Antarctic ice sheet

876: 1070:. Neither Wilkes nor the other subglacial basins were lost entirely, but estimates suggest that they would be committed to disappearance once the global warming reaches 3 °C (5.4 °F) - the plausible temperature range is between 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 6 °C (11 °F). Then, the subglacial basins would gradually collapse over a period of around 2,000 years, although it may be as fast as 500 years or as slow as 10,000 years. Their loss would ultimately add between 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) and 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels, depending on the 758: 7097: 392: 770:, at a rate of 1100-1500 billion tons (GT) per year. This meltwater then mixes back into the Southern Ocean, which makes its water fresher. This freshening of the Southern Ocean results in increased stratification and stabilization of its layers, and this has the single largest impact on the long-term properties of Southern Ocean circulation. These changes in the Southern Ocean cause the upper cell circulation to speed up, accelerating the flow of major currents, while the lower cell circulation slows down, as it is dependent on the highly saline 296: 29: 410: 709: 975: 478: 560: 1111: 8900: 7337: 8888: 786: 8924: 8912: 6761: 221:, it is less vulnerable to climate change than the WAIS. In the 20th century, EAIS had been one of the only places on Earth which displayed limited cooling instead of warming, even as the WAIS warmed by over 0.1 °C/decade from 1950s to 2000, with an average warming trend of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across the whole continent. As of early 2020s, there is still net mass gain over the EAIS (due to increased 7347: 61: 603:, Antarctic temperatures will be up 4 °C (7.2 °F), on average, by 2100 and this will be accompanied by a 30% increase in precipitation and a 30% decrease in total sea ice. RCPs were developed in the late 2000s, and early 2020s research considers RCP8.5 much less likely than the more "moderate" scenarios like RCP 4.5, which lies in between the worst-case and the 2692:

impact, locally as the radiative forcing from greenhouse gases. The temperature change in any particular region will in fact be a combination of radiation-related changes (through greenhouse gases, aerosols, ozone and the like) and dynamical effects. Since the winds tend to only move heat from one place to another, their impact will tend to cancel out in the global mean.

1197: 474:, where warming was both well-documented and strongly pronounced: It was eventually found to have warmed by 3 °C (5.4 °F) since the mid-20th century. Based on this limited data, several papers published in the early 2000s suggested that there had been an overall cooling over continental Antarctica (that is outside of the Peninsula). 801:' best, limited-confidence estimate is that the lower cell would continue to weaken, while the upper cell may strengthen by around 20% over the 21st century. A key reason for the uncertainty is limited certainty about future ice loss from Antarctica and the poor and inconsistent representation of ocean stratification in even the 626: 917:), there will be a median rise of 16 cm (6.3 in) and maximum rise of 37 cm (15 in) under the low-emission scenario. On the other hand, the highest emission scenario results in a median rise of 1.46 m (5 ft) metres, with a minimum of 60 cm (2 ft) and a maximum of 2.89 m ( 267:

take between 2,000 and 13,000 years, although several centuries of high emissions may shorten this to 500 years. 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) of sea level rise would occur if the ice sheet collapses but leaves ice caps on the mountains behind, and 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) if those melt as well.

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research and improved modelling show that the West Antarctic ice sheet is very likely to disappear even if the warming does not progress any further, and only reducing the warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F) below the temperature of 2020 may save it. It is believed that the loss of the ice sheet would

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Although their methods of interpolation or extrapolation for areas with unobserved output velocities have an insufficient description for the evaluation of associated errors, such errors in previous results (Rignot and others, 2008) caused large overestimates of the mass losses as detailed in Zwally

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Our definitions of the West Antarctic ice sheet (systems 18-23 and 1), the East Antarctic ice sheet (systems 2-17), and the Antarctic Peninsula (systems 24-27) allocate the drainage systems according to ice provenance with separation of East and West Antarctica approximately along the Transantarctic

1665:

Andrew N. Mackintosh; Elie Verleyen; Philip E. O'Brien; Duanne A. White; R. Selwyn Jones; Robert McKay; Robert Dunbar; Damian B. Gore; David Fink; Alexandra L. Post; Hideki Miura; Amy Leventer; Ian Goodwin; Dominic A. Hodgson; Katherine Lilly; Xavier Crosta; Nicholas R. Golledge; Bernd Wagner; Sonja

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would increase the global temperature by 0.6 °C (1.1 °F), while the regional temperatures would increase by around 2 °C (3.6 °F). The loss of the subglacial basins alone would only add about 0.05 °C (0.090 °F) to global temperatures due to their relatively limited area,

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Contrasting temperature trends across parts of Antarctica mean that some locations lose mass, particularly at the coasts, while others that are more inland continue to gain mass. Estimating an average trend can be difficult due to these contrasting trends and the remoteness of the region. In 2018, a

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may also add around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) to the global sea levels over another 1,000 years. On the other hand, the East Antarctic ice sheet is far more stable and may only cause 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) - 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) of sea level rise from the current level of

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By 2009, research was finally able to combine historical weather station data with satellite measurements to create consistent temperature records going back to 1957, which demonstrated warming of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across the continent, with cooling in East Antarctica offset by the

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Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam; Koven, Charlie; Leshyk, Victor; Lawrence, David; Loranty, Michael M.; Mauritz, Marguerite; Olefeldt, David; Natali, Susan; Rodenhizer, Heidi; Salmon,

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intervention to stabilize the ice sheet's glaciers may delay its loss by centuries and give more time to adapt. This is an uncertain proposal, and would end up as one of the most expensive projects ever attempted. Otherwise, the disappearance of the West Antarctic ice sheet would take an estimated

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annual mass loss from 53 ± 29 Gt (gigatonnes) in 1992 to 159 ± 26 Gt in the final five years of the study. On the Antarctic Peninsula, the study estimated a loss of 20 ± 15 Gt per year with an increase in loss of roughly 15 Gt per year after year 2000, with a significant role played by the loss of

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concluded that the ice sheet would take a minimum of 10,000 years to fully melt. It would most likely be committed to complete disappearance only once the global warming reaches about 7.5 °C (13.5 °F), with the minimum and the maximum range between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C

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in East Antarctica had experienced cooling of 0.7 °C per decade - a local trend confirmed by subsequent research at McMurdo. Multiple journalists suggested that these findings were "contradictory" to global warming, even though the paper itself noted the limited data, and still found warming

