Russian. With the formal ratification of the Carboniferous System, the Dinantian, Silesian, Namurian, Westphalian and Stephanian became redundant terms, although the latter three are still in common use in Western Europe.
1954:. As they drifted northwards the Rheic Ocean closed in front of them, and they began to collide with southeastern Laurussia in the Middle Devonian. The resulting Variscan orogeny involved a complex series of oblique collisions with associated
3689:
are known from the Carboniferous. Their diversity when they do appear, however, shows that these arthropods were both well-developed and numerous. Some arthropods grew to large sizes with the up to 2.6-meter-long (8.5 ft) millipede-like
2405:
and carbonate sedimentation on the ocean floor, whilst the distribution of continents across the paleo-tropics meant vast areas of land were available for the spread of tropical rainforests. Together these two factors significantly increased
1546:
The Serpukhovian Stage currently lacks a defined GSSP. The Visean-Serpukhovian boundary coincides with a major period of glaciation. The resulting sea level fall and climatic changes led to the loss of connections between marine basins and
4399:
were diverse and common by the middle of the period, more so than they are today; some were as long as 6 meters, and those fully terrestrial as adults had scaly skin. They included basal tetrapod groups classified in early books under the
1235:
officially recognised these two systems in 1953. In Russia, in the 1840s British and Russian geologists divided the Carboniferous into the Lower, Middle and Upper series based on Russian sequences. In the 1890s these became the Dinantian,
2063:
Central Pangean Mountain drew in moist air from the Paleo-Tethys Ocean resulting in heavy precipitation and a tropical wetland environment. Extensive coal deposits developed within the cyclothem sequences that dominated the Pennsylvanian
1634:
can be used to define the base of the Moscovian across the northern and eastern margins of Pangea, however, it is restricted in geographic area, which means it cannot be used for global correlations. The first appearance of the conodonts
4319:
3808:
4060:, a family eugeneodonts that were characterized by the presence of one circular tooth whorl in the lower jaw, appeared during the early Carboniferous. Perhaps the most bizarre radiation of holocephalans at this time was that of the
2147:
Shallow seas covered much of the Siberian craton in the early Carboniferous. These retreated as sea levels fell in the Pennsylvanian and as the continent drifted north into more temperate zones extensive coal deposits formed in the
4546:
4340:
6888:
7564:
Floudas, D.; Binder, M.; Riley, R.; Barry, K.; Blanchette, R. A.; Henrissat, B.; Martinez, A. T.; et al. (28 June 2012). "The Paleozoic Origin of Enzymatic Lignin Decomposition Reconstructed from 31 Fungal Genomes".
2659:
The Carboniferous lycophytes of the order Lepidodendrales, which are cousins (but not ancestors) of the tiny club-moss of today, were huge trees with trunks 30 meters high and up to 1.5 meters in diameter. These included
2127:. Along the southeastern and southern margin of Gondwana (eastern Australia and Antarctica), northward subduction of Panthalassa continued. Changes in the relative motion of the plates resulted in the early Carboniferous
1581:
in 1888, named after the widespread coal-rich strata found across the state of Pennsylvania. The closure of the Rheic Ocean and formation of Pangea during the Pennsylvanian, together with widespread glaciation across
4404:. These had a long body, a head covered with bony plates, and generally weak or undeveloped limbs. The largest were over 2 meters long. They were accompanied by an assemblage of smaller amphibians included under the
3623:
2110:
Much of Gondwana lay in the southern polar region during the Carboniferous. As the plate moved, the South Pole drifted from southern Africa in the early Carboniferous to eastern Antarctica by the end of the period.
3978:
Most species of Carboniferous marine fish have been described largely from teeth, fin spines and dermal ossicles, with smaller freshwater fish preserved whole. Freshwater fish were abundant, and include the genera
3790:
4055:
filled in the niches left by large predatory placoderms. These fish were unique as they only possessed one row of teeth in their upper or lower jaws in the form of elaborate tooth whorls. The first members of the
2388:
levels and increasingly arid conditions at low-latitudes led to a permanent shift to seasonally dry woodland vegetation. Tetrapods acquired new terrestrial adaptations and there was a radiation of dryland-adapted
4365:
7790:
Heckel, P.H. (2008). "Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Midcontinent North America as far-field effects of waxing and waning of Gondwana ice sheets". In Christopher R. Fielding; Tracy D. Frank; John L. Isbell (eds.).
2351:
with flat-tops and steep sides. By the Moscovian, the waxing and waning of the ice sheets led to cyclothem deposition with mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sequences deposited on continental platforms and shelves.
3318:
5552:
3382:
3233:
2380:
levels below 400 ppm. Although referred to as the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, this was a complex replacement of one type of rainforest by another, not a complete disappearance of rainforest vegetation.
1738:. The non-marine sediments deposited on this erosional surface form the base of the cyclothem. As sea levels began to rise, the rivers flowed through increasingly water-logged landscapes of swamps and lakes.
4258:
7028:"A revised sedimentary pyrite proxy for atmospheric oxygen in the Paleozoic: Evaluation for the Silurian-Devonian-Carboniferous period and the relationship of the results to the observed biosphere record"
4029:
to become unoccupied and allowed new organisms to evolve and fill these niches. As a result of the evolutionary radiation Carboniferous holocephalans assumed a wide variety of bizarre shapes including
3406:
3365:
7924:
3425:
3280:
3657:
7442:
Outlines of the geology of England and Wales : with an introductory compendium of the general principles of that science, and comparative views of the structure of foreign countries. Part I
3260:
3227:, which included the Pentreinitidae and Codasteridae and superficially resembled crinoids in the possession of long stalks attached to the seabed, attain their maximum development at this time.
4188:
3491:
3896:
1783:. The rapid sea levels fluctuations they represent correlate with the glacial cycles of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age. The advance and retreat of ice sheets across Gondwana followed a 100 kyr
2163:
Kazakhstania had already accreted to Laurussia, Siberia was effectively part of Pangea by 310 Ma, although major strike-slip movements continued between it and Laurussia into the Permian.
8430:
4159:
3772:
1669:
and Paleo-Tethyan regions but not eastern Pangea or Panthalassa margins. Potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China for the GSSP are being considered.
7634:
7404:
4520:
2477:, had been uplifted and exposed to weathering. The decline towards the end of the Carboniferous is interpreted as a decrease in continental weathering due to the more arid conditions.
8005:
5378:
1176:
The similarity in successions between the British Isles and Western Europe led to the development of a common European timescale with the Carboniferous System divided into the lower
7868:
3710:-like insect and with a wingspan of ca. 75 cm (30 in)—the largest flying insect ever to roam the planet. Further groups are the Syntonopterodea (relatives of present-day
4999:
3299:
4112:
3638:
1795:
4625:
5747:
Nance, R. Damian; Gutiérrez-Alonso, Gabriel; Keppie, J. Duncan; Linnemann, Ulf; Murphy, J. Brendan; Quesada, Cecilio; Strachan, Rob A.; Woodcock, Nigel H. (March 2010).
4140:
4070:
6046:"The stratigraphic, sedimentological and structural evolution of the southern margin of the Kazakhstan continent in the Tien Shan Range during the Devonian to Permian"
4579:
1846:
and the subsequent evolution of lignin-degrading fungi gave a period of time where vast amounts of lignin-based organic material could accumulate. Genetic analysis of
3931:, with crushing pavement-like teeth adapted for grinding the shells of brachiopods, crustaceans, and other marine organisms. Other groups of elasmobranchs, like the
3353:
1969:
During the mid Carboniferous, the South American sector of Gondwana collided obliquely with Laurussia's southern margin resulting in the Ouachita orogeny. The major
4657:
2197:
deposits immediately above the regional mid Carboniferous unconformity indicate warm tropical conditions and are overlain by cyclothems including extensive coals.
2376:
with the loss of arborescent (tree-like) lycopisids and other wetland groups, and a general decline in biodiversity. These events are attributed to the drop in CO
2355:
Seasonal melting of glaciers resulted in near freezing waters around the margins of Gondwana. This is evidenced by the occurrence of glendonite (a pseudomorph of
2155:
The southwestern margin of Siberia was the site of a long lasting and complex accretionary orogen. The Devonian to early Carboniferous Siberian and South Chinese
1703:
where the very gentle gradient of the shelves meant even small changes in sea level led to large advances or retreats of the sea. Cyclothem lithologies vary from
7849:
1563:
Province, southwestern China for a suitable site for the GSSP with the proposed definition for the base of the Serpukhovian as the first appearance of conodont
1223:
North American geologists recognised a similar stratigraphy but divided it into two systems rather than one. These are the lower carbonate-rich sequence of the
4600:
1707:
and carbonate-dominated to coarse siliciclastic sediment-dominated sequences depending on the paleo-topography, climate and supply of sediments to the shelf.
1497:. This means the evolution of one species to the other, the definition of the boundary, is not seen at the La Serre site making precise correlation difficult.
8548:
4800:
favorable to the growth of rainforest and the animals within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated islands, surrounded by seasonally dry habitats. Towering
6963:
4703:
4213:
4234:
7934:
1816:
During the Pennsylvanian, vast amounts of organic debris accumulated in the peat mires that formed across the low-lying, humid equatorial wetlands of the
3467:
2672:
1643:
have been proposed as a boundary marking species and potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are being considered.
981:("bear, carry"), and refers to the many coal beds formed globally during that time. The first of the modern "system" names, it was coined by geologists
5033:
Irisarri, I., Baurain, D., Brinkmann, H. et al. Phylotranscriptomic consolidation of the jawed vertebrate timetree. Nat Ecol Evol 1, 1370–1378 (2017).
4466:
allowed the laying of eggs in a dry environment, as well as keratinized scales and claws, allowing for the further exploitation of the land by certain
4095:
6779:
2563:, were very similar to those of the preceding Late Devonian, but new groups also appeared at this time. The main early Carboniferous plants were the
1240:
and Uralian stages. The Serpukivian was proposed as part of the Lower Carboniferous, and the Upper Carboniferous was divided into the Moscovian and
8358:
3756:
8013:
4678:
3850:
2298:
that reached to sea-level. In response to the uplift and erosion of the more mafic basement rocks of the Central Pangea Mountains at this time, CO
8287:
2678:
2254:
late Famennian through Devonian–Carboniferous boundary, before the Early Tournaisian Warm Interval. Following this, a reduction in atmospheric CO
2193:
accreted to North China during the mid to late Carboniferous. No sediments are preserved from the early Carboniferous in North China. However,
8437:
8087:
Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica".
7959:
1742:
developed in these wet and oxygen-poor conditions, leading to coal formation. With continuing sea level rise, coastlines migrated landward and
7900:
7396:
7111:"A Devonian Fish Tale: A New Method of Body Length Estimation Suggests Much Smaller Sizes for Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira)"
2753:
3825:
3762:
2747:
1271:
7387:
3877:
5674:
3927:
7858:
6627:"Strontium and carbon isotopic evidence for decoupling of pCO2 from continental weathering at the apex of the late Paleozoic glaciation"
3601:. Many of these were amphibious. Frequently a temporary return of marine conditions resulted in marine or brackish water genera such as
6855:
6381:"Charcoalified vegetation from the Pennsylvanian of Yorkshire, England: Implications for the interpretation of Carboniferous wildfires"
1879:
region. To its northwest was Laurussia. These two continents slowly collided to form the core of Pangea. To the north of Laurussia lay
8541:
8283:"Confirmation of Romer's Gap is a low oxygen interval constraining the timing of initial arthropod and vertebrate terrestrialization"
4330:
was a holocephalan that lived in North America. This fish belonged to a group called the Iniopterygiformes, that possibly lived like
3819:
was a giant millipede that fed on the Carboniferous plants. At 8 feet long, it was the largest terrestrial arthropod that ever lived.
7553:
3750:
2119:
Towards the end of the Carboniferous, extension and rifting across the northern margin of Gondwana led to the breaking away of the
1213:
850:
Falling from 120 m to present-day level throughout the Mississippian, then rising steadily to about 80 m at end of period
621:
564:
8076:
4739:
diversified further. Marine fungi still occupied the oceans. All modern classes of fungi were present in the late Carboniferous.
3008:, some of which reached very large for brachiopods size and had very thick shells (for example, the 30 cm (12 in)-wide
8381:
7269:"Chondrichthyes from the upper part of the Minnelusa Formation (Middle Pennsylvanian: Desmoinesian), Meade County, South Dakota"
7502:
2525:
During the early Kasimovian there was a short (<1myr), intense glacial period, which came to a sudden end as atmospheric CO
1604:. Arrow Canyon lay in a shallow, tropical seaway which stretched from Southern California to Alaska. The boundary is within a
8348:
8125:
7808:
6822:
5726:
5252:
5198:
5151:
2038:
Deformation continued into the Permian and during the late Carboniferous and Permian the region was extensively intruded by
1940:
closed and Pangea formed. This mountain building process began in the Middle Devonian and continued into the early Permian.
1270:
Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the ICS ratify global stages based on a
8534:
6294:
Richey, Jon D.; Montañez, Isabel P.; Goddéris, Yves; Looy, Cindy V.; Griffis, Neil P.; DiMichele, William A. (2020-09-22).
3446:
2267:
high latitudes of Gondwana in eastern Australia, northwestern Argentina, southern Brazil, and central and Southern Africa.
17:
5991:"The Serpukhovian–Bashkirian Amalgamation of Laurussia and the Siberian Continent and Implications for Assembly of Pangea"
5426:"Current synthesis of the penultimate icehouse and its imprint on the Upper Devonian through Permian stratigraphic record"
5068:
3341:
1710:
7476:
Davydov, Vladimir; Glenister, Brian; Spinosa, Claude; Ritter, Scott; Chernykh, V.; Wardlaw, B.; Snyder, W. (March 1998).
1871:
Pangea assembled. The continents themselves formed a near circle around the opening Paleo-Tethys Ocean, with the massive
6426:
Brand, Uwe; Davis, Alyssa M.; Shaver, Kristen K.; Blamey, Nigel J. F.; Heizler, Matt; Lécuyer, Christophe (2021-05-01).
1106:
covered the land, which eventually became the coal beds characteristic of the Carboniferous stratigraphy evident today.
2772:
was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the lycopods.
2213:
7466:
7425:
7369:
6865:
6832:
6727:
Shi, Yukun; Wang, Xiangdong; Fan, Junxuan; Huang, Hao; Xu, Huiqing; Zhao, Yingying; Shen, Shuzhong (September 2021).
4790:
2711:
The fronds of some Carboniferous ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably many species were
2282:
In the early Kasimovian there was short-lived (<1 million years) intense period of glaciation, with atmospheric CO
1676:, Kazakhstan and was ratified in 1996. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of the conodont
1137:
timescale began in the late 18th century. The term "Carboniferous" was first used as an adjective by Irish geologist
1122:
907:
493:
8405:
802:
6296:"Influence of temporally varying weatherability on CO2-climate coupling and ecosystem change in the late Paleozoic"
3748:, from the Derbyshire coalfield, had a large wing with 4.3 cm (2 in) preserved part, and some specimens (
2856:
and its relatives were abundant in what is now Russia, China, Japan, North America; other important genera include
2099:
1444:
resulting in the near worldwide distribution of marine faunas and so allowing widespread correlations using marine
719:
8146:
Robinson, JM (1990). "Lignin, land plants, and fungi: Biological evolution affecting Phanerozoic oxygen balance".