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The Antarctic ice sheet covers an area of almost 14 million square kilometres (5.4 million square miles) and contains 26.5 million cubic kilometres (6,400,000 cubic miles) of ice. A cubic kilometer of ice weighs approximately 0.92 metric gigatonnes, meaning that the ice sheet

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not in contact with water are less vulnerable than the majority of the ice sheet, which is located below the sea level. The collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet would cause ~3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) of sea level rise. This kind of collapse is now considered practically inevitable,

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warmed by 0.61 ± 0.34 °C per decade between 1990 and 2020, which is three times the global average. The Antarctica-wide warming trend also continued after 2000, and in February 2020, the continent recorded its highest temperature of 18.3 °C, which was a degree higher than the previous

5135:

Bakker, P; Schmittner, A; Lenaerts, JT; Abe-Ouchi, A; Bi, D; van den Broeke, MR; Chan, WL; Hu, A; Beadling, RL; Marsland, SJ; Mernild, SH; Saenko, OA; Swingedouw, D; Sullivan, A; Yin, J (11 November 2016). "Fate of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Strong decline under continued

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At first glance this seems to contradict the idea of "global" warming, but one needs to be careful before jumping to this conclusion. A rise in the global mean temperature does not imply universal warming. Dynamical effects (changes in the winds and ocean circulation) can have just as large an

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trap heat in the middle atmosphere and reduce its flow towards the surface and towards space, instead of simply preventing the flow of heat from the lower atmosphere to the upper layers. This effect lasts until the end of the Antarctic winter. Thus, even the early climate models predicted that

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is followed and global warming is limited to 2 °C (3.6 °F), the loss of ice in Antarctica will continue at the 2020 rate for the rest of the century, but if a trajectory leading to 3 °C (5.4 °F) is followed, Antarctica ice loss will accelerate after 2060 and start adding

6110:

Crotti, Ilaria; Quiquet, Aurélien; Landais, Amaelle; Stenni, Barbara; Wilson, David J.; Severi, Mirko; Mulvaney, Robert; Wilhelms, Frank; Barbante, Carlo; Frezzotti, Massimo (10 September 2022). "Wilkes subglacial basin ice sheet response to Southern Ocean warming during late Pleistocene

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is only inhabited by 10% of the world's population, and the Southern Ocean overturning circulation has historically received much less attention than the AMOC. Some preliminary research suggests that such a collapse may become likely once global warming reaches levels between 1.7 °C

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may collapse over a period of around 2,000 years, which would add up to 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels. The loss of the entire ice sheet would require global warming in a range between 5 °C (9.0 °F) and 10 °C (18 °F), and a minimum of 10,000 years.

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Some scientists have even larger estimates, but all agree it would have a greater impact and become much more likely to occur under higher warming scenarios, where it may double the overall 21st century sea level rise to 2 m (7 ft) or more. One study suggested that if the

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Horton, Benjamin P.; Khan, Nicole S.; Cahill, Niamh; Lee, Janice S. H.; Shaw, Timothy A.; Garner, Andra J.; Kemp, Andrew C.; Engelhart, Simon E.; Rahmstorf, Stefan (8 May 2020). "Estimating global mean sea-level rise and its uncertainties by 2100 and 2300 from an expert survey".

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temperature record even suggested a much larger West Antarctica warming of 2.4 °C (4.3 °F) since 1958, or around 0.46 °C (0.83 °F) per decade, although there has been some uncertainty about it. In 2022, a study narrowed the warming of the Central area of the

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Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate

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average temperature increase of at least 0.176 ± 0.06 °C per decade in West Antarctica. Subsequent research confirmed clear warming over West Antarctica in the 20th century with the only uncertainty being the magnitude. Over 2012-2013, estimates based on WAIS Divide

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Ribeiro, N.; Herraiz-Borreguero, L.; Rintoul, S. R.; McMahon, C. R.; Hindell, M.; Harcourt, R.; Williams, G. (15 July 2021). "Warm Modified Circumpolar Deep Water Intrusions Drive Ice Shelf Melt and Inhibit Dense Shelf Water Formation in Vincennes Bay, East Antarctica".

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Pan, Linda; Powell, Evelyn M.; Latychev, Konstantin; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Creveling, Jessica R.; Gomez, Natalya; Hoggard, Mark J.; Clark, Peter U. (30 April 2021). "Rapid postglacial rebound amplifies global sea level rise following West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse".

740:. This process has never been observed and it only occurs in some models. Such processes may increase sea level rise caused by Antarctica to 41 cm (16 in) by 2100 under the low-emission scenario and 57 cm (22 in) under the high-emission scenario. 812:

It is possible that the South Ocean overturning circulation may not simply continue to weaken in response to increased warming and freshening, but will eventually collapse outright, in a way which would be difficult to reverse and constitute an example of

6022:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). 3977:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). 1033:

between 60 cm (2.0 ft) and 2.89 m (9 ft 6 in)) by 2300, which would involve some loss from the EAIS in addition to the erosion of the WAIS. This Antarctica-only sea level rise would be in addition to ice losses from the

512:

to make up global warming, and claimed that Doran's study definitively proved there was no warming in Antarctica outside of the Peninsula. Relatively few scientists responded to the book at the time, but it was subsequently brought up in a 2006

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The entire East Antarctic Ice Sheet holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by 53.3 m (175 ft). Its complete melting is also possible, but it would require very high warming and a lot of time: In 2022, an extensive assessment of

632: 631: 627: 2002:"Figure 9.8: Multi-model annual mean zonal temperature change (top), zonal mean temperature change range (middle) and the zonal mean change divided by the multi-model standard deviation of the mean change (bottom) for the CMIP2 simulations" 1046:

of ocean water. If the warming were to remain at elevated levels for a long time, then the East Antarctic Ice Sheet would eventually become the dominant contributor to sea level rise, simply because it contains the largest amount of ice.

5416:

Turney, Chris S. M.; Fogwill, Christopher J.; Golledge, Nicholas R.; McKay, Nicholas P.; Sebille, Erik van; Jones, Richard T.; Etheridge, David; Rubino, Mauro; Thornton, David P.; Davies, Siwan M.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk (2020-02-11).