8030:
5377:
Davydov, V.I., Glenister, B.F., Spinosa, C., Ritter, S.M., Chernykh, V.V., Wardlaw, B.R. & Snyder, W.S. 1998.
3744:, and from the hollow trunks of fossil trees in Nova Scotia. Some British coalfields have yielded good specimens:
2344:
architecture) and evaporites formed around the coastal regions of Laurussia, Kazakhstania, and northern Gondwana.
7819:
4821:
2347:
From the late Visean, the cooling climate restricted carbonate production to depths of less than c. 10 m forming
2294:
may have been due to a peak in pyroclastic volcanism and/or a reduction in burial of terrestrial organic matter.
1232:
8167:
4408:, often only about 15 cm (6 in) long. Some Carboniferous amphibians were aquatic and lived in rivers (
1891:, North China and South China formed the northern margin of the Paleo-Tethys, with Annamia laying to the south.
2534:
levels, which were recorded by a negative δC excursion and an accompanying, but smaller decrease in δO values.
1169:
in 1822 and then into the Carboniferous System by Phillips in 1835. The Old Red Sandstone was later considered
7230:
Karpinsky, 1899 from Kazakhstanian Cisurals and a new reconstruction of its tooth whorl position and function"
4021:
during the Carboniferous. It is believed that this evolutionary radiation occurred because the decline of the
2599:. These continued to dominate throughout the period, but during the late Carboniferous, several other groups,
1928:
in the east. The orogeny was caused by a series of continental collisions between Laurussia, Gondwana and the
8423:
7152:"The long-rostrumed elasmobranch Bandringa Zangerl, 1969, and taphonomy within a Carboniferous shark nursery"
5046:
2262:
The main phase of the LPIA (c. 335-290 Ma) began in the late Visean, as the climate cooled and atmospheric CO
1162:
982:
6044:
Alexeiev, Dmitriy V.; Cook, Harry E.; Djenchuraeva, Alexandra V.; Mikolaichuk, Alexander V. (January 2017).
3949:, had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. Most of the other cartilaginous fish were marine, but others like the
1166:
986:
669:
7027:
6774:
5926:
2436:
During the early Carboniferous, the Mg/Ca ratio in seawater began to rise and by the Middle Mississippian
128:
Map of Earth as it appeared 320 million years ago during the Carboniferous period, Pennsylvanian subperiod
9207:
8557:
8366:
6729:"Carboniferous-earliest Permian marine biodiversification event (CPBE) during the Late Paleozoic Ice Age"
2780:, a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap-like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the
2401:
As the continents assembled to form Pangea, the growth of the Central Pangean Mountains led to increased
1999:
1578:
610:
6475:"Dust and loess as archives and agents of climate and climate change in the late Paleozoic Earth system"
6341:
2766:, with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm (24 in) and a height of up to 20 m (66 ft).
2485:
Unlike Mg/Ca and Sr/Sr isotope ratios, which are consistent across the world's oceans at any one time,
1555:
are environmental rather than evolutionary making wider correlation difficult. Work is underway in the
6728:
6427:
6380:
6239:
6111:
5483:
3696:
being the largest-known land invertebrate of all time. Among the insect groups are the huge predatory
8500:
7478:"Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System"
4302:
1821:
1347:
1237:
447:
8177:"The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration"
7951:
5131:
4269:, a genus of elasmobranch fish from Montana that possessed enlarged pectoral fins similar to modern
7908:
6889:"Demise of the middle Paleozoic crinoid fauna: a single extinction event or rapid faunal turnover?"
6110:
Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (2021-04-01).
5990:
5379:
Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System
2189:
beneath the southern margins of North China and Tarim continued during the Carboniferous, with the
2083:
665:
7151:
3632:
was a large freshwater eurypterid from South America that was originally misidentified as a spider
3140:
are rarer than in previous periods, on a steady trend towards extinction, represented only by the
2135:
magmatism continued into the late Carboniferous and extended round to connect with the developing
8830:
8825:
8464:
8459:
6473:
Soreghan, Gerilyn S.; Heavens, Nicholas G.; Pfeifer, Lily S.; Soreghan, Michael J. (2023-01-09).
5748:
5546:
Nelsen, Matthew C.; DiMichele, William A.; Peters, Shanan E.; Boyce, C. Kevin (19 January 2016).
4562:
3841:
3376:
was a bizarre invertebrate that lived in Montana. It is possibly a mollusk related to gastropods.
2796:, of the order Voltziales) appear later in the Carboniferous, and preferred higher drier ground.
1723:
1370:
1316:
1228:
1224:
1150:
948:
944:
511:
335:
324:
7659:"High-fidelity X-ray micro-tomography reconstruction of siderite-hosted Carboniferous arachnids"
7461:. Geological Conservation Review. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. p. 3.
5332:
2319:
There are a variety of methods for reconstructing past atmospheric oxygen levels, including the
1478:. This was ratified by the ICS in 1990. However, in 2006 further study revealed the presence of
9202:
7523:"Atmospheric Oxygen, Giant Paleozoic Insects and the Evolution of Aerial Locomotor Performance"
7379:
6893:
6525:"An introduction to ice ages, climate dynamics and biotic events: the Late Pennsylvanian world"
6112:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years"
4373:
4018:
3551:
1099:
688:
7268:
5009:
3754:) still exhibit traces of brilliant wing colors. In the Nova Scotian tree trunks land snails (
2286:
concentration levels dropping as low as 180 ppm. This ended suddenly as a rapid increase in CO
2172:
motion between Laurussia and Siberia led the formerly elongate microcontinent to bend into an
7032:
6524:
6523:
Lucas, Spencer G.; DiMichele, William A.; Opluštil, Stanislav; Wang, Xiangdong (2023-06-14).
5610:"The Paleozoic Origin of Enzymatic Lignin Decomposition Reconstructed from 31 Fungal Genomes"
5278:
3723:
3715:
3595:(originally misinterpreted as a giant spider, hence its name) and the specialised very large
3563:
3535:
3359:
Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone Limestone (lower Carboniferous) near Hiwasse, Arkansas
3082:
2992:
2190:
2002:. The Uralian orogeny began in the Late Devonian and continued, with some hiatuses, into the
1979:
1974:
1963:
1810:
1787:, and so each cyclothem represents a cycle of sea level fall and rise over a 100 kyr period.
1617:
1609:
924:
655:
31:
7457:
Cossey, P.J.; Adams, A.E.; Purnell, M.A.; Whiteley, M.J.; Whyte, M.A.; Wright, V.P. (2004).
6625:
Chen, Jitao; Montañez, Isabel P.; Qi, Yuping; Shen, Shuzhong; Wang, Xiangdong (2018-05-01).
6177:
4904:
2359:; a form of calcite deposited in glacial waters) in fine-grained, shallow marine sediments.
8400:
8296:
8241:
8188:
8155:
8136:
Iniopterygia: a new order of Chondrichthyan fishes from the Pennsylvanian of North America.
8096:
7984:
7754:
7704:"X-ray micro-tomography of Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New insights into early insects"
7574:
7163:
7041:
6975:
6788:
6740:
6638:
6586:
6536:
6486:
6439:
6392:
6251:
6189:
6123:
6057:
6002:
5938:
5880:
5826:
5760:
5621:
5561:
5495:
5437:
5290:
4884:
4852:
4175:
3038:
2588:
2515:
2120:
2087:
1995:
1275:
1145:
in 1811. Four units were originally ascribed to the Carboniferous, in ascending order, the
1060:(which include modern reptiles and birds) during the late Carboniferous. Due to the raised
390:
357:
8071:
7497:
6340:
Mills, Benjamin J.W.; Krause, Alexander J.; Jarvis, Ian; Cramer, Bradley D. (2023-05-31).
2217:
A reconstruction of life on a forest floor during the Pennsylvanian Period. The animal is
8:
9161:
7929:
7884:
4842:
4760:
3802:
from the early Carboniferous reached a length of up to 70 cm (2 ft 4 in).
2805:
2420:
and triggering the Late Paleozoic Ice Age. The growth of the supercontinent also changed
2034:
1913:
1835:
1784:
1205:
920:
379:
346:
8300:
8245:
8192:
8159:
8100:
7988:
7758:
7578:
7522:
7167:
7045:
6979:
6792:
6744:
6642:
6599:
6590:
6574:
6540:
6490:
6443:
6396:
6357:
6255:
6193:
6127:
6061:
6006:
5942:
5884:
5830:
5764:
5625:
5609:
5565:
5499:
5441:
5294:
2510:. These changes in seawater geochemistry are interpreted as a decrease in atmospheric CO
1590:
The GSSP for the base of the Pennsylvanian Subsystem and Bashkirian Stage is located at
1141:
in 1799 and later used in a heading entitled "Coal-measures or Carboniferous Strata" by
8319:
8282:
8264:
8229:
8211:
8176:
8051:
7778:
7728:
7703:
7685:
7658:
7616:
7187:
7057:
7001:
6910:
6213:
6081:
6026:
5964:
5904:
5584:
5547:
5519:
5314:
5157:
5143:
4832:
2518:
burial and widespread ocean anoxia triggering climate cooling and onset of glaciation.
2470:
2421:
2413:
2348:
2341:
2159:
2030:
1780:
1776:
1731:
1591:
1453:
1433:
1421:
1209:
1134:
1114:
1061:
1029:
993:
401:
368:
7026:
Cannell, Alan; Blamey, Nigel; Brand, Uwe; Escapa, Ignacio; Large, Ross (August 2022).
6045:
5868:
4804:
forests with a heterogeneous mixture of vegetation were replaced by much less diverse
2848:). The diversity of brachiopods and fusilinid foraminiferans, surged beginning in the
1500:
8959:
8923:
8385:
8344:
8324:
8269:
8216:
8121:
7869:"The Devonian/Carboniferous boundary stratotype section (La Serre, France) revisited"
7804:
7782:
7770:
7733:
7690:
7608:
7600:
7545:
7462:
7445:
7365:
7249:
7245:
7225:
7179:
7132:
7061:
6914:
6861:
6828:
6696:
6656:
6604:
6552:
6502:
6455:
6408:
6361:
6317:
6267:
6217:
6205:
6139:
6085:
6073:
6030:
6018:
5968:
5908:
5896:
5844:
5722:
5655:
5647:
5589:
5523:
5511:
5455:
5318:
5306:
5277:
Lucas, Spencer G.; Schneider, Joerg W.; Nikolaeva, Svetlana; Wang, Xiangdong (2022).
5248:
5194:
5161:
5147:
4566:
4537:
4499:
4378:
4310:
4204:
4124:
4061:
3964:
3932:
3837:
2997:
2636:
2556:
2445:
2128:
2095:
2091:
2064:
1933:
1929:
1700:
1598:, US and was ratified in 1996. It is defined by the first appearance of the conodont
1429:
1185:
1146:
943:, the Carboniferous is often treated as two separate geological periods, the earlier
645:
8281:
Ward, P.; Labandeira, Conrad; Laurin, Michel; Berner, Robert A. (November 7, 2006).
7620:
7477:
7191:
7053:
6752:
6451:
6135:
5507:
3941:
reaching around 6–9 meters (20–30 feet). Other fish had piercing teeth, such as the
2708:
were large trees, that were ancestors of ferns, first arising in the Carboniferous.
1672:
The GSSP for the base of the Permian is located in the Aidaralash River valley near
9053:
8928:
8897:
8694:
8314:
8304:
8259:
8249:
8206:
8196:
8163:
8104:
8066:
7992:
7880:
7796:
7762:
7723:
7715:
7680:
7672:
7643:
7590:
7582:
7537:
7492:
7241:
7171:
7122:
7049:
7005:
6991:
6983:
6902:
6796:
6775:"Pennsylvanian sea level cycles, nutrient availability and brachiopod paleoecology"
6748:
6646:
6594:
6544:
6494:
6447:
6404:
6400:
6353:
6307:
6295:
6259:
6197:
6131:
6065:
6010:
5954:
5946:
5888:
5834:
5768:
5637:
5629:
5579:
5569:
5503:
5445:
5298:
5139:
4796:
4356:
3048:. Some species and genera had a very wide distribution with only minor variations.
3010:
2908:
2693:
2604:
2026:
1917:
1909:
1691:
1678:
1654:
The Gzhelian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The first appearance of the fusulinid
1600:
1017:
863:
776:
767:
7826:. Washington, DC: National council for Science and the Environment. Archived from
6240:"Global events of the Late Paleozoic (Early Devonian to Middle Permian): A review"
1508:
The Viséan Stage was officially defined as the first black limestone in the Leffe
9153:
9149:
9145:
9022:
8918:
8856:
8751:
8720:
8689:
8254:
8139:
7996:
7795:. Geological Society of America Special Papers. Vol. 441. pp. 275–289.
7663:
7420:
Blackwell, Meredith; Vilgalys, Rytas; James, Timothy Y.; Taylor, John W. (2008).
7175:
6962:
Graham, Jeffrey B.; Aguilar, Nancy M.; Dudley, Robert; Gans, Carl (11 May 1995).
6800:
6263:
5950:
4872:
4764:
4644:
4586:
4057:
4036:
4026:
4014:
3798:
3603:
3247:
2945:
2697:
2576:
2568:
2425:
2156:
2132:
1991:
1970:
1864:
1695:
1445:
1078:
51:
9178:
7745:
Haq, B. U.; Schutter, SR (2008). "A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-Level Changes".
4827:
2872:(the latter common in Britain and Belgium). Some Carboniferous genera are still
2290:
concentrations to c. 600 ppm resulted in a warmer climate. This rapid rise in CO
1646:
The Kasimovian covers a period of globally low sea level, which has resulted in
9172:
8991:
8861:
8756:
8725:
8410:
8359:"A History of Palaeozoic Forests - Part 2 The Carboniferous coal swamp forests"
7357:
6964:"Implications of the late Palaeozoic oxygen pulse for physiology and evolution"
6887:
Ausich, William I.; Kammer, Thomas W.; Baumiller, Tomasz K. (8 February 2016).
6857:
Convergent Evolution on Earth. Lessons for the Search for Extraterrestrial Life
5553:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5484:"Late Palaeozoic cyclothems – A review of their stratigraphy and sedimentology"
4775:
4767:
4753:
4715:
4694:
4632:
4458:
4422:
4401:
4352:
4225:
4150:
4127:
4052:
4006:
3908:
3719:
3597:
3585:
3498:
3440:
trilobite, which were the only order that survived the end-Devonian extinction
3416:
3328:
3293:
from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio (internal mold)
3215:
3131:
3044:
3029:
2705:
2452:
and the dominant reef builders of the time were aragonitic sponges and corals.
2407:
2149:
2136:
2079:
2075:
2018:
1921:
1868:
1817:
1556:
1181:
1154:
1142:
1138:
1110:
1021:
1013:
792:
712:
549:
530:
8526:
7800:
7648:
7629:
6906:
5839:
5814:
5548:"Delayed fungal evolution did not cause the Paleozoic peak in coal production"
3737:
1966:
between these terranes and Laurussia, which continued into the Carboniferous.
1775:(present day western and central US, Europe, Russia and central Asia) and the
9196:
8892:
8882:
8851:
8746:
8715:
8336:
7901:"The Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic Era: 299 to 359 million years ago"
7853:
7843:
7253:
7183:
7136:
6660:
6608:
6556:
6506:
6459:
6412:
6365:
6321:
6271:
6209:
6143:
6077:
6022:
5900:
5848:
5772:
5651:
5515:
5459:
5310:
4975:
4718:
4663:
4607:
4570:
4511:
4503:
4486:
4347:
4249:
4041:
4031:
3968:
3711:
3251:
3123:, with straight-shelled and curved-shelled forms becoming increasingly rare.