633: 248:. If instability is triggered before 2100, it has the potential to increase total sea level rise caused by Antarctica by tens of centimeters more, particularly with high overall warming. Ice loss from Antarctica also generates fresh 448:

on Earth is at its warmest near the surface and it becomes cooler as elevation increases. During the Antarctic winter, the surface of central Antarctica instead becomes cooler than middle layers of the atmosphere. This means that

339:

are very distinct from the WAIS. Collectively, these ice sheets have an average thickness of around 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), Even the Transantarctic Mountains are largely covered by ice, with only some mountain summits and the

5189:

Lenton, T. M.; Armstrong McKay, D.I.; Loriani, S.; Abrams, J.F.; Lade, S.J.; Donges, J.F.; Milkoreit, M.; Powell, T.; Smith, S.R.; Zimm, C.; Buxton, J.E.; Daube, Bruce C.; Krummel, Paul B.; Loh, Zoë; Luijkx, Ingrid T. (2023).

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Since 2009, NASA's mission Operation IceBridge (OIB) has flown aircraft over the Antarctic Ice Sheet carrying laser and ice-penetrating radar instruments to collect data about the surface height, bedrock topography and ice

3385:

Thompson, David W. J.; Solomon, Susan; Kushner, Paul J.; England, Matthew H.; Grise, Kevin M.; Karoly, David J. (23 October 2011). "Signatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in Southern Hemisphere surface climate change".

444:(reflectivity) and adds to the albedo of the ice's sheet own bright, white surface. Antarctica is so cold that it is the only place on Earth where atmospheric temperature inversion occurs every winter. Elsewhere, the 630: 3450:

Xin, Meijiao; Li, Xichen; Stammerjohn, Sharon E; Cai, Wenju; Zhu, Jiang; Turner, John; Clem, Kyle R; Song, Chentao; Wang, Wenzhu; Hou, Yurong (17 May 2023). "A broadscale shift in antarctic temperature trends".

2044:

J. H. Christensen; B. Hewitson; A. Busuioc; A. Chen; X. Gao; I. Held; R. Jones; R.K. Kolli; W.-T. Kwon; R. Laprise; V. Magaña Rueda; L. Mearns; C. G. Menéndez; J. Räisänen; A. Rinke; A. Sarr; P. Whetton (2007).

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did not begin until 1981 and are typically limited to cloud-free conditions. Thus datasets representing the entire continent only began to appear by the very end of the 20th century. The only exception was the

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Antarctic Skin Temperature Trends between 1981 and 2007, based on thermal infrared observations made by a series of NOAA satellite sensors. Skin temperature trends do not necessarily reflect air temperature

587:

starting from 2002, and these changes were consistent with their predictions. As these patterns reversed, the East Antarctica interior demonstrated clear warming over those two decades. In particular, the

5501:

Lau, Sally C. Y.; Wilson, Nerida G.; Golledge, Nicholas R.; Naish, Tim R.; Watts, Phillip C.; Silva, Catarina N. S.; Cooke, Ira R.; Allcock, A. Louise; Mark, Felix C.; Linse, Katrin (21 December 2023).

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DeConto, Robert M.; Pollard, David; Alley, Richard B.; Velicogna, Isabella; Gasson, Edward; Gomez, Natalya; Sadai, Shaina; Condron, Alan; Gilford, Daniel M.; Ashe, Erica L.; Kopp, Robert E. (May 2021).

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Normally, some seasonal meltwater from the Antarctic ice sheet helps to drive the lower-cell circulation. However, climate change has greatly increased meltwater amounts, which threatens to destabilize

1638:

Prentice, Michael L.; Kleman, Johan L.; Stroeven, Arjen P. (1998). "The Composite Glacial Erosional Landscape of the Northern Mcmurdo Dry Valleys: Implications for Antarctic Tertiary Glacial History".

575:, slowed or even partially reversed the warming of West Antarctica between 2000 and 2020, with the Antarctic Peninsula experiencing cooling from 2002. While a variability in those patterns is natural, 359:

if the ice sheet were not there. The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The WAIS is bounded by the

678:) indicated annual mass loss of only about 12 Gt from 2012–2016, due to much greater ice gain in East Antarctica than estimated earlier, which had offset most of the losses from West Antarctica. The 1579:

Antarctica is divided into the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, East Antarctic Ice Sheet and Antarctic Peninsula based on historical definitions plus information from modern-day DEM and ice velocity data.

2047:

Regional Climate Projections (In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)

6323:

Barr, Iestyn D.; Spagnolo, Matteo; Rea, Brice R.; Bingham, Robert G.; Oien, Rachel P.; Adamson, Kathryn; Ely, Jeremy C.; Mullan, Donal J.; Pellitero, Ramón; Tomkins, Matt D. (21 September 2022).

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Crotti, Ilaria; Quiquet, Aurélien; Landais, Amaelle; Stenni, Barbara; Wilson, David J.; Severi, Mirko; Mulvaney, Robert; Wilhelms, Frank; Barbante, Carlo; Frezzotti, Massimo (10 September 2022).

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Bromwich, D. H.; Nicolas, J. P.; Monaghan, A. J.; Lazzara, M. A.; Keller, L. M.; Weidner, G. A.; Wilson, A. B. (2012). "Central West Antarctica among the most rapidly warming regions on Earth".

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Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).

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Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).

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Ludescher, Josef; Bunde, Armin; Franzke, Christian L. E.; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (16 April 2015). "Long-term persistence enhances uncertainty about anthropogenic warming of Antarctica".

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Li, Qian; England, Matthew H.; Hogg, Andrew McC.; Rintoul, Stephen R.; Morrison, Adele K. (29 March 2023). "Abyssal ocean overturning slowdown and warming driven by Antarctic meltwater".

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If global warming were to reach higher levels, then the EAIS would play an increasingly larger role in sea level rise occurring after 2100. According to the most recent reports of the

1947:

Stewart, K. D.; Hogg, A. McC.; England, M. H.; Waugh, D. W. (2 November 2020). "Response of the Southern Ocean Overturning Circulation to Extreme Southern Annular Mode Conditions".

3436: 774:, which already appears to have been observably weakened by the freshening, in spite of the limited recovery during 2010s. Since the 1970s, the upper cell has strengthened by 3-4 4735:

Silvano, Alessandro; Rintoul, Stephen Rich; Peña-Molino, Beatriz; Hobbs, William Richard; van Wijk, Esmee; Aoki, Shigeru; Tamura, Takeshi; Williams, Guy Darvall (18 April 2018).

658:. The review's overall estimate was that Antarctica lost 2720 ± 1390 gigatons of ice from 1992 to 2017, averaging 109 ± 56 Gt per year. This would amount to 7.6 millimeters of 4996:

Zhou, Shenjie; Meijers, Andrew J. S.; Meredith, Michael P.; Abrahamsen, E. Povl; Holland, Paul R.; Silvano, Alessandro; Sallée, Jean-Baptiste; Østerhus, Svein (12 June 2023).