3064:
3033:
2927:
2892:
2837:
2768:
2667:
2662:
2437:
2078:
in the Late Devonian to Early Mississippian. Further north along the margin,
1884:
1847:
1825:
mires. These wetlands were then buried by sediment as sea levels rose during
1805:
1449:
1189:
1158:
1073:
1040:, which became dominant land vertebrates, as well as the first appearance of
1001:
940:
817:
804:
734:
721:
8309:
8201:
7862:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 309–313.
7766:
7586:
6474:
6312:
5633:
5574:
5130:
Davydov, V.I.; Korn, D.; Schmitz, M.D.; Gradstein, F.M.; Hammer, O. (2012),
5064:
5034:
4735:
As plants and animals were growing in size and abundance in this time, land
2465:
ratios below indicate mantle-derived sources are the principal contributor.
2033:, a major structure that runs for more than 2,000 km along the orogen.
2029:
between the former island arc complex and the continental margin formed the
1726:
from the Late Mississippian to early Permian, when the waxing and waning of
1432:
valley. During the Mississippian, there was a marine connection between the
967:
9183:
9114:
8964:
8887:
8484:
8328:
8273:
8220:
7774:
7737:
7719:
7694:
7676:
7612:
7541:
7449:
6548:
6498:
6238:
Qie, Wenkun; Algeo, Thomas J.; Luo, Genming; Herrmann, Achim (2019-10-01).
5659:
5593:
5450:
5425:
5302:
4771:
4690:
4685:
4446:
4428:
4405:
4298:
4265:
4246:
4200:
4195:
4166:
4146:
4119:
3960:
3950:
3922:
3815:
3692:
3309:
2873:
2809:
2786:
2741:
2735:
2584:
2572:
2205:
were deposited across the passive margins that surrounded both continents.
2124:
2007:
1959:
1955:
1888:
1826:
1647:
1494:
1470:
1464:
1378:
1217:
1088:
1037:
696:
429:
7549:
6201:
5331:
Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L. & Fan, J.-X. (2013; updated)
4106:
was a Carboniferous holocephalan, with a high degree of sexual dimorphism.
3393:
was a cnidarian that lived in Northern Illinois. It was long considered a
2551:
Etching depicting some of the most significant plants of the Carboniferous
977:
9109:
8978:
8954:
8799:
8594:
8474:
8357:
6996:
6702:
6014:
4862:
4616:
4440:
4331:
4082:
4077:
4010:
4001:
3865:
3832:
3726:
3697:
3648:
3503:
3458:
3398:
3153:
3070:
3025:
2939:-building and solitary corals diversify and flourish; these include both
2931:
2729:
2723:
2600:
2596:
2564:
2503:
2441:
2071:
1973:
that occurred between Laurussia and Gondwana extended eastwards into the
1937:
1872:
1743:
1441:
1437:
1404:
1193:
1103:
997:
411:
57:
7422:"Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc"
7310:
5354:
4939:
4641:
2614:
9104:
9064:
9007:
8907:
8804:
8678:
8578:
8505:
8495:
8415:
8138:
Fieldiana Geology Memoirs, v. 6, Field Museum of Natural History, 1973
8034:
7595:
5959:
5642:
4710:
4495:
4471:
4434:
4326:
4306:
4270:
4171:
4131:
4086:
4022:
3991:
3946:
3942:
3911:
arachnid that lived in the United Kingdom around 310 million years ago.
3903:
3884:
3862:
3856:
3591:
3580:
3540:
3432:
3372:
3290:
3149:
3127:
3116:
3104:
3062:
continue to increase in numbers and importance. Typical genera include
3021:
3005:
3001:
2970:
2920:
2884:
2853:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2717:
2684:
2627:
2608:
2592:
2402:
2302:
levels dropped as low as 175 ppm and remained under 400 ppm for 10 Ma.
2185:
2014:
2010:
1951:
1876:
1830:
1768:
1666:
1605:
1533:
1525:
1360:
1334:
1279:
1253:
1245:
1161:. These four units were placed into a formalised Carboniferous unit by
1005:
796:
788:
772:
456:
438:
102:
67:
9167:
7827:
7604:
7322:
7127:
7110:
5086:
5084:
5082:
5080:
5078:
4987:
2790:. These plants were thought to live in swamps. True coniferous trees (
2384:
Across the Carboniferous–Permian boundary interval, a rapid drop in CO
2275:
climate cooling by changing ocean circulation and heat flow patterns.
1894:
1714:
Cliff section through the Serpukhovian Red Wharf Limestone Formation,
9119:
9069:
9043:
9002:
8949:
8794:
8770:
8651:
8641:
8630:
8108:
8031:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)"
6987:
6651:
6626:
5541:
5539:
5537:
5535:
5533:
4836:
4805:
4778:
4553:
4527:
4476:
4452:
4416:
4396:
4285:
3972:
3955:
3887:
3780:
3741:
3730:
3707:
3702:
3682:
3613:
3557:
3529:
3479:
3474:
3394:
3389:
3137:
3124:
3120:
3113:
3095:
2911:
and anchor ropes, and include various forms such as the Calcispongea
2877:
2821:
2776:
2762:
2689:
2652:
2632:
2580:
2560:
2461:
2449:
2202:
2181:
2139:
subduction zone along the western South American margin of Gondwana.
2051:
1727:
1613:
1517:
1425:
1177:
1094:
1065:
1057:
1033:
928:
281:
107:
6069:
5892:
5746:
4669:
2547:
1673:
1197:
420:
9079:
9074:
9038:
8938:
8871:
8840:
8735:
8704:
8665:
8615:
8589:
8565:
8510:
7975:
Devonian–Carboniferous–Permian Correlation Chart 2003 (DCP 2003)".
6043:
5075:
4866:
4846:
4801:
4722:
4648:
4612:
4532:
4481:
4467:
4382:
4290:
4241:
4102:
3981:
3937:
3686:
3483:
3437:
3224:
3145:
3141:
3016:
2958:
2904:
2900:
2813:
2712:
2648:
2622:
2372:
adaptive radiation with a rapid increase in the number of species.
2320:
2173:
2059:
2003:
1772:
1739:
1620:
1583:
1565:
1548:
1460:
1324:
1306:
1241:
1201:
1170:
1083:
1069:
1045:
1009:
932:
763:
708:
692:
465:
292:
97:
92:
77:
72:
62:
7842:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
7378:
5530:
4981:
2082:, beginning in the Early Mississippian, led to the rifting of the
1920:
orogeny. Today their remains stretch over 10,000 km from the
1424:
in 1870 named after the extensive exposure of lower Carboniferous
9093:
9033:
8783:
8620:
8604:
8230:"Can Oxygen Set Thermal Limits in an Insect and Drive Gigantism?"
7266:
6821:
Hall, Brian Keith; Müller, Gerd B.; Pearson, Roy Douglas (2004).
6342:"Evolution of Atmospheric O 2 Through the Phanerozoic, Revisited"
4856:
4591:
4558:
4410:
4220:
4179:
3869:
3545:
3520:
3517:
3324:
3243:
3197:
3059:
3051:
2979:
2845:
2817:
2792:
2474:
2390:
2194:
2055:
2039:
2022:
1944:
1880:
1760:
1751:
1704:
1624:
1560:
1551:
of marine fauna across the Russian margin. This means changes in
1529:
1301:
1227:
System and the upper siliciclastic and coal-rich sequence of the
1118:
1041:
936:
314:
123:
112:
87:
8384:. International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). Archived from
7956:
Biology of Sharks and Rays | ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
3967:
found in coastal waters also appear to have migrated to rivers.
2643:
2507:
2499:
2490:
2486:
2448:. The Carboniferous aragonite seas favoured those that secreted
1767:
During the Pennsylvanian, cyclothems were deposited in shallow,
1216:(ICS) stage, but the Viséan is longer, extending into the lower
9129:
9012:
8646:
8479:
7973:
7657:
Garwood, Russell J.; Dunlop, Jason A.; Sutton, Mark D. (2009).
7421:
6943:
4876:
4781:
that so typify the Carboniferous terrestrial vertebrate fauna.
4507:
3678:
3453:
3312:
from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio
3274:) in the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) in Wooster, Ohio
3076:
2940:
2849:
2781:
2480:
2431:
2356:
2328:
2324:
1925:
1851:
1843:
1747:
1595:
1532:, southern China. It is defined by the first appearance of the
1513:
1509:
1391:
1125:, occurred at the end of the period, caused by climate change.
1053:
6472:
3667:
was one of if not the heaviest eurypterid in the fossil record
2784:-like reproductive organs, which bore ovules/seeds, is called
893:
7475:
6773:
Pérez-Huerta, Alberto; Sheldon, Nathan D. (30 January 2006).
4945:
4736:
4637:
4035:
which possessed a flat brush-like dorsal fin with a patch of
3058:
are common fossils in some horizons. Among the mollusca, the
2896:
2888:
2701:
2455:
2417:
2259:
mountain ranges in southeastern Brazil and southwest Africa.
2050:
The Laurussian continent was formed by the collision between
1715:
1552:
1521:
1049:
1024:
during the Carboniferous. The period is sometimes called the
963:
8052:"Decision on the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary stratotype"
7419:
7316:
6933:
6931:
6109:
5015:
4927:
3506:
cephalopod, originating from Carboniferous rocks of Montana.
3419:
arthropod that lived from the Devonian to the Carboniferous.
1722:
The main period of cyclothem deposition occurred during the
1630:
The Moscovian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The fusulinid
935:
Period 358.9 Ma (million years ago) to the beginning of the
872:
27:
Fifth period of the Paleozoic Era, 359–299 million years ago
8365:. Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. Archived from
8168:
10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0607:LLPAFB>2.3.CO;2
8050:
Paproth, Eva; Feist, Raimund; Flajs, Gerd (December 1991).
6955:
6824:
Environment, Development, and Evolution. Toward a Synthesis
5276:
5129:
4294:
2936:
2112:
1947:
1735:
972:
959:
896:
878:
8280:
7456:
7328:
7286:
6522:
6293:
5545:
4993:
3921:
Many fish inhabited the Carboniferous seas; predominantly
3327:
calyx from the lower Carboniferous of Ohio with a conical
2506:
and a positive excursion in carbonate-associated sulphate
1504:
Chart of regional subdivisions of the Carboniferous Period
1459:
The Tournaisian is defined by the first appearance of the
989:
in 1822, based on a study of the British rock succession.
8228:
Verberk, Wilco C.E.P.; Bilton, David T. (July 27, 2011).
7075:
6928:
3583:
were also diverse, and are represented by such genera as
2982:
are abundant in some regions; the fenestellids including
1932:(much of modern-day Central and Western Europe including
1863:
During the Carboniferous, there was an increased rate in
1804:
Coal forms when organic matter builds up in waterlogged,
887:
7925:"The Fantastically Strange Origin of Most Coal on Earth"
7150:
Sallan, Lauren Cole; Coates, Michael I. (January 2014).
7025:
6573:
Turchyn, Alexandra V.; DePaolo, Donald J. (2019-05-30).
4355:(potentially an elasmobranch) that possessed quill-like
3925:(sharks and their relatives). These included some, like
3784:
grew to wingspans over 60 cm (2 ft 0 in).
3511:
2424:
rates and led to a decrease in the length and volume of
1903:
8086:
7563:
6961:
6339:
6246:. Global events of the Late Devonian to Early Permian.
5989:
Xu, Yan; Han, Bao-Fu; Liao, Wen; Li, Ang (March 2022).
5606:
5090:
3736:
Many insects have been obtained from the coalfields of
3516:
Freshwater Carboniferous invertebrates include various
2074:
oceanic plate along its western margin resulted in the
1694:, deposited during a single sedimentary cycle, with an
1121:. A minor marine and terrestrial extinction event, the
700:(discovered to have biostratigraphic issues as of 2006)
7793:
Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space
7630:"Early terrestrial animals, evolution and uncertainty"
7362:
The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History
7092:
7090:
6686:
6684:
6682:
6680:
6678:
6676:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6425:
4951:
2334:
2013:, which lay between Kazakhstania and Laurussia in the
7207:
7205:
7203:
7201:
6886:
6853:
2366:
2006:. From the Late Devonian to early Carboniferous, the
1908:
The Central Pangean Mountains were formed during the
1800:
Formation, also having mixed siliciclastics and coal.
1690:
A cyclothem is a succession of non-marine and marine
908:
899:
890:
884:
869:
866:
4784:
3617:
being found in the thin beds known as marine bands.
2555:
Early Carboniferous land plants, some of which were
875:
7656:
7087:
6949:
6772:
6667:
6237:
6176:Chen, Jitao; Chen, Bo; Montañez, Isabel P. (2022).
5349:
5347:
5345:
5343:
5341:
5247:(4th ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman and Company.
4763:. The gap saw the demise of the Devonian fish-like
3959:invaded fresh waters of the coal swamps. Among the
3778:The late Carboniferous giant dragonfly-like insect
2688:. The roots of several of these forms are known as
2416:from the atmosphere, lowering global temperatures,
2327:gas inclusions, burial rates of organic carbon and
881:
140:
7334:
7298:
7276:Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science
7198:
6624:
5189:Woodcock, Nigel H.; Strachan, R. A., eds. (2012).
5010:p. 323: "Book III. Medial or Carboniferous Order."
4048:unusual fin may have been used in mating rituals.
3347:Conulariid from the lower Carboniferous of Indiana
1212:stages. The Tournaisian is the same length as the
563:Subdivision of the Carboniferous according to the
8049:
7977:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
7439:
6820:
6780:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6708:
6244:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
5931:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
5813:Domeier, Mathew; Torsvik, Trond H. (2014-05-01).
5419:
5417:
5415:
5413:
5411:
5409:
5407:
5005:
4933:
4915:
4228:fish that possessed two tooth whorls in its mouth
3036:are also very common. Inarticulate forms include
9194:
7628:Garwood, Russell J.; Edgecombe, Gregory (2011).
7627:
6529:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
6479:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
6182:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
6175:
6050:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
5873:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
5808:
5806:
5804:
5802:
5477:
5475:
5473:
5471:
5469:
5430:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
5405:
5403:
5401:
5399:
5397:
5395:
5393:
5391:
5389:
5387:
5338:
5283:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
5238:
5236:
5234:
5232:
5230:
5188:
5184:
5182:
5180:
5178:
5176:
5125:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5021:
4963:
2700:, which also provided stability, instead of the
2123:during the early Permian and the opening of the
1541:Eoparastaffella ovalis – Eoparastaffella simplex
931:that spans 60 million years from the end of the
8556:
8288:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
8181:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
8175:Scott, A. C.; Glasspool, I. J. (18 July 2006).
7019:
6726:
6568:
6566:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6097:
6095:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5800:
5798:
5796:
5794:
5792:
5790:
5788:
5786:
5784:
5782:
5712:
5710:
5708:
5706:
5704:
5702:
5700:
5698:
5696:
5694:
5333:The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart
5228:
5226:
5224:
5222:
5220:
5218:
5216:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5117:
5115:
5113:
5111:
5109:
5107:
5105:
5103:
5101:
5099:
3523:that lived in brackish or fresh water, such as
2760:The Equisetales included the common giant form
1838:and the western Australian region of Gondwana.
1192:deposition. The Dinantian was divided into the
8174:
6703:Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster 2012
6572:
6289:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6281:
5812:
5279:"The Carboniferous timescale: an introduction"
992:Carboniferous is the period during which both
8542:
8431:
8227:
7702:Garwood, Russell J.; Sutton, Mark D. (2010).
7701:
7081:
6937:
6579:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
6575:"Seawater Chemistry Through Phanerozoic Time"
6518:
6516:
6346:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
6335:
6333:
6331:
5742:
5740:
5738:
5466:
5384:
5272:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5264:
5242:
5193:(2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
5173:
4594:reptile, lived during the late Carboniferous.
4381:holocephalan from the upper Carboniferous of
4289:is a bizarre elasmobranch fish that lived in
4153:holocephalan that had an elongated lower jaw.
4089:roamed the oceans of the early Carboniferous.
3971:fish were also prominent, and one group, the
1020:during the preceding Devonian period, became
7440:Conybeare, W. D.; Phillips, William (1822).
7267:Cicimurri, D. J.; Fahrenbach, M. D. (2002).
7217:
7149:
6620:
6618:
6563:
6171:
6169:
6167:
6165:
6163:
6161:
6159:
6157:
6155:
6153:
6092:
5925:Kent, D.V.; Muttoni, G. (1 September 2020).
5855:
5779:
5716:
5691:
5207:
5096:
3714:), the abundant and often large sap-sucking
3672:
2996:, so named because it is in the shape of an
2481:Oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in seawater
2432:Magnesium/calcium isotope ratios in seawater
2314:
2094:of the Late Devonian to Early Mississippian
1272:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
8003:
7744:
7143:
6278:
6233:
6231:
6229:
6227:
5988:
5924:
5920:
5918:
4957:
4911:. International Commission on Stratigraphy.
4536:, the most primitive tetrapod found in the
3935:grew to large sizes, with some genera like
2502:values, a negative excursion in carbonate δ
2067:associated with the growing orogenic belt.
8549:
8535:
8438:
8424:
8006:"Ancient Animals Got a Rise out of Oxygen"
6513:
6328:
5735:
5355:"International Commission on Stratigraphy"
5325:
5261:
3651:eurypterid that survived past the Devonian
3152:, were abundant as representatives of the
2456:Strontium isotopic composition of seawater
2090:. Along the northern margin of Laurussia,
1200:stages. The Silesian was divided into the
570:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago
8318:
8308:
8263:
8253:
8210:
8200:
8070:
7727:
7684:
7647:
7594:
7496:
7126:
6995:
6650:
6615:
6598:
6311:
6150:
5958:
5927:"Pangea B and the Late Paleozoic Ice Age"
5838:
5721:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5641:
5583:
5573:
5449:
5191:Geological history of Britain and Ireland
5035:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0240-5
4668:was a carnivorous stem-tetrapod from the
2607:(another group of "seed ferns"), and the
1109:The later half of the period experienced
8445:
8411:Carboniferous (Chronostratography scale)
8406:60+ images of Carboniferous Foraminifera
8145:
7922:
7459:British Lower Carboniferous Stratigraphy
7356:
7108:
6814:
6224:
5915:
5481:
5423:
4795:Before the end of the Carboniferous, an
3098:are also numerous, including the genera
2903:, and in Russia, Germany and elsewhere.
2715:. Fossil ferns and "seed ferns" include
2642:
2613:
2546:
2270:Isotope records indicate this drop in CO
2221:, a synapsid. Plants are the seed ferns
2212:
2184:, which extends over 2,000 km from
2166:
1893:
1794:
1709:
1499:
1482:below the boundary, and the presence of
1214:International Commission on Stratigraphy
1128:
8115:
7397:"White Rot Fungi Slowed Coal Formation"
7292:
7223:
5866:
5815:"Plate tectonics in the late Paleozoic"
5717:Torsvik, Trond; Cocks, L.Robin (2017).
5675:"White Rot Fungi Slowed Coal Formation"
5482:Fielding, Christopher R. (2021-06-01).
5424:Montañez, Isabel Patricia (July 2022).
4982:University of California, Berkeley 2012
4025:at the end of the Devonian caused many
2799:
1448:. However, there are few Mississippian
14:
9195:
8134:Rainer Zangerl and Gerard Ramon Case:
8120:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
7949:
7898:
7866:
7789:
7520:
7394:
7340:
7304:
7211:
5243:Stanley, Steven; Luczaj, John (2015).
4921:
4426:); others may have been semi-aquatic (
3890:found in Carboniferous rocks of France
3457:was a basal species of Mantis shrimp (
2591:", an assemblage of a number of early
560:
8530:
8419:
8335:
7817:
7559:from the original on 24 January 2013.
6714:
6428:"Atmospheric oxygen of the Paleozoic"
6385:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
6378:
5869:"The evolution of the Uralian orogen"
5091:Sahney, Benton & Falcon-Lang 2010
4969:
3512:Freshwater and lagoonal invertebrates
2142:
1904:Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita orogeny
1468:within the evolutionary lineage from
8004:Monastersky, Richard (13 May 1995).
7847:
7096:
6690:
6178:"Carboniferous isotope stratigraphy"
4742:
4305:stage. It superficially resembled a
3663:Due to its large and compact shell,
2926:, and the genus of unusual colonial
2651:showing connection with bifurcating
2182:South Tian Shan fold and thrust belt
1771:seas across the tropical regions of
538:
519:
501:
483:
9148:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
8028:
7530:The Journal of Experimental Biology
6600:10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010305
6358:10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-095425
5867:Puchkov, Victor N. (January 2009).
2335:Effects of climate on sedimentation
1998:that forms the western edge of the
1950:away from Gondwana during the Late
1133:The development of a Carboniferous
1117:as the continents collided to form
24:
9152:= megaannum (millions years ago);
7156:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
5672:
5144:10.1016/b978-0-444-59425-9.00023-8
4770:and the rise of the more advanced
3119:are represented by tightly coiled
2692:. Unlike present-day trees, their
2367:Effects of climate on biodiversity
2245:, climbing ferns, pond algae, and
1985:
1858:
1577:The Pennsylvanian was proposed by
1420:The Mississippian was proposed by
25:
9219:
9156:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
8401:Examples of Carboniferous Fossils
8374:
8363:Forschungsstelle für Paläobotanik
8343:(3rd ed.). Pearson Longman.
7635:Evolution: Education and Outreach
7407:from the original on 30 June 2012
6950:Garwood, Dunlop & Sutton 2009
5719:Earth History and Palaeogeography
4791:Carboniferous rainforest collapse
4785:Carboniferous rainforest collapse
1790:
1123:Carboniferous rainforest collapse
1104:Vast swaths of forests and swamps
494:Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse
9177:
9166:
8341:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary
8082:from the original on 2022-10-09.
7885:10.1127/0078-0421/2009/0043-0195
7835:
7521:Dudley, Robert (24 March 1998).
7390:from the original on 2012-02-10.
7246:10.1111/j.1463-6395.2008.00353.x
5071:from the original on 2003-12-17.
4702:
4677:
4656:
4624:
4599:
4578:
4545:
4519:
4364:
4339:
4318:
4277:
4257:
4233:
4212:
4187:
4158:
4139:
4111:
4094:
4069:
3895:
3876:
3849:
3824:
3807:
3789:
3771:
3700:(griffinflies), among which was
3677:Fossil remains of air-breathing
3656:
3637:
3622:
3490:
3466:
3445:
3424:
3405:
3381:
3364:
3352:
3340:
3317:
3298:
3279:
3259:
3232:
3020:were more conservative in form.
3004:are also abundant; they include
1572:
1415:
862:
122:
55:
8072:10.18814/epiiugs/1991/v14i4/004
7962:from the original on 2008-05-22
7867:Kaiser, Sandra (1 April 2009).
7508:from the original on 2022-10-09
7498:10.18814/epiiugs/1998/v21i1/003
7428:from the original on 2008-09-24
7260:
7102:
7054:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104062
6880:
6847:
6766:
6753:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103699
6720:
6466:
6452:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103560
6419:
6379:Scott, Andrew C. (2022-01-01).
6372:
6136:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503
6037:
5982:
5666:
5600:
5508:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103612
5371:
5057:
5039:
5027:
4934:Paproth, Feist & Flajs 1991
4822:List of Carboniferous tetrapods
4721:from the late Carboniferous of
4647:from the late Carboniferous of
4203:belonging to the extinct order
4130:from the late Carboniferous of
2396:
2305:
1265:
1233:United States Geological Survey
1102:during the late Carboniferous.
7395:Biello, David (28 June 2012).
6854:George R. McGhee, Jr. (2019).
6405:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2021.104540
5749:"Evolution of the Rheic Ocean"
5138:, Elsevier, pp. 603–651,
5065:"Animal Life in the Paleozoic"
4897:
4812:their amphibian counterparts.
4747:
4470:. These included the earliest
4252:from Europe and North America.
2098:led to the development of the
1512:at the Bastion Section in the
482:
13:
1:
8595:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)
8140:Biodiversity Heritage Library
7109:Engelman, Russell K. (2023).
5006:Conybeare & Phillips 1822
4890:
4615:, and is found in rocks from
4569:in Nova Scotia, and possibly
2880:appeared during this period.
2587:(informally included in the "
1875:beyond. Gondwana covered the
1685:
842:Atmospheric and climatic data
777:Streptognathodus wabaunsensis
8255:10.1371/journal.pone.0022610
7997:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.058
7444:. London: William Phillips.
7176:10.1080/02724634.2013.782875
6801:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.020
6264:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109259
5951:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109753
5022:Garwood & Edgecombe 2011
4390:
3415:was a long lasting genus of
3397:, but is now regarded as a
3240:Aviculopecten subcardiformis
2045:
1930:Armorican Terrane Assemblage
1637:Declinognathodus donetzianus
1601:Declinognathodus noduliferus
1539:in the evolutionary lineage
7:
8558:Geological history of Earth
7873:Newsletters on Stratigraphy
7364:. Oxford University Press.
4815:
3975:, reached very large size.
2105:
2021:of northeastern Laurussia (
2000:Central Asian Orogenic Belt
1641:Idiognathoides postsulcatus
1000:life was well established.
847:Sea level above present day
561:
275:
50:358.9 ± 0.4 – 298.9 ± 0.15
10:
9224:
8831:Mississippian (323–359 Ma)
8826:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)
8590:Holocene (present–11.7 ka)
8382:"Geologic Time Scale 2004"
7848:Howe, John Allen (1911). "
7818:Hogan, C. Michael (2010).
7380:"The Carboniferous Period"
7350:
5132:"The Carboniferous Period"
4788:
4751:
4540:, and known from Scotland.
4480:), and the earliest known
4309:, with an elongated upper
3953:, and several genera like
3718:, the diverse herbivorous
2883:The microscopic shells of
2208:
1994:is a north–south trending
1962:activity, and large-scale
1887:. To the east of Siberia,
1679:Streptognathodus postfusus
1543:and was ratified in 2009.
1260:
29:
9143:
9128:
9115:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)
9092:
9052:
9021:
8990:
8977:
8965:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)
8937:
8906:
8870:
8839:
8813:
8782:
8769:
8734:
8703:
8677:
8664:
8629:
8603:
8577:
8564:
8453:
7649:10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y
7082:Verberk & Bilton 2011
6938:Garwood & Sutton 2010
6907:10.1017/S0094837300012811
6860:. MIT Press. p. 47.
6827:. MIT Press. p. 87.
5840:10.1016/j.gsf.2014.01.002
4693:amphibian known from the
4557:, the earliest sauropsid
3673:Terrestrial invertebrates
3482:cephalopod from northern
3333:Palaeocapulus acutirostre
3250:(lower Carboniferous) of
2973:were well represented by
2542:
2530:increasing atmospheric CO
2315:Atmospheric oxygen levels
1834:conditions formed on the
1822:Central Pangean Mountains
1764:sediments to accumulate.
1369:
1320:
1315:
1300:
1184:deposition and the upper
1098:) also underwent a major
846:
841:
833:
784:
768:Streptognathodus isolatus
759:Upper boundary definition
758:
750:
704:
685:Lower boundary definition
684:
676:
661:
651:
641:
636:
628:
616:
606:
601:
593:
585:
580:
138:
133:
121:
47:
42:
9110:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)
8955:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)
8800:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)
8652:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)
8642:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)
7952:"A Golden Age of Sharks"
7899:Kazlev, M. Alan (1998).
5773:10.1016/j.gr.2009.08.001
4826:Important Carboniferous
4730:
4565:, and is known from the
1730:led to rapid changes in
1471:Siphonodella praesulcata
666:William Daniel Conybeare
143:
9105:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)
9070:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)
9065:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)
9008:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)
8898:Llandovery (433–444 Ma)
8805:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)
8616:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)
8310:10.1073/pnas.0607824103
8202:10.1073/pnas.0604090103
7859:Encyclopædia Britannica
7767:10.1126/science.1161648
7587:10.1126/science.1221748
6313:10.5194/cp-16-1759-2020
5634:10.1126/science.1221748
5575:10.1073/pnas.1517943113
5335:. Episodes 36: 199-204.
5136:The Geologic Time Scale
5051:Encyclopædia Britannica
4958:Haq & Schutter 2008
4245:was a large freshwater
3916:
3502:was the earliest known
3223:were also present. The
2537:
2237:, other plants include
2086:and the opening of the
1537:Eoparastaffella simplex
1493:together above a local
1151:Carboniferous Limestone
266:−300 —
256:−305 —
246:−310 —
236:−315 —
226:−320 —
216:−325 —
206:−330 —
196:−335 —
186:−340 —
176:−345 —
166:−350 —
156:−355 —
146:−360 —
9075:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)
9044:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)
9003:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)
8950:Furongian (485–497 Ma)
8795:Lopingian (252–260 Ma)
8621:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)
8116:Stanley, S.M. (1999).
8029:Ogg, Jim (June 2004).
7720:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0199
7677:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0464
7542:10.1242/jeb.201.8.1043
7224:Lebedev, O.A. (2009).
6549:10.1144/SP535-2022-334
6499:10.1144/sp535-2022-208
5451:10.1144/SP512-2021-124
5381:. Episodes, 21, 11–17.
5303:10.1144/SP512-2021-160
5047:"Carboniferous Period"
4051:Other groups like the
4019:evolutionary radiation
3647:was the only genus of
3478:was an early genus of
2666:(with its cone called
2656:
2640:
2552:
2250:
2160:accretionary complexes
1900:
1801:
1724:Late Paleozoic Ice Age
1719:
1632:Aljutovella aljutovica
1505:
1100:evolutionary radiation
1012:), whose forerunners (
976:
966:
9080:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)
9039:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)
8960:Series 2 (509–521 Ma)
8647:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)
7923:Krulwich, R. (2016).
7824:Encyclopedia of Earth
7801:10.1130/2008.2441(19)
7384:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu
7317:Blackwell et al. 2008
7033:Earth-Science Reviews
6733:Earth-Science Reviews
6432:Earth-Science Reviews
6202:10.1144/SP512-2020-72
6116:Earth-Science Reviews
5488:Earth-Science Reviews
4590:, the earliest known
3716:Palaeodictyopteroidea
3014:), while others like
2957:), heterocorals, and
2646:
2617:
2571:(scrambling plants),
2550:
2216:
2167:Central and East Asia
1975:Appalachian Mountains
1897:
1811:Industrial Revolution
1798:
1713:
1503:
1274:(GSSP) from a single
1129:Etymology and history
1113:, low sea level, and
939:Period, 298.9 Ma. In
9120:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)
9013:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)
8893:Wenlock (427–433 Ma)
8883:Pridoli (419–423 Ma)
8447:Carboniferous Period
8118:Earth System History
7850:Carboniferous System
7830:on November 9, 2011.