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Bamber, J.L.; Riva, R.E.M.; Vermeersen, B.L.A.; LeBrocq, A.M. (14 May 2009). "Reassessment of the Potential Sea-Level Rise from a Collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet".

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Berg; Tas van Ommen; Dan Zwartz; Stephen J. Roberts; Wim Vyverman; Guillaume Masse (2014). "Retreat history of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet since the Last Glacial Maximum".

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Lee, Sang-Ki; Lumpkin, Rick; Gomez, Fabian; Yeager, Stephen; Lopez, Hosmay; Takglis, Filippos; Dong, Shenfu; Aguiar, Wilton; Kim, Dongmin; Baringer, Molly (13 March 2023).

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King, M. A.; Bingham, R. J.; Moore, P.; Whitehouse, P. L.; Bentley, M. J.; Milne, G. A. (2012). "Lower satellite-gravimetry estimates of Antarctic sea-level contribution".

3790:, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. 2453: 782:

per second), or 50-60% of its flow, while the lower cell has weakened by a similar amount, but because of its larger volume, these changes represent a 10-20% weakening.

3179:

Turner, John; Lu, Hua; White, Ian; King, John C.; Phillips, Tony; Hosking, J. Scott; Bracegirdle, Thomas J.; Marshall, Gareth J.; Mulvaney, Robert; Deb, Pranab (2016).

2001: 170:, with an area of 14 million square kilometres (5.4 million square miles) and an average thickness of over 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). It is the largest of 8800: 579:

had also led the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) to be stronger than it had been in the past 600 years of observations. Studies predicted a reversal in the SAM once the

5901:

Pan, Linda; Powell, Evelyn M.; Latychev, Konstantin; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Creveling, Jessica R.; Gomez, Natalya; Hoggard, Mark J.; Clark, Peter U. (30 April 2021).

629: 8468: 6544:

Diester-Haass, Liselotte; Zahn, Rainer (1996). "Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Southern Ocean: History of water mass circulation and biological productivity".

2959:

J P. Nicolas; J. P.; D. H. Bromwich (2014). "New reconstruction of Antarctic near-surface temperatures: Multidecadal trends and reliability of global reanalyses".

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and the base of the ice sheet once the sheet is no longer heavy enough to displace such flows. Another potential process is marine ice cliff instability, when ice

5205:

Liu, Y.; Moore, J. K.; Primeau, F.; Wang, W. L. (22 December 2022). "Reduced CO2 uptake and growing nutrient sequestration from slowing overturning circulation".

563:

East Antarctica cooled in the 1980s and 1990s, even as West Antarctica warmed (left-hand side). This trend largely reversed in 2000s and 2010s (right-hand side).

6031:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3986:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

2808:

Ding, Qinghua; Eric J. Steig; David S. Battisti; Marcel Küttel (10 April 2011). "Winter warming in West Antarctica caused by central tropical Pacific warming".

2729: 2512: 1596:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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interglacial ~330,000 years ago. These retreats would have added about 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) and 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) to sea level rise.

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models - the most advanced generation available as of early 2020s. One study suggests that the circulation would lose half its strength by 2050 under the worst

420:

during certain months of the year. At greater warming levels, this effect is likely to disappear due to increasing concentrations of water vapor over Antarctica

834:. Even if initiated in the near future, the circulation's collapse is unlikely to be complete until close to 2300, Similarly, impacts such as the reduction in 272:

warming, which is a small fraction of the 53.3 m (175 ft) contained in the full ice sheet. Around 3 °C (5.4 °F), vulnerable locations like

971:

of the land previously covered by the ice sheet would result in an additional 1 m (3 ft 3 in) of sea level rise over the following 1000 years.

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2000 years. The absolute minimum for the loss of West Antarctica ice is 500 years, and the potential maximum is 13,000 years. Once the ice sheet is lost, the

8641: 5259: 938:, which is much smaller than the East Antarctic ice sheet is and grounded deep below the sea level, is considered highly vulnerable. The melting of all the 1062:

shows that Wilkes Basin had likely lost enough ice to add 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) to sea levels between 115,000 and 129,000 years ago, during the

4978: 2751: 2008:

Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation. The glaciation was favored by an interval when the Earth's orbit favored cool summers but

8077: 7903: 2786: 2188: 8072: 7154: 6209:

Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E.; Bell, R.; Bianchi, C.; Bingham, R. G.; Blankenship, D. D. (2013-02-28).

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Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E.; Bell, R.; Bianchi, C.; Bingham, R. G.; Blankenship, D. D. (2013-02-28).

5392: 7940: 2046: 701: 646: 7877: 4684:

Shi, Jia-Rui; Talley, Lynne D.; Xie, Shang-Ping; Peng, Qihua; Liu, Wei (2021-11-29). "Ocean warming and accelerating Southern Ocean zonal flow".

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by 2100 can be limited to 0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft). If the emissions instead accelerate rapidly (top trace), sea levels could rise 5 m (

6642: 7586: 1530: 4463:. Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Vol. 2021. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1239–1241. 7819: 683: 402: 3494:

Clem, Kyle R.; Fogt, Ryan L.; Turner, John; Lintner, Benjamin R.; Marshall, Gareth J.; Miller, James R.; Renwick, James A. (August 2020).

2704: 1393:

Rignot, Eric; Mouginot, Jérémie; Scheuchl, Bernd; van den Broeke, Michiel; van Wessem, Melchior J.; Morlighem, Mathieu (22 January 2019).

901: ft) by the year 2300. Higher levels of sea level rise would involve substantial ice loss from Antarctica, including East Antarctica. 7703: 6839: 5315: 4119: 2662:

huge icebergs. That's what gets reported year after year. But the continent as a whole is getting colder, and the ice is getting thicker.

1504: 818: 304:

weighs about 24,380,000 gigatonnes. This ice is equivalent to around 61% of all fresh water on Earth. The only other currently existing

3923:"Mass balance of the Antarctic ice sheet 1992–2016: reconciling results from GRACE gravimetry with ICESat, ERS1/2 and Envisat altimetry" 618: 7962: 7920: 6964: 6390: 958:

The only way to reverse ice loss from West Antarctica once triggered is by lowering the global temperature to 1 °C (1.8 °F)

8841: 7957: 7542: 6788: 4453:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). 3318: 1006: 906: 2586: 868: 481:

Antarctic surface temperature trends, in °C/decade. Red represents areas where temperatures have increased the most since the 1950s.

8172: 7893: 7611: 7388: 5484:

Carlson, Anders E; Walczak, Maureen H; Beard, Brian L; Laffin, Matthew K; Stoner, Joseph S; Hatfield, Robert G (10 December 2018).

3794:

predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C.

2855:"Little Ice Age cold interval in West Antarctica: Evidence from borehole temperature at the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) Divide" 905:

Sea level rise will continue well after 2100, but potentially at very different rates. According to the most recent reports of the

5117: 8528: 8317: 7485: 1738: 962:

the preindustrial level. This would be 2 °C (3.6 °F) below the temperature of 2020. Other researchers suggested that a

2463: 1094:(18 °F). Another estimate suggested that at least 6 °C (11 °F) would be needed to melt two thirds of its volume. 8177: 8140: 7994: 7979: 7898: 7547: 7491: 3786:"The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The 3625:"Developing resilience to climate change impacts in Antarctica: An evaluation of Antarctic Treaty System protected area policy" 3148:"West-warming East-cooling trend over Antarctica reversed since early 21st century driven by large-scale circulation variation" 2289: 257: 6493:

Coxall, Helen K. (2005). "Rapid stepwise onset of Antarctic glaciation and deeper calcite compensation in the Pacific Ocean".

6156: 5876: 4457:. In Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). 8836: 7974: 3084: 2651: 2017: 1143: 802: 498:

over 42% of the continent. What became known as the "Antarctic Cooling Controversy" received further attention in 2004, when

2118: 1598:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022. 8858: 7814: 7809: 7355: 2937: 1155: 1086: 1022: 831: 814: 600: 8339: 8117: 7935: 7867: 7857: 7840: 7747: 7554: 7118: 5039:"Slowing deep Southern Ocean current may be linked to natural climate cycle—but melting Antarctic ice is still a concern" 4737:"Freshening by glacial meltwater enhances the melting of ice shelves and reduces the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water" 3083:

Dalaiden, Quentin; Schurer, Andrew P.; Kirchmeier-Young, Megan C.; Goosse, Hugues; Hegerl, Gabriele C. (24 August 2022).

2347:"Climate From the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, 1986–2017: Surface Air Temperature Trends and Redefined Summer Season" 1712: 7872: 4836:

Aoki, S.; Yamazaki, K.; Hirano, D.; Katsumata, K.; Shimada, K.; Kitade, Y.; Sasaki, H.; Murase, H. (15 September 2020).

8950: 8768: 8629: 8586: 8082: 7159: 2266:

Steig, Eric; Schneider, David; Rutherford, Scott; Mann, Michael E.; Comiso, Josefino; Shindell, Drew (1 January 2009).

1078:

of the newly ice-free land would also add 8 cm (3.1 in) and 57 cm (1 ft 10 in), respectively.

466: 217:

Because the East Antarctic ice sheet is over 10 times larger than the West Antarctic ice sheet and located at a higher

2544: 1050:

Sustained ice loss from the EAIS would begin with the significant erosion of the so-called subglacial basins, such as

351:

The EAIS rests on a major land mass, but the bed of the WAIS is, in places, more than 2,500 meters (8,200 feet) below

8960: 8695: 8571: 8388: 7591: 6896: 4476: 2733: 2522: 1649: 1226: 667: 998: 8928: 8566: 8546: 8493: 8445: 7507: 7255: 7169: 3146:

Xin, Meijiao; Clem, Kyle R; Turner, John; Stammerjohn, Sharon E; Zhu, Jiang; Cai, Wenju; Li, Xichen (2 June 2023).

794: 568: 490: 344:

being ice-free in the present. Some coastal areas also have exposed bedrock that is not covered by ice. During the

3431: 830:(3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F), but there is far less certainty than with the estimates for most other 174:, containing 26.5 million cubic kilometres (6,400,000 cubic miles) of ice, which is equivalent to 61% of all 8685: 8636: 8062: 8024: 7969: 7439: 7250: 7133: 6911: 6832: 6023: 5251: 3978: 3180: 6565: 2171: 2144: 1591: 552:

between 1959 and 2000 to 0.31 °C (0.56 °F) per decade, and conclusively attributed it to increases in

465:

were deployed relatively late, and their observational record was brief for much of the 20th century. Likewise,

414: 8753: 8037: 7794: 7123: 6397:

Palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, & palaeoecology ISSN 0031-0182, 1992, vol. 93, no1-2, pp. 85–112 (3 p.)

2755: 2517: 1806: 1039: 732:

with heights greater than 100 m (330 ft) may collapse under their own weight once they are no longer

2778: 178:

on Earth. Its surface is nearly continuous, and the only ice-free areas on the continent are the dry valleys,

8863: 8398: 7930: 7113: 7075: 6886: 6432:

Pagani, M.; Huber, M.; Liu, Z.; Bohaty, S. M.; Henderiks, J.; Sijp, W.; Krishnan, S.; Deconto, R. M. (2011).

4936:"Human-induced changes in the global meridional overturning circulation are emerging from the Southern Ocean" 3787: 3120: 2490: 2427:"The Melting (Freezing) of Antarctica; Deciphering Contradictory Climate Patterns Is Largely a Matter of Ice" 2237: 5960:"Wilkes subglacial basin ice sheet response to Southern Ocean warming during late Pleistocene interglacials" 4196:

L. Bamber, Jonathan; Oppenheimer, Michael; E. Kopp, Robert; P. Aspinall, Willy; M. Cooke, Roger (May 2019).

2400: 183: 8846: 8518: 8047: 8042: 7947: 7824: 7381: 7024: 6954: 6901: 6874: 2859: 2608: 2145:"Variability and Trends in Antarctic Surface Temperatures from In Situ and Satellite Infrared Measurements" 1535: 1014: 914: 721: 364: 241: 6776: 3921:

Zwally, H. Jay; Robbins, John W.; Luthcke, Scott B.; Loomis, Bryant D.; Rémy, Frédérique (29 March 2021).

942:

in West Antarctica would increase the total sea level rise to 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in). Mountain

793:

While these effects weren't fully caused by climate change, with some role played by the natural cycle of

299:

The bedrock topography of Antarctica, critical to understand dynamic motion of the continental ice sheets.