6015:10.1029/2022TC007218
5819:Geoscience Frontiers
5245:Earth System History
4909:www.stratigraphy.org
4885:List of fossil sites
4853:Bear Gulch Limestone
4611:is the oldest known
4176:Bear Gulch Limestone
4174:fish known from the
4027:environmental niches
4017:) underwent a major
3858:Helenodora inopinata
3213:. Echinoids such as
2800:Marine invertebrates
2088:Slide Mountain Ocean
2084:Yukon-Tanana terrane
2017:, collided with the
1996:fold and thrust belt
1971:strike-slip faulting
1829:. Continued crustal
1612:limestones and fine
1491:Siphonodella sulcata
1480:Siphonodella sulcata
1476:Siphonodella sulcata
1465:Siphonodella sulcata
1092:) and insects (e.g.
962:-bearing", from the
697:Siphonodella sulcata
18:Carboniferous period
9175: •
9164: •
9162:Geologic time scale
8924:Middle (458–470 Ma)
8888:Ludlow (423–427 Ma)
8857:Middle (383–393 Ma)
8752:Middle (237–247 Ma)
8721:Middle (164–174 Ma)
8301:2006PNAS..10316818W
8295:(45): 16818–16822.
8246:2011PLoSO...622610V
8193:2006PNAS..10310861S
8187:(29): 10861–10865.
8160:1990Geo....18..607R
8101:2010Geo....38.1079S
7989:2006PPP...240..318M
7930:National Geographic
7759:2008Sci...322...64H
7579:2012Sci...336.1715F
7573:(6089): 1715–1719.
7536:(Pt 8): 1043–1050.
7401:Scientific American
7295:, pp. 411–412.
7226:"A new specimen of
7168:2014JVPal..34...22S
7046:2022ESRv..23104062C
6980:1995Natur.375..117G
6793:2006PPP...230..264P
6745:2021ESRv..22003699S
6643:2018Geo....46..395C
6591:2019AREPS..47..197T
6541:2023GSLSP.535..334L
6491:2023GSLSP.535..208S
6444:2021ESRv..21603560B
6397:2022RPaPa.29604540S
6300:Climate of the Past
6256:2019PPP...53109259Q
6194:2022GSLSP.512..197C
6128:2021ESRv..21503503S
6062:2017GSLSP.427..231A
6007:2022Tecto..4107218X
5943:2020PPP...55309753K
5885:2009GSLSP.327..161P
5831:2014GeoFr...5..303D
5765:2010GondR..17..194N
5679:Scientific American
5626:2012Sci...336.1715F
5566:2016PNAS..113.2442N
5500:2021ESRv..21703612F
5442:2022GSLSP.512..213M
5295:2022GSLSP.512....1L
4946:Davydov et al. 1998
4845:; c. 350 mya;
4843:East Kirkton Quarry
4761:ecological collapse
4670:early Carboniferous
3766:) have been found.
3270:) and brachiopods (
2891:of this age in the
2806:marine invertebrate
2418:increasing ocean pH
2191:South Qinling block
1781:South China cratons
1701:continental shelves
1665:can be used in the
1656:Rauserites rossicus
1452:, and so obtaining
1248:was added in 1934.
1135:chronostratigraphic
1016:) had evolved from
834:Upper GSSP ratified
818:50.2458°N 57.8914°E
814: /
785:Upper boundary GSSP
751:Lower GSSP ratified
731: /
705:Lower boundary GSSP
677:Time span formality
512:Mazon Creek Fossils
30:For the album, see
9208:Geological periods
9173:Geology portal
9034:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)
8929:Early (470–485 Ma)
8862:Early (393–419 Ma)
8757:Early (247–252 Ma)
8726:Early (174–201 Ma)
8695:Early (100–145 Ma)
8690:Late (66.0–100 Ma)
8388:on January 6, 2013
7950:Martin, R. Aidan.
7937:on August 11, 2018
4994:Cossey et al. 2004
4905:"Chart/Time Scale"
4833:Granton Shrimp Bed
4561:, appeared in the
4444:) or terrestrial (
4149:was a small-sized
3838:palaeodictyopteran
3289:sp.; a spiriferid
3156:; genera included
2804:In the oceans the
2696:took place in the
2657:
2641:
2553:
2422:seafloor spreading
2251:
2229:, the club mosses
2143:Siberia and Amuria
2070:Subduction of the
2065:sedimentary basins
2031:Main Uralian Fault
1901:
1873:Panthalassic Ocean
1850:fungi, which have
1802:
1785:Milankovitch cycle
1732:eustatic sea level
1720:
1651:being considered.
1506:
1422:Alexander Winchell
1062:atmospheric oxygen
994:terrestrial animal
735:43.5555°N 3.3573°E
652:Stratigraphic unit
642:Chronological unit
629:Time scale(s) used
9190:
9189:
9088:
9087:
9054:Paleoproterozoic
8973:
8972:
8919:Late (444–458 Ma)
8852:Late (359–383 Ma)
8765:
8764:
8747:Late (201–237 Ma)
8716:Late (145–164 Ma)
8660:
8659:
8581:(present–2.58 Ma)
8569:(present–66.0 Ma)
8524:
8523:
8519:
8518:
8350:978-1-4058-8118-0
8142:(Volltext, engl.)
8127:978-0-7167-2882-5
8095:(12): 1079–1082.
8037:on April 23, 2006
8016:on 3 January 2013
7810:978-0-8137-2441-6
7128:10.3390/d15030318
6974:(6527): 117–120.
5753:Gondwana Research
5728:978-1-107-10532-4
5254:978-1-319-15402-8
5200:978-1-4051-9381-8
5153:978-0-444-59425-9
4808:dominated flora.
4743:Extinction events
4567:Joggins Formation
4351:was an enigmatic
4205:Palaeonisciformes
4062:iniopterygiformes
3965:Palaeonisciformes
3933:ctenacanthiformes
2998:Archimedean screw
2876:. The first true
2757:were tree ferns.
2637:Joggins Formation
2514:due to increased
2349:carbonate shelves
2129:Kanimblan Orogeny
2121:Cimmerian Terrane
2096:Innuitian orogeny
2092:orogenic collapse
1867:movements as the
1696:erosional surface
1692:sedimentary rocks
1566:Lochriea ziegleri
1454:radiometric dates
1430:Mississippi River
1413:
1412:
1163:William Conybeare
1147:Old Red Sandstone
1115:mountain building
1026:Age of Amphibians
983:William Conybeare
854:
853:
662:First proposed by
602:Usage information
597:Age of Amphibians
575:
574:
556:
555:
537:
536:
518:
517:
500:
499:
16:(Redirected from
9215:
9184:World portal
9182:
9181:
9171:
9170:
9133:
9097:
9057:
9026:
9023:Mesoproterozoic
8995:
8988:
8987:
8983:
8942:
8911:
8875:
8844:
8818:
8787:
8780:
8779:
8775:
8739:
8708:
8682:
8675:
8674:
8670:
8634:
8608:
8582:
8575:
8574:
8570:
8551:
8544:
8537:
8528:
8527:
8456:
8455:
8440:
8433:
8426:
8417:
8416:
8397:
8395:
8393:
8370:
8354:
8339:(3 April 2008).
8332:
8322:
8312:
8277:
8267:
8257:
8224:
8214:
8204:
8171:
8131:
8112:
8109:10.1130/G31182.1
8083:
8081:
8074:
8056:
8046:
8044:
8042:
8033:. Archived from
8025:
8023:
8021:
8012:. Archived from
8000:
7983:(1–2): 318–372.
7970:
7968:
7967:
7946:
7944:
7942:
7933:. Archived from
7919:
7917:
7916:
7907:. Archived from
7895:
7893:
7891:
7863:
7841:
7839:
7838:
7831:
7814:
7786:
7741:
7731:
7698:
7688:
7653:
7651:
7624:
7598:
7560:
7558:
7527:
7517:
7515:
7513:
7507:
7500:
7482:
7472:
7453:
7436:
7434:
7433:
7416:
7414:
7412:
7391:
7375:
7344:
7338:
7332:
7329:Ward et al. 2006
7326:
7320:
7314:
7308:
7302:
7296:
7290:
7284:
7283:
7273:
7264:
7258:
7257:
7221:
7215:
7209:
7196:
7195:
7147:
7141:
7140:
7130:
7106:
7100:
7094:
7085:
7079:
7073:
7072:
7070:
7068:
7023:
7017:
7016:
7014:
7012:
6999:
6988:10.1038/375117a0
6959:
6953:
6947:
6941:
6935:
6926:
6925:
6923:
6921:
6884:
6878:
6877:
6875:
6874:
6851:
6845:
6844:
6842:
6841:
6818:
6812:
6811:
6809:
6807:
6787:(3–4): 264–279.
6770:
6764:
6763:
6761:
6759:
6724:
6718:
6712:
6706:
6700:
6694:
6688:
6665:
6664:
6654:
6652:10.1130/G40093.1
6622:
6613:
6612:
6602:
6570:
6561:
6560:
6520:
6511:
6510:
6470:
6464:
6463:
6423:
6417:
6416:
6376:
6370:
6369:
6337:
6326:
6325:
6315:
6306:(5): 1759–1775.
6291:
6276:
6275:
6235:
6222:
6221:
6173:
6148:
6147:
6107:
6090:
6089:
6041:
6035:
6034:
5986:
5980:
5979:
5977:
5975:
5962:
5922:
5913:
5912:
5864:
5853:
5852:
5842:
5810:
5777:
5776:
5759:(2–3): 194–222.
5744:
5733:
5732:
5714:
5689:
5688:
5686:
5685:
5670:
5664:
5663:
5645:
5604:
5598:
5597:
5587:
5577:
5560:(9): 2442–2447.
5543:
5528:
5527:
5479:
5464:
5463:
5453:
5421:
5382:
5375:
5369:
5368:
5366:
5365:
5359:stratigraphy.org
5351:
5336:
5329:
5323:
5322:
5274:
5259:
5258:
5240:
5205:
5204:
5186:
5171:
5170:
5169:
5168:
5127:
5094:
5088:
5073:
5072:
5061:
5055:
5054:
5043:
5037:
5031:
5025:
5019:
5013:
5003:
4997:
4991:
4985:
4979:
4973:
4967:
4961:
4955:
4949:
4943:
4937:
4931:
4925:
4919:
4913:
4912:
4901:
4797:extinction event
4765:ichthyostegalian
4706:
4681:
4660:
4628:
4603:
4582:
4549:
4523:
4500:protorothyridids
4402:Labyrinthodontia
4368:
4357:dermal denticles
4343:
4322:
4281:
4261:
4237:
4216:
4191:
4162:
4143:
4115:
4098:
4073:
4047:
3899:
3880:
3853:
3828:
3811:
3793:
3775:
3660:
3641:
3626:
3494:
3470:
3449:
3428:
3409:
3385:
3368:
3356:
3344:
3321:
3302:
3283:
3263:
3236:
3011:Gigantoproductus
2694:secondary growth
2633:stigmarian roots
2631:, with attached
2605:Callistophytales
2595:groups) and the
2125:Neo-Tethys Ocean
2113:Glacial deposits
1285:
1284:
1167:William Phillips
1052:to which modern
1018:lobe-finned fish
987:William Phillips
915:
911:
906:
905:
902:
901:
898:
895:
892:
889:
886:
883:
880:
877:
874:
871:
868:
829:
828:
826:
825:
824:
823:50.2458; 57.8914
819:
815:
812:
811:
810:
807:
746:
745:
743:
742:
741:
736:
732:
729:
728:
727:
724:
670:William Phillips
544:
539:
525:
520:
507:
502:
489:
484:
468:
459:
450:
441:
432:
423:
414:
405:
404:
394:
393:
383:
382:
372:
371:
361:
360:
350:
349:
339:
338:
328:
327:
308:
306:
286:
284:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
141:
126:
117:
54:
40:
39:
21:
9223:
9222:
9218:
9217:
9216:
9214:
9213:
9212:
9193:
9192:
9191:
9186:
9176:
9165:
9157:
9139:
9131:
9124:
9095:
9084:
9055:
9048:
9024:
9017:
8993:
8992:Neoproterozoic
8982:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)
8981:
8980:
8979:Proterozoic Eon
8969:
8940:
8933:
8909:
8902:
8873:
8866:
8842:
8835:
8816:
8809:
8785:
8773:
8772:
8761:
8737:
8730:
8706:
8699:
8680:
8668:
8667:
8656:
8632:
8625:
8606:
8599:
8580:
8568:
8567:
8560:
8555:
8525:
8520:
8515:
8489:
8449:
8444:
8391:
8389:
8380:
8377:
8351:
8128:
8079:
8054:
8040:
8038:
8019:
8017:
7965:
7963:
7940:
7938:
7914:
7912:
7889:
7887:
7836:
7834:
7811:
7753:(5898): 64–68.
7708:Biology Letters
7664:Biology Letters
7556:
7525:
7511:
7509:
7505:
7480:
7469:
7431:
7429:
7410:
7408:
7372:
7358:Beerling, David
7353:
7348:
7347:
7339:
7335:
7327:
7323:
7315:
7311:
7303:
7299:
7291:
7287:
7271:
7265:
7261:
7222:
7218:
7210:
7199:
7148:
7144:
7107:
7103:
7095:
7088:
7080:
7076:
7066:
7064:
7024:
7020:
7010:
7008:
6960:
6956:
6948:
6944:
6936:
6929:
6919:
6917:
6885:
6881:
6872:
6870:
6868:
6852:
6848:
6839:
6837:
6835:
6819:
6815:
6805:
6803:
6771:
6767:
6757:
6755:
6725:
6721:
6713:
6709:
6701:
6697:
6689:
6668:
6623:
6616:
6571:
6564:
6521:
6514:
6471:
6467:
6424:
6420:
6377:
6373:
6338:
6329:
6292:
6279:
6236:
6225:
6174:
6151:
6108:
6093:
6070:10.1144/SP427.3
6042:
6038:
5987:
5983:
5973:
5971:
5923:
5916:
5893:10.1144/SP327.9
5865:
5856:
5811:
5780:
5745:
5736:
5729:
5715:
5692:
5683:
5681:
5673:Biello, David.
5671:
5667:
5605:
5601:
5544:
5531:
5480:
5467:
5422:
5385:
5376:
5372:
5363:
5361:
5353:
5352:
5339:
5330:
5326:
5275:
5262:
5255:
5241:
5208:
5201:
5187:
5174:
5166:
5164:
5154:
5128:
5097:
5089:
5076:
5063:
5062:
5058:
5045:
5044:
5040:
5032:
5028:
5020:
5016:
5004:
5000:
4992:
4988:
4980:
4976:
4968:
4964:
4956:
4952:
4944:
4940:
4932:
4928:
4920:
4916:
4903:
4902:
4898:
4893:
4873:Hamilton Quarry
4818:
4793:
4787:
4776:reptiliomorphan
4772:temnospondylian
4768:labyrinthodonts
4756:
4750:
4745:
4733:
4726:
4707:
4698:
4682:
4673:
4661:
4652:
4629:
4620:
4604:
4595:
4587:Petrolacosaurus
4583:
4574:
4550:
4541:
4524:
4393:
4386:
4371:Restoration of
4369:
4360:
4344:
4335:
4323:
4314:
4282:
4273:
4262:
4253:
4238:
4229:
4217:
4208:
4192:
4183:
4163:
4154:
4144:
4135:
4125:Ctenacanthiform
4116:
4107:
4099:
4090:
4074:
4058:helicoprionidae
4045:
3919:
3912:
3900:
3891:
3881:
3872:
3854:
3845:
3829:
3820:
3812:
3803:
3799:Pulmonoscorpius
3794:
3785:
3776:
3722:, and numerous
3675:
3668:
3661:
3652:
3642:
3633:
3627:
3514:
3507:
3495:
3486:
3471:
3462:
3450:
3441:
3436:was a genus of
3429:
3420:
3417:thylacocephalan
3410:
3401:
3386:
3377:
3369:
3360:
3357:
3348:
3345:
3336:
3322:
3313:
3303:
3294:
3284:
3275:
3264:
3255:
3254:(external mold)
3248:Logan Formation
3237:
3201:genera include
2907:are known from
2808:groups are the
2802:
2579:(scale trees),
2577:Lepidodendrales
2575:(club mosses),
2569:Sphenophyllales
2567:(horse-tails),
2545:
2540:
2533:
2528:
2513:
2483:
2473:rocks, such as
2458:
2434:
2426:mid-ocean ridge
2411:
2399:
2387:
2379:
2369:
2337:
2317:
2308:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2273:
2265:
2257:
2211:
2169:
2145:
2133:Continental arc
2108:
2048:
1992:Uralian orogeny
1988:
1986:Uralian orogeny
1924:in the west to
1906:
1861:
1859:Palaeogeography
1836:Siberian craton
1818:foreland basins
1793:
1688:
1648:disconformities
1587:Mississippian.
1575:
1446:biostratigraphy
1418:
1311:298.9 ±0.15 Ma
1296:Lower boundary
1268:
1263:
1180:, dominated by
1131:
1079:Pulmonoscorpius
1030:diversification
1028:because of the
1014:tetrapodomorphs
1008:including true
921:geologic period
913:
909:
865:
861:
822:
820:
816:
813:
808:
805:
803:
801:
800:
799:
740:43.5555; 3.3573
739:
737:
733:
730:
725:
722:
720:
718:
717:
716:
576:
571:
569:
552:
542:
533:
523:
514:
505:
496:
487:
480:
479:
475:
474:
470:
469:
464:
461:
460:
455:
452:
451:
446:
443:
442:
437:
434:
433:
428:
425:
424:
419:
416:
415:
410:
407:
406:
400:
399:
396:
395:
389:
388:
385:
384:
378:
377:
374:
373:
367:
366:
363:
362:
356:
355:
352:
351:
345:
344:
341:
340:
334:
333:
330:
329:
323:
322:
319:
318:
310:
309:
302:
300:
297:
296:
288:
287:
280:
278:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
129:
116:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
49:
48:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9221:
9211:
9210:
9205:
9188:
9187:
9144:
9141:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9126:
9125:
9123:
9122:
9117:
9112:
9107:
9101:
9099:
9090:
9089:
9086:
9085:
9083:
9082:
9077:
9072:
9067:
9061:
9059:
9050:
9049:
9047:
9046:
9041:
9036:
9030:
9028:
9019:
9018:
9016:
9015:
9010:
9005:
8999:
8997:
8985:
8975:
8974:
8971:
8970:
8968:
8967:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8946:
8944:
8935:
8934:
8932:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8915:
8913:
8904:
8903:
8901:
8900:
8895:
8890:
8885:
8879:
8877:
8868:
8867:
8865:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8848:
8846:
8837:
8836:
8834:
8833:
8828:
8822:
8820:
8815:Carboniferous
8811:
8810:
8808:
8807:
8802:
8797:
8791:
8789:
8777:
8767:
8766:
8763:
8762:
8760:
8759:
8754:
8749:
8743:
8741:
8732:
8731:
8729:
8728:
8723:
8718:
8712:
8710:
8701:
8700:
8698:
8697:
8692:
8686:
8684:
8672:
8662:
8661:
8658:
8657:
8655:
8654:
8649:
8644:
8638:
8636:
8633:(23.0–66.0 Ma)
8627:
8626:
8624:
8623:
8618:
8612:
8610:
8607:(2.58–23.0 Ma)
8601:
8600:
8598:
8597:
8592:
8586:
8584:
8572:
8562:
8561:
8554:
8553:
8546:
8539:
8531:
8522:
8521:
8517:
8516:
8514:
8513:
8508:
8503:
8498:
8492:
8490:
8488:
8487:
8482:
8477:
8471:
8468:
8467:
8462:
8454:
8451:
8450:
8443:
8442:
8435:
8428:
8420:
8414:
8413:
8408:
8403:
8398:
8376:
8375:External links
8373:
8372:
8371:
8369:on 2012-09-20.
8355:
8349:
8333:
8278:
8225:
8172:
8154:(7): 607–610.
8143:
8132:
8126:
8113:
8084:
8065:(4): 331–336.
8047:
8026:
8001:
7971:
7947:
7920:
7896:
7879:(2): 195–205.
7864:
7854:Chisholm, Hugh
7832:
7815:
7809:
7787:
7742:
7714:(5): 699–702.
7699:
7671:(6): 841–844.
7654:
7642:(3): 489–501.
7625:
7561:
7518:
7473:
7467:
7454:
7437:
7417:
7392:
7376:
7370:
7352:
7349:
7346:
7345:
7333:
7321:
7309:
7297:
7285:
7259:
7234:Acta Zoologica
7216:
7197:
7142:
7101:
7099:, p. 312.
7086:
7074:
7018:
6954:
6942:
6927:
6901:(3): 345–361.
6879:
6866:
6846:
6833:
6813:
6765:
6719:
6707:
6695:
6693:, p. 311.
6666:
6637:(5): 395–398.
6614:
6585:(1): 197–224.
6562:
6512:
6485:(1): 195–223.
6465:
6418:
6371:
6352:(1): 253–276.
6327:
6277:
6223:
6188:(1): 197–211.
6149:
6091:
6056:(1): 231–269.
6036:
5981:
5914:
5879:(1): 161–195.
5854:
5825:(3): 303–350.
5778:
5734:
5727:
5690:
5665:
5620:(6089): 1715.
5599:
5529:
5465:
5436:(1): 213–245.
5383:
5370:
5337:
5324:
5260:
5253:
5206:
5199:
5172:
5152:
5095:
5074:
5056:
5038:
5026:
5014:
4998:
4986:
4974:
4962:
4950:
4938:
4926:
4914:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4887:
4882:
4881:
4880:
4870:
4860:
4850:
4840:
4824:
4817:
4814:
4789:Main article:
4786:
4783:
4752:Main article:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4732:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4708:
4701:
4699:
4695:Czech Republic
4683:
4676:
4674:
4662:
4655:
4653:
4645:tetrapodomorph
4633:Coloraderpeton
4630:
4623:
4621:
4605:
4598:
4596:
4584:
4577:
4575:
4551:
4544:
4542:
4525:
4518:
4459:Anthracosaurus
4423:Proterogyrinus
4395:Carboniferous
4392:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4370:
4363:
4361:
4353:chondrichthyan
4345:
4338:
4336:
4324:
4317:
4315:
4283:
4276:
4274:
4263:
4256:
4254:
4250:sarcopterygian
4239:
4232:
4230:
4218:
4211:
4209:
4193:
4186:
4184:
4164:
4157:
4155:
4145:
4138:
4136:
4117:
4110:
4108:
4100:
4093:
4091:
4075:
4068:
4015:Stethacanthids
4007:Chondrichthyes
3969:Sarcopterygian
3918:
3915:
3914:
3913:
3901:
3894:
3892:
3882:
3875:
3873:
3855:
3848:
3846:
3830:
3823:
3821:
3813:
3806:
3804:
3795:
3788:
3786:
3777:
3770:
3757:Archaeozonites
3729:(ancestors of
3720:Protorthoptera
3674:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3665:Hibbertopterus
3662:
3655:
3653:
3645:Adelophthalmus
3643:
3636:
3634:
3628:
3621:
3598:Hibbertopterus
3586:Adelophthalmus
3577:Anthrapalaemon
3513:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3499:Syllipsimopodi
3496:
3489:
3487:
3472:
3465:
3463:
3451:
3444:
3442:
3430:
3423:
3421:
3411:
3404:
3402:
3387:
3380:
3378:
3370:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3339:
3337:
3323:
3316:
3314:
3304:
3297:
3295:
3285:
3278:
3276:
3265:
3258:
3256:
3238:
3231:
3216:Archaeocidaris
3132:Aenigmatoceras
3030:rhynchonellids
2961:(for example,
2943:(for example,
2801:
2798:
2706:Cladoxylopsids
2603:(cycads), the
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2516:organic matter
2511:
2482:
2479:
2457:
2454:
2438:aragonite seas
2433:
2430:
2409:
2398:
2395:
2385:
2377:
2368:
2365:
2342:carbonate ramp
2336:
2333:
2316:
2313:
2307:
2304:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2271:
2263:
2255:
2210:
2207:
2168:
2165:
2150:Kuznetsk Basin
2144:
2141:
2107:
2104:
2100:Sverdrup Basin
2080:slab roll-back
2076:Antler orogeny
2047:
2044:
2023:Baltica craton
2019:passive margin
1987:
1984:
1943:The Armorican
1922:Gulf of Mexico
1905:
1902:
1869:supercontinent
1865:tectonic plate
1860:
1857:
1792:
1791:Coal formation
1789:
1769:epicontinental
1687:
1684:
1574:
1571:
1456:is difficult.
1450:volcanic rocks
1417:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1409:358.9 ±0.4 Ma
1407:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1396:346.7 ±0.4 Ma
1394:
1389:
1385:
1384:
1383:330.9 ±0.2 Ma
1381:
1376:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1365:323.2 ±0.4 Ma
1363:
1358:
1354:
1353:
1352:315.2 ±0.2 Ma
1350:
1345:
1341:
1340:
1339:307.0 ±0.1 Ma
1337:
1331:
1330:
1329:303.7 ±0.1 Ma
1327:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1155:Millstone Grit
1143:John Farey Sr.
1139:Richard Kirwan
1130:
1127:
1074:trigonotarbids
1022:pentadactylous
947:and the later
852:
851:
848:
844:
843:
839:
838:
835:
831:
830:
793:Ural Mountains
786:
782:
781:
760:
756:
755:
752:
748:
747:
713:Montagne Noire
706:
702:
701:
686:
682:
681:
678:
674:
673:
663:
659:
658:
653:
649:
648:
643:
639:
638:
634:
633:
632:ICS Time Scale
630:
626:
625:
618:
617:Regional usage
614:
613:
608:
607:Celestial body
604:
603:
599:
598:
595:
591:
590:
587:
586:Name formality
583:
582:
578:
577:
573:
572:
558:
557:
554:
553:
547:
545:
535:
534:
528:
526:
516:
515:
510:
508:
498:
497:
492:
490:
481:
477:
476:
472:
471:
463:
462:
454:
453:
445:
444:
436:
435:
427:
426:
418:
417:
409:
408:
398:
397:
387:
386:
376:
375:
365:
364:
354:
353:
343:
342:
332:
331:
321:
320:
312:
311:
299:
298:
290:
289:
277:
276:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
136:
135:
131:
130:
127:
119:
118:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
45:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9220:
9209:
9206:
9204:
9203:Carboniferous
9201:
9200:
9198:
9185:
9180:
9174:
9169:
9163:
9160:
9155:
9151:
9147:
9142:
9136:
9134:
9127:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9113:
9111:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9102:
9100:
9098:
9091:
9081:
9078:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9062:
9060:
9058:
9051:
9045:
9042:
9040:
9037:
9035:
9032:
9031:
9029:
9027:
9020:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9004:
9001:
9000:
8998:
8996:
8994:(539 Ma–1 Ga)
8989:
8986:
8984:
8976:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8947:
8945:
8943:
8936:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8916:
8914:
8912:
8905:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8880:
8878:
8876:
8869:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8849:
8847:
8845:
8838:
8832:
8829:
8827:
8824:
8823:
8821:
8819:
8812:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8792:
8790:
8788:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8771:Paleozoic Era
8768:
8758:
8755:
8753:
8750:
8748:
8745:
8744:
8742:
8740:
8733:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8713:
8711:
8709:
8702:
8696:
8693:
8691:
8688:
8687:
8685:
8683:
8681:(66.0–145 Ma)
8676:
8673:
8671:
8669:(66.0–252 Ma)
8663:
8653:
8650:
8648:
8645:
8643:
8640:
8639:
8637:
8635:
8628:
8622:
8619:
8617:
8614:
8613:
8611:
8609:
8602:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8587:
8585:
8583:
8576:
8573:
8571:
8563:
8559:
8552:
8547:
8545:
8540:
8538:
8533:
8532:
8529:
8512:
8509:
8507:
8504:
8502:
8499:
8497:
8494:
8493:
8491:
8486:
8483:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8473:
8472:
8470:
8469:
8466:
8465:Pennsylvanian
8463:
8461:
8460:Mississippian
8458:
8457:
8452:
8448:
8441:
8436:
8434:
8429:
8427:
8422:
8421:
8418:
8412:
8409:
8407:
8404:
8402:
8399:
8387:
8383:
8379:
8378:
8368:
8364:
8360:
8356:
8352:
8346:
8342:
8338:
8334:
8330:
8326:
8321:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8302:
8298:
8294:
8290:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8275:
8271:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8247:
8243:
8240:(7): e22610.