8057: 7910: 7350: 7138: 7070: 6959: 4383:

Pellichero, Violaine; Sallée, Jean-Baptiste; Chapman, Christopher C.; Downes, Stephanie M. (3 May 2018).

2053: 4557:

Haumann, F. Alexander; Gruber, Nicolas; Münnich, Matthias; Frenger, Ivy; Kern, Stefan (September 2016).

436:, which is far more effective at absorbing heat than any other ocean. It also has extensive year-around 413:

Parts of East Antarctica (marked in blue) are currently the only place on Earth to regularly experience

171: 8916: 8680: 8483: 8440: 8213: 8135: 7989: 7220: 7205: 7164: 7128: 6825: 5903:"Rapid postglacial rebound amplifies global sea level rise following West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse" 5561: 5042: 4838:"Reversal of freshening trend of Antarctic Bottom Water in the Australian-Antarctic Basin during 2010s" 4494:"Intense ocean freshening from melting glacier around the Antarctica during early twenty-first century" 1211: 1159: 260:

and may even contribute to its collapse, although this will likely take place over multiple centuries.

139: 6268:

Garbe, Julius; Albrecht, Torsten; Levermann, Anders; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (2020).

5657:

Garbe, Julius; Albrecht, Torsten; Levermann, Anders; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (2020).

4061:"Marine ice sheet instability amplifies and skews uncertainty in projections of future sea-level rise" 955:

also appears to be warming at rates which would make the ice sheet's collapse effectively inevitable.

720:. Other processes may cause West Antarctica to contribute more to sea level rise. One such process is 716:

By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica alone is expected to add about 11 cm (5 in) to global

8785: 8460: 8435: 8408: 8370: 8287: 8105: 7952: 7915: 7665: 7434: 7429: 7424: 6879: 6407: 5058:"Stratification constrains future heat and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean between 30°S and 55°S" 3768: 1664: 1154:

and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a

462: 424:

Antarctica is the coldest and driest continent on Earth, as well as the one with the highest average

8300: 4979:"NOAA Scientists Detect a Reshaping of the Meridional Overturning Circulation in the Southern Ocean" 2983: 2920: 2830: 875: 8795: 8790: 8780: 8721: 8561: 8067: 8032: 7925: 7852: 7693: 7522: 7458: 7419: 7240: 7230: 7014: 6986: 6942: 6388:

Sedimentological evidence for the formation of an East Antarctic ice sheet in Eocene/Oligocene time

5503: 3085:"West Antarctic Surface Climate Changes Since the Mid-20th Century Driven by Anthropogenic Forcing" 1216: 935: 789:

Since the 1970s, the upper cell of the circulation has strengthened, while the lower cell weakened.

679: 650: 549: 528: 454:

temperature trends over Antarctica would emerge slower and be more subtle than they are elsewhere.

328: 324: 320: 195: 191: 50: 42: 236:

By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica alone would add around 11 cm (5 in) to the global

8904: 8826: 8736: 8478: 8450: 8130: 7789: 7767: 7374: 7270: 7174: 7060: 6856: 6433: 5762: 5713: 2613: 1221: 1018: 806: 596: 290: 6157:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 5877:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 4385:"The southern ocean meridional overturning in the sea-ice sector is driven by freshwater fluxes" 1162:

marker changes were too large to be explained by Antarctic ice-sheet growth alone indicating an

1066:, and about 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) between 318,000 and 339,000 years ago, during the 8503: 8323: 8265: 8182: 8167: 8052: 7698: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7245: 7065: 5587:"Unavoidable future increase in West Antarctic ice-shelf melting over the twenty-first century" 3791: 2978: 2915: 2825: 2708: 1185:

opened up. But there was no significant decline in the land-based Eastern Antarctic ice sheet.

1067: 771: 253: 5485: 2636: 1768: 821:(AMOC), which is also affected by the ocean warming and by meltwater flows from the declining 8892: 8538: 8415: 8223: 7683: 7606: 7265: 7215: 7210: 7105: 6947: 6891: 6869: 5658: 5274: 4885:

Gunn, Kathryn L.; Rintoul, Stephen R.; England, Matthew H.; Bowen, Melissa M. (25 May 2023).

4147:"Linking sea level rise and socioeconomic indicators under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways" 1463: 757: 572: 518: 345: 3181:"Absence of 21st century warming on Antarctic Peninsula consistent with natural variability" 493:

after it also indicated stronger cooling than warming between 1966 and 2000, and found that

8731: 8609: 8270: 7845: 7772: 6711: 6656: 6599: 6553: 6502: 6445: 6387: 6336: 6281: 6222: 5971: 5914: 5670: 5598: 5518: 5430: 5349: 5289: 5145: 5121: 5069: 5056:

Bourgeois, Timothée; Goris, Nadine; Schwinger, Jörg; Tjiputra, Jerry F. (17 January 2022).

5009: 4947: 4898: 4794: 4693: 4642: 4570: 4505: 4396: 4323: 4265: 4209: 4158: 4072: 4015: 3934: 3869: 3815: 3693: 3636: 3562: 3507: 3460: 3397: 3357: 3291: 3195: 3099: 3049: 2970: 2907: 2868: 2817: 2658:

The data show that one relatively small area called the Antarctic Peninsula is melting and

2358: 2346: 2205: 2158: 2090: 1956: 1911: 1847: 1478: 1349: 1298: 211: 3748: 3731: 3015: 2576: 2268:"Warming of the Antarctic ice-sheet surface since the 1957 International Geophysical Year" 1435: 8: 8955: 8748: 8523: 7757: 7752: 7340: 7317: 7275: 7225: 7200: 6974: 6932: 2458: 1097: 1035: 1030: 963: 843: 839: 826: 822: 712:

An illustration of the theory behind marine ice sheet and marine ice cliff instabilities.

494: 471: 380: 341: 332: 309: 230: 199: 160: 46: 6766: 6715: 6700:"Minimal East Antarctic Ice Sheet retreat onto land during the past eight million years" 6660: 6603: 6557: 6506: 6449: 6340: 6285: 6226: 5975: 5918: 5787: 5738: 5674: 5635: 5602: 5522: 5434: 5353: 5293: 5149: 5073: 5013: 4951: 4902: 4798: 4697: 4646: 4574: 4509: 4454: 4400: 4327: 4269: 4213: 4162: 4076: 4019: 3938: 3873: 3860:

IMBIE team (13 June 2018). "Mass balance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet from 1992 to 2017".