8239:
8235:
8231:
8226:
8222:
8218:
8213:
8208:
8203:
8198:
8194:
8190:
8186:
8182:
8178:
8173:
8169:
8165:
8161:
8157:
8153:
8149:
8144:
8141:
8137:
8133:
8129:
8123:
8119:
8114:
8110:
8106:
8102:
8098:
8094:
8090:
8085:
8078:
8073:
8068:
8064:
8060:
8053:
8048:
8036:
8032:
8027:
8015:
8011:
8007:
8002:
7998:
7994:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7972:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7948:
7936:
7932:
7931:
7926:
7921:
7911:on 2008-06-21
7910:
7906:
7902:
7897:
7886:
7882:
7878:
7874:
7870:
7865:
7861:
7860:
7855:
7851:
7845:
7844:public domain
7833:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7816:
7812:
7806:
7802:
7798:
7794:
7788:
7784:
7780:
7776:
7772:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7730:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7713:
7709:
7705:
7700:
7696:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7678:
7674:
7670:
7666:
7665:
7660:
7655:
7650:
7645:
7641:
7637:
7636:
7631:
7626:
7622:
7618:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7588:
7584:
7580:
7576:
7572:
7568:
7562:
7555:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7531:
7524:
7519:
7504:
7499:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7479:
7474:
7470:
7468:1-86107-499-9
7464:
7460:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7438:
7427:
7423:
7418:
7406:
7402:
7398:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7371:9780192806024
7367:
7363:
7359:
7355:
7354:
7342:
7337:
7330:
7325:
7318:
7313:
7306:
7301:
7294:
7289:
7281:
7277:
7270:
7263:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7229:
7220:
7213:
7208:
7206:
7204:
7202:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7157:
7153:
7146:
7138:
7134:
7129:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7112:
7105:
7098:
7093:
7091:
7083:
7078:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7034:
7029:
7022:
7007:
7003:
6998:
6997:2027.42/62968
6993:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6965:
6958:
6951:
6946:
6939:
6934:
6932:
6916:
6912:
6908:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6895:
6890:
6883:
6869:
6867:9780262354189
6863:
6859:
6858:
6850:
6836:
6834:9780262083195
6830:
6826:
6825:
6817:
6802:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6786:
6782:
6781:
6776:
6769:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6734:
6730:
6723:
6716:
6711:
6704:
6699:
6692:
6687:
6685:
6683:
6681:
6679:
6677:
6675:
6673:
6671:
6662:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6628:
6621:
6619:
6610:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6584:
6580:
6576:
6569:
6567:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6519:
6517:
6508:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6476:
6469:
6461:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6422:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6375:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6336:
6334:
6332:
6323:
6319:
6314:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6288:
6286:
6284:
6282:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6234:
6232:
6230:
6228:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6172:
6170:
6168:
6166:
6164:
6162:
6160:
6158:
6156:
6154:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6113:
6106:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6098:
6096:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6040:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5985:
5970:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5921:
5919:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5882:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5863:
5861:
5859:
5850:
5846:
5841:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5809:
5807:
5805:
5803:
5801:
5799:
5797:
5795:
5793:
5791:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5743:
5741:
5739:
5730:
5724:
5720:
5713:
5711:
5709:
5707:
5705:
5703:
5701:
5699:
5697:
5695:
5680:
5676:
5669:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5603:
5595:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5554:
5549:
5542:
5540:
5538:
5536:
5534:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5478:
5476:
5474:
5472:
5470:
5461:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5420:
5418:
5416:
5414:
5412:
5410:
5408:
5406:
5404:
5402:
5400:
5398:
5396:
5394:
5392:
5390:
5388:
5380:
5374:
5360:
5356:
5350:
5348:
5346:
5344:
5342:
5334:
5328:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5273:
5271:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5256:
5250:
5246:
5239:
5237:
5235:
5233:
5231:
5229:
5227:
5225:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5217:
5215:
5213:
5211:
5202:
5196:
5192:
5185:
5183:
5181:
5179:
5177:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5126:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5118:
5116:
5114:
5112:
5110:
5108:
5106:
5104:
5102:
5100:
5092:
5087:
5085:
5083:
5081:
5079:
5070:
5066:
5060:
5052:
5048:
5042:
5036:
5030:
5023:
5018:
5011:
5007:
5002:
4995:
4990:
4983:
4978:
4971:
4966:
4959:
4954:
4947:
4942:
4935:
4930:
4923:
4918:
4910:
4906:
4900:
4896:
4886:
4883:
4878:
4874:
4871:
4868:
4864:
4861:
4858:
4854:
4851:
4848:
4844:
4841:
4838:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4829:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4819:
4813:
4809:
4807:
4803:
4798:
4792:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4766:
4762:
4755:
4740:
4738:
4724:
4720:
4717:
4713:
4712:
4705:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4687:
4680:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4666:
4665:Crassygyrinus
4659:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4634:
4627:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4609:
4608:Archaeothyris
4602:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4588:
4581:
4576:
4572:
4571:New Brunswick
4568:
4564:
4563:Pennsylvanian
4560:
4556:
4555:
4548:
4543:
4539:
4538:Mississippian
4535:
4534:
4529:
4522:
4517:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4491:
4489:
4488:
4487:Archaeothyris
4483:
4479:
4478:
4473:
4469:
4463:
4461:
4460:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4448:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4430:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4418:
4413:
4412:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4375:
4367:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4349:
4348:Listracanthus
4342:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4321:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4287:
4280:
4275:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4260:
4255:
4251:
4248:
4244:
4243:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4226:eugeneodontid
4223:
4222:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4190:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4168:
4161:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4142:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4126:
4122:
4121:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4104:
4097:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4072:
4067:
4066:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4043:
4042:Stethacanthus
4038:
4034:
4033:
4032:Stethacanthus
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4011:holocephalans
4008:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3994:
3993:
3988:
3984:
3983:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3939:
3934:
3930:
3929:
3924:
3923:Elasmobranchs
3910:
3909:trigonotarbid
3906:
3905:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3886:
3879:
3874:
3871:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3859:
3852:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3834:
3827:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3810:
3805:
3801:
3800:
3796:The gigantic
3792:
3787:
3783:
3782:
3774:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3758:
3753:
3752:
3747:
3746:Archaeoptilus
3743:
3739:
3734:
3732:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3695:
3694:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3666:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3625:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3605:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3547:
3542:
3538:
3537:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3519:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3493:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3476:
3469:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3455:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3434:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3408:
3403:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3391:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3367:
3362:
3355:
3350:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3287:Syringothyris
3282:
3277:
3273:
3272:Syringothyris
3269:
3268:Aviculopecten
3262:
3257:
3253:
3252:Wooster, Ohio
3249:
3245:
3241:
3235:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3166:Beyrichiopsis
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3148:, a class of
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3066:
3065:Aviculopecten
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3034:terebratulids
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3018:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2955:Neozaphrentis
2952:
2948:
2947:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2928:glass sponges
2925:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2887:are found in
2886:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2838:microconchids
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2797:
2795:
2794:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2769:Sphenophyllum
2765:
2764:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2680:
2679:Lepidophloios
2675:
2674:
2669:
2668:Lepidostrobus
2665:
2664:
2663:Lepidodendron
2654:
2650:
2645:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2549:
2535:
2523:
2519:
2517:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2488:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2446:biomineralize
2443:
2440:had replaced
2439:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2404:
2394:
2392:
2382:
2373:
2364:
2360:
2358:
2353:
2350:
2345:
2343:
2332:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2312:
2303:
2295:
2280:
2276:
2268:
2260:
2248:
2247:Sphenophyllum
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2231:Lepidodendron
2228:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2206:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2177:
2175:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2151:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2114:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2043:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1983:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1896:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1856:
1853:
1849:
1848:basidiomycete
1845:
1839:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1827:interglacials
1823:
1819:
1814:
1812:
1807:
1797:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1649:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1610:transgressive
1607:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1585:
1580:
1579:J.J.Stevenson
1573:Pennsylvanian
1570:
1569:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1502:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1428:in the upper
1427:
1423:
1416:Mississippian
1408:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1371:Mississippian
1368:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1318:
1317:Pennsylvanian
1314:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1288:Series/epoch
1287:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1258:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1229:Pennsylvanian
1226:
1225:Mississippian
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1190:siliciclastic
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1159:Coal Measures
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1038:temnospondyls
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1004:(four-limbed
1003:
1002:Stegocephalia
999:
995:
990:
988:
984:
980:
979:
974:
970:
969:
965:
961:
957:
956:Carboniferous
952:
950:
949:Pennsylvanian
946:
945:Mississippian
942:
941:North America
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
917:
904:
859:
858:Carboniferous
849:
845:
840:
836:
832:
827:
798:
794:
790:
787:
783:
779:
778:
774:
770:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
744:
714:
710:
707:
703:
699:
698:
694:
690:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
664:
660:
657:
654:
650:
647:
644:
640:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
612:
609:
605:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
579:
568:
567:, as of 2021.
566:
559:
551:
546:
541:
540:
532:
527:
522:
521:
513:
509:
504:
503:
495:
491:
486:
485:
467:
458:
449:
440:
431:
422:
413:
403:
392:
381:
370:
359:
348:
337:
336:Pennsylvanian
326:
325:Mississippian
317:
316:
307:
305:
304:Carboniferous
295:
294:
285:
283:
142:
137:
132:
125:
120:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
53:
46:
43:Carboniferous
41:
36:
34:
33:Carboniferous
19:
9158:
9094:Archean Eon
9056:(1.6–2.5 Ga)
8941:(485–539 Ma)
8910:(444–485 Ma)
8874:(419–444 Ma)
8843:(359–419 Ma)
8817:(299–359 Ma)
8814:
8786:(252–299 Ma)
8774:(252–539 Ma)
8738:(201–252 Ma)
8707:(145–201 Ma)
8666:Mesozoic Era
8566:Cenozoic Era
8485:Serpukhovian
8446:
8390:. Retrieved
8386:the original
8367:the original
8362:
8340:
8292:
8286:
8237:
8233:
8184:
8180:
8151:
8147:
8135:
8117:
8092:
8088:
8062:
8058:
8039:. Retrieved
8035:the original
8018:. Retrieved
8014:the original
8010:Science News
8009:
7980:
7976:
7964:. Retrieved
7955:
7939:. Retrieved
7935:the original
7928:
7913:. Retrieved
7909:the original
7904:
7888:. Retrieved
7876:
7872:
7857:
7828:the original
7823:
7792:
7750:
7746:
7711:
7707:
7668:
7662:
7639:
7633:
7570:
7566:
7533:
7529:
7510:. Retrieved
7488:
7484:
7458:
7441:
7430:. Retrieved
7409:. Retrieved
7400:
7383:
7361:
7336:
7324:
7312:
7300:
7293:Stanley 1999
7288:
7279:
7275:
7262:
7237:
7233:
7227:
7219:
7162:(1): 22–33.
7159:
7155:
7145:
7118:
7114:
7104:
7077:
7065:. Retrieved
7037:
7031:
7021:
7009:. Retrieved
6971:
6967:
6957:
6945:
6918:. Retrieved
6898:
6894:Paleobiology
6892:
6882:
6871:. Retrieved
6856:
6849:
6838:. Retrieved
6823:
6816:
6804:. Retrieved
6784:
6778:
6768:
6756:. Retrieved
6736:
6732:
6722:
6710:
6698:
6634:
6630:
6582:
6578:
6532:
6528:
6482:
6478:
6468:
6435:
6431:
6421:
6388:
6384:
6374:
6349:
6345:
6303:
6299:
6247:
6243:
6185:
6181:
6119:
6115:
6053:
6049:
6039:
5998:
5994:
5984:
5974:17 September
5972:. Retrieved
5934:
5930:
5876:
5872:
5822:
5818:
5756:
5752:
5718:
5682:. Retrieved
5678:
5668:
5617:
5613:
5602:
5557:
5551:
5491:
5487:
5433:
5429:
5373:
5362:. Retrieved
5358:
5327:
5286:
5282:
5244:
5190:
5165:, retrieved
5135:
5059:
5050:
5041:
5029:
5017:
5001:
4996:, p. 3.
4989:
4977:
4965:
4953:
4941:
4929:
4917:
4908:
4899:
4828:Lagerstätten
4810:
4794:
4757:
4734:
4719:temnospondyl
4716:dissorophoid
4709:
4686:Microbrachis
4684:
4672:of Scotland.
4664:
4631:
4606:
4585:
4552:
4531:
4512:araeoscelids
4504:captorhinids
4492:
4485:
4475:
4464:
4457:
4451:
4447:Dendrerpeton
4445:
4439:
4433:
4429:Ophiderpeton
4427:
4421:
4415:
4409:
4406:Lepospondyli
4394:
4372:
4346:
4325:
4299:Pennsylvania
4284:
4271:angel sharks
4266:Squatinactis
4264:
4240:
4224:was a large
4219:
4196:Phanerosteon
4194:
4167:Allenypterus
4165:
4147:Ornithoprion
4128:elasmobranch
4120:Dracopristis
4118:
4101:
4076:
4053:eugeneodonts
4050:
4040:
4039:on its top.
4030:
4009:(especially
4000:
3996:
3990:
3986:
3980:
3977:
3954:
3951:Xenacanthida
3945:; some, the
3936:
3926:
3920:
3902:
3866:onychophoran
3857:
3840:insect from
3836:was a large
3831:
3816:Arthropleura
3814:
3797:
3779:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3745:
3735:
3701:
3693:Arthropleura
3691:
3676:
3664:
3644:
3629:
3612:
3609:Orbiculoidea
3608:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3576:
3573:Dithyrocaris
3572:
3569:Acanthocaris
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3534:
3528:
3525:Anthraconaia
3524:
3515:
3497:
3473:
3452:
3431:
3413:Concavicaris
3412:
3388:
3371:
3332:
3329:platyceratid
3310:trace fossil
3308:ichnosp.; a
3306:Palaeophycus
3305:
3286:
3271:
3267:
3239:
3221:Palaeechinus
3220:
3214:
3211:Actinocrinus
3210:
3206:
3203:Cyathocrinus
3202:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3178:Cribroconcha
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3136:
3134:are common.
3109:
3103:
3099:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3075:
3069:
3063:
3055:
3050:
3043:
3037:
3015:
3009:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2966:
2963:Chladochonus
2962:
2954:
2950:
2944:
2930:
2923:
2916:
2912:
2885:radiolarians
2882:
2869:
2866:Archaediscus
2865:
2861:
2857:
2844:(especially
2834:hederelloids
2810:Foraminifera
2803:
2791:
2787:Cardiocarpus
2785:
2775:
2774:
2767:
2761:
2759:
2752:
2746:
2742:Sphenopteris
2740:
2736:Alethopteris
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2710:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2661:
2658:
2626:
2619:
2611:, appeared.
2585:Medullosales
2573:Lycopodiales
2554:
2524:
2520:
2496:
2484:
2467:
2459:
2442:calcite seas
2435:
2400:
2397:Geochemistry
2383:
2374:
2370:
2361:
2354:
2346:
2338:
2318:
2309:
2306:Temperatures
2296:
2281:
2277:
2269:
2261:
2252:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2219:Edaphosaurus
2218:
2199:
2178:
2170:
2154:
2146:
2137:proto-Andean
2118:
2109:
2072:Panthalassic
2069:
2049:
2008:Magnitogorsk
1989:
1968:
1956:metamorphism
1942:
1907:
1889:Kazakhstania
1862:
1840:
1815:
1803:
1766:
1757:
1721:
1689:
1677:
1671:
1663:stuckenbergi
1662:
1659:
1655:
1653:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1629:
1627:limestones.
1608:sequence of
1599:
1592:Arrow Canyon
1589:
1576:
1564:
1559:and Nashui,
1545:
1540:
1536:
1514:Dinant Basin
1507:
1495:unconformity
1490:
1486:
1484:Siphonodella
1483:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1458:
1440:through the
1434:Paleo-Tethys
1419:
1379:Serpukhovian
1269:
1266:Stratigraphy
1250:
1222:
1218:Serpukhovian
1188:with mainly
1175:
1132:
1108:
1093:
1089:Arthropleura
1087:
1077:
1064:level, land
1056:belong) and
1036:such as the
1025:
991:
955:
953:
857:
855:
775:
766:
695:
562:
430:Serpukhovian
313:
303:
301:
291:
279:
82:
32:
9130:Hadean Eon
8908:Ordovician
8679:Cretaceous
8579:Quaternary
8475:Tournaisian
8392:January 15,
8337:Wells, John
7905:Palaeos.org
7596:10261/60626
7341:Heckel 2008
7305:Kazlev 1998
7240:: 171–182.
7228:Helicoprion
7212:Martin 2008
6535:(1): 1–15.
5960:2434/742688
5643:10261/60626
5289:(1): 1–17.