3819: 3697: 3640: 3566: 3511: 3464: 3401: 3361: 3295: 3199: 3103: 3053: 2974: 2911: 2872: 2821: 2362: 2209: 2162: 2094: 1960: 1915: 1851: 1482: 1363:

IMBIE team (13 June 2018). "Mass balance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet from 1992 to 2017".

1302: 1260: 951:

period 125,000 years ago, when temperatures were similar to the early 21st century. The

662:. Then, though, a 2021 analysis of data from four different research satellite systems ( 391: 8576: 8508: 8425: 8275: 8240: 8197: 8192: 8187: 7762: 7260: 6743: 6680: 6623: 6526: 6469: 6305: 6092: 5992: 5959: 5935: 5902: 5857: 5694: 5616: 5542: 5461: 5419:"Early Last Interglacial ocean warming drove substantial ice mass loss from Antarctica" 5418: 5373: 5307: 5230: 5171: 5090: 5057: 4998:"Slowdown of Antarctic Bottom Water export driven by climatic wind and sea-ice changes" 4862: 4837: 4818: 4761: 4736: 4717: 4666: 4612: 4534: 4493: 4417: 4384: 4365: 4291: 4232: 4197: 4145:; Schleussner, Carl-Friedrich; Meinshausen, Malte; Mengel, Matthias (1 November 2017). 4095: 4060: 4036: 4003: 3903: 3839: 3662: 3605: 3586: 3531: 3476: 3413: 3323: 3219: 3125: 3065: 2996: 2961: 2581: 2431: 2382: 2320: 2229: 2149: 2006: 1982: 1929: 1868: 1835: 1496: 1419: 1394: 851: 671: 523: 335:(also in West Antarctica) to be the third ice sheet in Antarctica, in part because its 252:, at a rate of 1100-1500 billion tons (GT) per year. This meltwater dilutes the saline 6580: 6054: 5811: 4887:"Recent reduced abyssal overturning and ventilation in the Australian Antarctic Basin" 2485: 2023: 8810: 8473: 8218: 7984: 7777: 7740: 7527: 7481: 7322: 7195: 6864: 6735: 6727: 6672: 6615: 6518: 6473: 6461: 6370: 6362: 6324: 6309: 6297: 6250: 6096: 6084: 5997: 5940: 5868: 5861: 5849: 5841: 5792: 5743: 5698: 5686: 5620: 5546: 5534: 5504:"Genomic evidence for West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse during the Last Interglacial" 5466: 5448: 5393:"Discovery of recent Antarctic ice sheet collapse raises fears of a new global flood" 5365: 5234: 5222: 5175: 5095: 4916: 4867: 4822: 4810: 4766: 4721: 4709: 4670: 4658: 4616: 4604: 4596: 4539: 4521: 4472: 4422: 4369: 4357: 4349: 4311: 4295: 4237: 4100: 4041: 3895: 3831: 3773: 3711: 3666: 3654: 3590: 3578: 3535: 3523: 3480: 3388: 3260: 3223: 3211: 3129: 3069: 2898: 2647: 2386: 2374: 2345:

Obryk, M. K.; Doran, P. T.; Fountain, A. G.; Myers, M.; McKay, C. P. (16 July 2020).

2312: 2221: 2196: 2013: 1986: 1933: 1873: 1802: 1693: 1645: 1326: 1151: 1075: 1043: 968: 642: 584: 509: 417: 268: 6747: 6684: 6269: 6150: 6148: 6146: 6144: 5377: 5311: 3907: 3730:

Verity; Schädel, Christina; Strauss, Jens; Treat, Claire; Turetsky, Merritt (2022).

3550: 3495: 3417: 3346:"Southern Hemisphere climate response to ozone changes and greenhouse gas increases" 3278:

Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John T.; Branstator, Grant; Phillips, Adam S. (2014).

3000: 2328: 1679: 1500: 535:

also issued statements affirming the strength of climate science after the hearing.

240:. Further, the way WAIS is located deep below the sea level leaves it vulnerable to 8853: 8420: 8403: 8344: 8235: 7999: 7723: 7596: 7532: 7312: 6719: 6664: 6647: 6627: 6607: 6561: 6510: 6453: 6352: 6344: 6289: 6240: 6230: 6191: 6128: 6120: 6074: 6066: 5987: 5979: 5930: 5922: 5831: 5823: 5782: 5774: 5733: 5725: 5678: 5606: 5526: 5456: 5438: 5357: 5297: 5214: 5191: 5161: 5153: 5085: 5077: 5017: 4955: 4906: 4857: 4849: 4802: 4756: 4748: 4701: 4650: 4586: 4578: 4529: 4513: 4464: 4412: 4404: 4339: 4331: 4281: 4273: 4227: 4217: 4176: 4166: 4090: 4080: 4031: 4023: 3942: 3885: 3877: 3843: 3823: 3743: 3701: 3644: 3570: 3515: 3468: 3405: 3365: 3299: 3250: 3203: 3159: 3115: 3107: 3057: 2988: 2925: 2876: 2835: 2707:. U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. 2006-09-28. Archived from 2366: 2304: 2233: 2213: 2166: 2098: 1972: 1964: 1919: 1863: 1855: 1683: 1675: 1620: 1486: 1414: 1406: 1372: 1316: 1306: 1202: 1090: 1058:, which are located in vulnerable locations below the sea level. Evidence from the 855: 499: 376: 226: 225:

freezing on top of the ice sheet), yet the ice loss from the WAIS glaciers such as

6530: 4198:"Ice sheet contributions to future sea-level rise from structured expert judgment" 2324: 409: 8805: 8726: 8690: 8619: 8593: 8581: 8498: 8430: 8305: 8162: 7784: 7735: 7713: 7296: 7080: 7055: 6981: 6937: 6927: 6394: 6141: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3673: 3649: 3624: 1745:. Goddard Earth Sciences Division Projects: Cryospheric Sciences. 19 January 2024 1608:

Swithinbank, Charles (1988). Williams Jr., Richard S.; Ferrigno, Jane G. (eds.).