4922:Kaiser 2009
4875:; 300 mya;
4865:; 309 mya;
4863:Mazon Creek
4855:; 324 mya;
4835:; 359 mya;
4754:Romer's gap
4748:Romer's gap
4691:lepospondyl
4617:Nova Scotia
4496:pelycosaurs
4441:Hyloplesion
4374:Strigilodus
4359:on its back
4332:flying fish
4301:during the
4151:Eugeneodont
4083:Holocephali
4078:Akmonistion
4002:Gyracanthus
3947:petalodonts
3868:known from
3842:Mazon Creek
3833:Mazothairos
3738:Saarbrücken
3731:cockroaches
3727:Dictyoptera
3698:Protodonata
3649:eurypterine
3581:eurypterids
3541:crustaceans
3536:Carbonicola
3459:stomatopoda
3399:Sea anemone
3331:gastropod (
3207:Woodocrinus
3158:Amphissites
3154:meiobenthos
3150:crustaceans
3117:cephalopods
3100:Murchisonia
3083:Carbonicola
3071:Posidonomya
3026:spiriferids
3002:Brachiopods
2932:Titusvillia
2917:Girtycoelia
2842:echinoderms
2826:brachiopods
2754:Caulopteris
2730:Neuropteris
2724:Cyclopteris
2625:, probably
2601:Cycadophyta
2597:Cordaitales
2565:Equisetales
2227:Pectopteris
2223:Neuropteris
2027:suture zone
1980:compression
1964:deformation
1938:Rheic Ocean
1914:Alleghanian
1877:south polar
1487:praesulcata
1442:Rheic Ocean
1438:Panthalassa
1405:Tournaisian
1206:Westphalian
1194:Tournaisian
1111:glaciations
1006:vertebrates
821: /
780:chronocline
771:within the
762:FAD of the
738: /
594:Nickname(s)
550:Romer's Gap
531:Romer's Gap
412:Tournaisian
9197:Categories
9132:(4–4.6 Ga)
9096:(2.5–4 Ga)
9025:(1–1.6 Ga)
8631:Paleogene
8506:Kasimovian
8496:Bashkirian
7966:2008-06-23
7915:2008-06-23
7890:7 December
7512:7 December
7432:2008-06-25
7121:(3): 318.
7067:6 November
7040:: 104062.
7011:6 November
6873:2022-08-23
6840:2022-08-23
6739:: 103699.
6715:Hogan 2010
6438:: 103560.
6391:: 104540.
6250:: 109259.
6122:: 103503.
5937:: 109753.
5684:2024-01-06
5494:: 103612.
5364:2023-11-12
5167:2021-06-17
4970:Wells 2008
4891:References
4849:, Scotland
4839:, Scotland
4779:amphibians
4711:Amphibamus
4474:reptiles (
4435:Amphibamus
4397:amphibians
4379:petalodont
4327:Iniopteryx
4307:paddlefish
4172:Coelacanth
4132:New Mexico
4087:Symmoriida
4023:placoderms
3992:Acanthodes
3973:Rhizodonts
3943:Symmoriida
3904:Maiocercus
3863:stem-group
3763:Dendropupa
3706:, a giant
3630:Megarachne
3592:Megarachne
3539:; diverse
3504:vampyropod
3433:Triproetus
3395:scyphozoan
3373:Typhloesus
3335:) attached
3291:brachiopod
3266:Bivalves (
3182:Hollinella
3174:Coryellina
3138:Trilobites
3110:Naticopsis
3105:Euomphalus
3096:Gastropods
3056:Serpulites
3022:Athyridids
3006:productids
2993:Archimedes
2984:Fenestella
2971:Conularids
2967:Michelinia
2921:demosponge
2913:Cotyliscus
2878:priapulids
2870:Saccammina
2748:Megaphyton
2718:Pecopteris
2685:Sigillaria
2653:stigmarian
2647:Base of a
2628:Sigillaria
2609:Voltziales
2593:gymnosperm
2589:seed ferns
2561:coal balls
2403:weathering
2235:Sigillaria
2203:evaporites
2186:Uzbekistan
2015:Ural Ocean
2011:island arc
1952:Ordovician
1831:subsidence
1752:esturaries
1740:Peat mires
1728:ice sheets
1686:Cyclothems
1667:Boreal Sea
1660:Rauserites
1625:brecciated
1618:regressive
1614:sandstones
1518:limestones
1361:Bashkirian
1335:Kasimovian
1293:Stage/age
1280:stratotype
1254:Kasimovian
1246:Bashkirian
1210:Stephanian
1066:arthropods
1058:sauropsids
1044:including
1034:amphibians
998:land plant
809:57°53′29″E
806:50°14′45″N
797:Kazakhstan
789:Aidaralash
773:morphotype
723:43°33′20″N
637:Definition
457:Kasimovian
439:Bashkirian
134:Chronology
9159:See also:
8939:Cambrian
8872:Silurian
8841:Devonian
8736:Triassic
8705:Jurassic
8501:Moscovian
8041:April 30,
7783:206514545
7491:: 11–18.
7254:0001-7272
7184:0272-4634
7137:1424-2818
7115:Diversity
7097:Howe 1911
7062:249298393
6915:140542784
6758:24 August
6691:Howe 1911
6661:0091-7613
6609:0084-6597
6557:0305-8719
6507:0305-8719
6460:0012-8252
6413:0034-6667
6366:0084-6597
6322:1814-9324
6272:0031-0182
6218:229459593
6210:0305-8719
6144:0012-8252
6086:127707145
6078:0305-8719
6031:247459291
6023:0278-7407
5995:Tectonics
5969:218953074
5909:129439058
5901:0305-8719
5849:1674-9871
5652:0036-8075
5524:233618931
5516:0012-8252
5460:0305-8719
5319:245208581
5311:0305-8719
5162:132978981
4837:Edinburgh
4806:tree fern
4554:Hylonomus
4528:amphibian
4477:Hylonomus
4472:sauropsid
4468:tetrapods
4453:Tuditanus
4417:Eogyrinus
4391:Tetrapods
4303:Moscovian
4286:Bandringa
4247:Rhizodont
4201:Bony fish
4037:denticles
4013:like the
3997:Cheirodus
3961:bony fish
3956:Bandringa
3928:Psammodus
3888:cockroach
3781:Meganeura
3742:Commentry
3708:dragonfly
3703:Meganeura
3687:arachnids
3683:myriapods
3614:Productus
3558:Darwinula
3552:Carbonita
3530:Naiadites
3475:Jeletzkya
3390:Essexella
3246:from the
3225:blastoids
3194:Libumella
3190:Knoxiella
3170:Cavellina
3146:Ostracoda
3128:ammonoids
3125:Goniatite
3121:nautilids
3114:Nautiloid
2975:Conularia
2969:) forms.
2924:Chaetetes
2862:Endothyra
2858:Valvulina
2830:ammonoids
2822:Ostracoda
2777:Cordaites
2763:Calamites
2713:epiphytic
2690:Stigmaria
2673:Anabathra
2583:(ferns),
2581:Filicales
2557:preserved
2462:strontium
2450:aragonite
2428:systems.
2243:Calamites
2239:Cordaites
2052:Laurentia
2046:Laurussia
2035:Accretion
1936:) as the
1773:Laurussia
1621:mudstones
1606:cyclothem
1534:fusulinid
1528:section,
1526:Pengchong
1426:limestone
1348:Moscovian
1276:formation
1238:Moscovian
1182:carbonate
1178:Dinantian
1095:Meganeura
1084:myriapods
1070:arachnids
1046:synapsids
1032:of early
1010:tetrapods
954:The name
929:Paleozoic
726:3°21′26″E
581:Etymology
548:Start of
448:Moscovian
282:Paleozoic
8784:Permian
8605:Neogene
8511:Gzhelian
8329:17065318
8274:21818347
8234:PLOS ONE
8221:16832054
8077:Archived
8059:Episodes
7960:Archived
7775:18832639
7738:20392720
7695:19656861
7621:37121590
7613:22745431
7554:Archived
7503:Archived
7485:Episodes
7426:Archived
7405:Archived
7388:Archived
7360:(2007).
7282:: 81–92.
7192:86174861
6920:21 April
6806:31 March
5660:22745431
5594:26787881
5069:Archived
4867:Illinois
4847:Bathgate
4816:See also
4802:lycopsid
4723:Illinois
4649:Colorado
4642:aïstopod
4613:synapsid
4533:Pederpes
4508:saurians
4482:synapsid
4383:Kentucky
4291:Illinois
4242:Rhizodus
4103:Falcatus
3987:Uronemus
3982:Ctenodus
3938:Saivodus
3885:blattoid
3712:mayflies
3564:Estheria
3543:such as
3521:molluscs
3484:Illinois
3198:Crinoids
3130:such as
3088:Edmondia
3060:bivalves
3054:such as
3052:Annelids
3017:Chonetes
2988:Polypora
2959:tabulate
2951:Corwenia
2909:spicules
2901:Cornwall
2854:Fusulina
2846:crinoids
2649:lycopsid
2639:, Canada
2623:lycopsid
2618:Ancient
2471:basement
2414:drawdown
2391:amniotes
2323:record,
2321:charcoal
2174:orocline
2106:Gondwana
2060:Avalonia
2040:granites
2025:). The
2004:Jurassic
1945:terranes
1918:Ouachita
1910:Variscan
1584:Gondwana
1549:endemism
1461:conodont
1325:Gzhelian
1307:Asselian
1242:Gzhelian
1202:Namurian
1186:Silesian
1173:in age.
1171:Devonian
1157:and the
1068:such as
1042:amniotes
933:Devonian
764:Conodont
715:, France
709:La Serre
693:Conodont
620:Global (
466:Gzhelian
293:Devonian
8320:1636538
8297:Bibcode
8265:3144910
8242:Bibcode
8212:1544139
8189:Bibcode
8156:Bibcode
8148:Geology
8097:Bibcode
8089:Geology
7985:Bibcode
7941:30 July
7856:(ed.).
7846::
7755:Bibcode
7747:Science
7729:2936155
7686:2828000
7605:1165864
7575:Bibcode
7567:Science
7550:9510518
7450:1435921
7411:8 March
7351:Sources
7164:Bibcode
7042:Bibcode
7006:4308580
6976:Bibcode
6789:Bibcode
6741:Bibcode
6639:Bibcode
6631:Geology
6587:Bibcode
6537:Bibcode
6487:Bibcode
6440:Bibcode
6393:Bibcode
6252:Bibcode
6190:Bibcode
6124:Bibcode
6058:Bibcode
6003:Bibcode
5939:Bibcode
5881:Bibcode
5827:Bibcode
5761:Bibcode
5622:Bibcode
5614:Science
5585:4780611
5562:Bibcode
5496:Bibcode
5438:Bibcode
5291:Bibcode
4857:Montana
4592:diapsid
4559:reptile
4411:Loxomma
4311:rostrum
4221:Edestus
4180:Montana
4081:of the
3870:Indiana
3679:insects
3604:Lingula
3546:Candona
3518:bivalve
3480:coleoid
3438:proetid
3325:Crinoid
3244:bivalve
3186:Kirkbya
3162:Bairdia
3144:group.
3142:proetid
3092:Modiola
3039:Discina
2980:Bryozoa
2946:Caninia
2935:. Both
2905:Sponges
2818:Bryozoa
2793:Walchia
2620:in situ
2475:granite
2209:Climate
2195:bauxite
2056:Baltica
1960:igneous
1899:Orogeny
1881:Siberia
1852:enzymes
1820:of the
1761:erosion
1748:lagoons
1705:mudrock
1561:Guizhou
1530:Guangxi
1524:at the
1388:Middle
1344:Middle
1302:Permian
1261:Geology
1119:Pangaea
1054:mammals
975:") and
958:means "
937:Permian
927:of the
919:) is a
691:of the
543:←
529:End of
524:←
506:←
488:←
315:Permian
271:–
261:–
251:–
241:–
231:–
221:–
211:–
201:–
191:–
181:–
171:–
161:–
151:–
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8480:Visean
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7820:"Fern"
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4877:Kansas
4714:was a
4689:was a
4640:-like
4636:was a
4530:-like
4199:was a
4170:was a
4123:was a
4085:order
4046:'s
3999:, and
3963:, the
3907:was a
3751:Brodia
3611:, and
3579:. The
3575:, and
3533:, and
3454:Daidal
3209:, and
3192:, and
3090:, and
3077:Nucula
3045:Crania
3032:, and
2990:, and
2941:rugose
2919:, the
2889:cherts
2874:extant
2868:, and
2850:Visean
2814:corals
2782:catkin
2739:, and
2704:. The
2698:cortex
2543:Plants
2357:ikaite
2329:pyrite
2325:halite
1948:rifted
1934:Iberia
1926:Turkey
1885:Amuria
1844:lignin
1806:anoxic
1744:deltas
1674:Aqtöbe
1616:, and
1596:Nevada
1522:shales
1510:facies
1401:Lower
1392:Visean
1375:Upper
1357:Lower
1321:Upper
1244:. The
1231:. The
1198:Viséan
1086:(e.g.
1072:(e.g.
925:system
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680:Formal
672:, 1822
656:System
646:Period
589:Formal
478:
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421:Viséan
358:Middle
8080:(PDF)
8055:(PDF)
8020:1 May
7779:S2CID
7617:S2CID
7557:(PDF)
7526:(PDF)
7506:(PDF)
7481:(PDF)
7272:(PDF)
7188:S2CID
7058:S2CID
7002:S2CID
6911:S2CID
6214:S2CID
6082:S2CID
6027:S2CID
6001:(3).
5965:S2CID
5905:S2CID
5520:S2CID
5315:S2CID
5158:S2CID
4737:fungi
4731:Fungi
4638:snake
3724:basal
2897:Devon
2702:xylem
2655:roots
2157:Altai
1777:North
1736:soils
1716:Wales
1557:Urals
1553:biota
1050:clade
1048:(the
968:carbō
964:Latin
611:Earth
380:Early
347:Early
8394:2013
8345:ISBN
8325:PMID
8270:PMID
8217:PMID
8122:ISBN
8043:2006
8022:2018
7943:2020
7892:2020
7805:ISBN
7771:PMID
7734:PMID
7691:PMID
7609:PMID
7601:OSTI
7546:PMID
7514:2020
7463:ISBN
7446:OCLC
7413:2013
7366:ISBN
7250:ISSN
7180:ISSN
7133:ISSN
7069:2022
7013:2022
6922:2023
6862:ISBN
6829:ISBN
6808:2023
6760:2022
6657:ISSN
6605:ISSN
6553:ISSN
6503:ISSN
6456:ISSN
6409:ISSN
6362:ISSN
6318:ISSN
6268:ISSN
6206:ISSN
6140:ISSN
6074:ISSN
6019:ISSN
5976:2022
5897:ISSN
5845:ISSN
5723:ISBN
5656:PMID
5648:ISSN
5590:PMID
5512:ISSN
5456:ISSN
5307:ISSN
5249:ISBN
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5148:ISBN
4879:, US
4869:, US
4859:, US
4774:and
4526:The
4510:and
4377:, a
4297:and
4295:Ohio
3917:Fish
3861:, a
3740:and
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2899:and
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2840:and
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1990:The
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960:coal
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856:The
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754:1990
668:and
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369:Late
58:PreꞒ
8315:PMC
8305:doi
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8260:PMC
8250:doi
8207:PMC
8197:doi
8185:103
8164:doi
8105:doi
8067:doi
7993:doi
7981:240
7881:doi
7797:doi
7763:doi
7751:322
7724:PMC
7716:doi
7681:PMC
7673:doi
7644:doi
7591:hdl
7583:doi
7571:336
7538:doi
7534:201
7493:doi
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7123:doi
7050:doi
7038:231
6992:hdl
6984:doi
6972:375
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6785:230
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