1236: 1071: 744: 604: 576: 458: 245: 5803: 5778: 5729: 4460:

Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I

2609:"Media goofed on Antarctic data / Global warming interpretation irks scientists" 1170:

may have played a role as well though models of the changes suggest declining CO

8758: 8614: 8556: 8551: 8393: 8282: 8014: 8009: 8004: 7862: 7799: 7537: 7517: 7476: 7397: 7306: 7301: 7291: 7190: 7004: 6348: 6124: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6040: 5983: 5611: 5586: 5218: 5081: 5022: 4997: 4960: 4935: 4911: 4886: 4853: 4705: 4654: 4591: 4517: 4408: 4335: 4181: 4171: 4146: 4027: 3732:"Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic" 3706: 3681: 3472: 3164: 3147: 2807: 1924: 1900:"Low Antarctic continental climate sensitivity due to high ice sheet orography" 1899: 1231: 1051: 884: 880: 717: 659: 553: 450: 433: 368: 360: 336: 237: 38: 6723: 6293: 6055:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 6013: 6011: 5812:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 5682: 4558: 4468: 4277: 3959: 3881: 3574: 3519: 3061: 2992: 1859: 1376: 8944: 8831: 8763: 8488: 8310: 8295: 8230: 8125: 7235: 7029: 6803: 6790: 6366: 6254: 6088: 6033:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: 1270–1272. 6019: 5845: 5763:"The potential for stabilizing Amundsen Sea glaciers via underwater curtains" 5452: 5246: 5244: 4920: 4814: 4713: 4600: 4525: 4450: 4353: 3988:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: 1270–1272. 3974: 3658: 3582: 3527: 2643: 2378: 2043: 1697: 1609: 1330: 1167: 835: 798: 724:, which describes the potential for warm water currents to enter between the 687: 504: 222: 6581:"Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO 6457: 6070: 6037: 5827: 5530: 5443: 5361: 4222: 4085: 2676: 2217: 1563: 1410: 708: 8716: 8513: 8157: 8147: 7804: 7688: 7601: 6739: 6676: 6619: 6522: 6465: 6374: 6301: 6195: 6008: 6001: 5944: 5926: 5853: 5796: 5754: 5747: 5705: 5690: 5538: 5470: 5369: 5099: 4871: 4770: 4752: 4662: 4608: 4543: 4426: 4361: 4241: 4142: 4104: 4045: 3999: 3899: 3835: 3715: 3264: 3215: 2680: 2600: 2316: 2225: 1877: 1688: 1181:

epoch, approximately five to three million years ago; during this time the

1055: 979: 974: 952: 544: 477: 372: 277: 273: 263: 6235: 6211:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica" 6210: 6052: 5809: 5578: 5302: 5275:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica" 5241: 5037:

Silvano, Alessandro; Meijers, Andrew J. S.; Zhou, Shenjie (17 June 2023).

2627: 2477: 1491: 1464:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica" 1311: 1287:"Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica" 1286: 559: 295: 28: 8743: 8260: 8252: 7512: 7039: 7019: 6906: 6133: 5477: 5266: 5157: 4806: 4559:"Sea-ice transport driving Southern Ocean salinity and its recent trends" 4492:

Pan, Xianliang L.; Li, Bofeng F.; Watanabe, Yutaka W. (10 January 2022).

3855: 3853: 3760: 3378: 3370: 3345: 3303: 3111: 3076: 2952: 2881: 2854: 2659: 2370: 2283: 2281: 2261: 2259: 2180: 1968: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1641:

Ecosystem Dynamics in a Polar Desert: the Mcmurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica

1059: 987: 779: 580: 486: 432:, so its air doesn't conduct heat well. Further, it is surrounded by the 429: 175: 74: 6668: 6611: 6514: 6079: 5951: 5836: 5585:

A. Naughten, Kaitlin; R. Holland, Paul; De Rydt, Jan (23 October 2023).

5166: 4582: 4344: 4302: 4286: 3827: 3207: 2852: 2570: 2568: 1940: 1177:

The Western Antarctic ice sheet declined somewhat during the warm early

1110: 331:(WAIS). Some glaciologists consider ice cover over the relatively small 8775: 8152: 7096: 6969: 6848: 5650: 5487:

Absence of the West Antarctic ice sheet during the last interglaciation

5333: 4783: 4312:"The Paris Climate Agreement and future sea-level rise from Antarctica" 4248: 4189: 4134: 3992: 3947: 3922: 3914: 3890: 3722: 3430:

Meredith, M.; Sommerkorn, M.; Cassotta, S; Derksen, C.; et al. (2019).

3141: 3139: 2697: 2136: 2103: 2078: 1977: 1119: 702:

Climate change in Antarctica § 21st century ice loss and sea level rise

589: 461:

across the continent, with only two in the continent's interior, while

445: 203: 164: 100: 66: 6731: 6699: 6357: 6245: 6202: 5714:"Feasibility of ice sheet conservation using seabed anchored curtains" 5562:"Antarctic octopus DNA reveals ice sheet collapse closer than thought" 5226: 5118:"Landmark study projects 'dramatic' changes to Southern Ocean by 2050" 4458: 4195: 4059:

Robel, Alexander A.; Seroussi, Hélène; Roe, Gerard H. (23 July 2019).

3850: 2308: 2278: 2256: 2111: 1884: 1820: 1595: 1321: 7730: 7009: 5894: 5494: 3799: 3487: 3437:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

3409: 3082: 2929: 2846: 2839: 2668: 2565: 2549: 1836:"Unmasking the negative greenhouse effect over the Antarctic Plateau" 1639: 1127: 847: 767: 737: 655: 514: 425: 352: 305: 249: 218: 167: 90: 70: 6103: 3279: 3255: 3238: 3136: 2288:

Doran, Peter T.; Priscu, JC; Lyons, WB; et al. (January 2002).

1624: 1392: 785: 690:

over its surface, which then freezes and helps to build up more ice.

7034: 6434:"Drop in carbon dioxide levels led to polar ice sheet, study finds" 6261: 6017: 4677: 4448: 3972: 2740: 2267: 1182: 1178: 1115: 775: 733: 725: 540: 207: 179: 138:

2.2 km (1.4 mi) on average, 4.9 km (3.0 mi) at

5188: 4140: 3277: 2767:

NASA image by Robert Simmon, based on data from Joey Comiso, GSFC.

2705:"America Reacts To Speech Debunking Media Global Warming Alarmism" 7708: 7366: 6174: 5134: 3039: 1395:"Four decades of Antarctic Ice Sheet mass balance from 1979–2017" 1163: 1131: 943: 663: 437: 187: 34: 6643:"Obliquity-paced Pliocene West Antarctic ice sheet oscillations" 6325:"60 million years of glaciation in the Transantarctic Mountains" 3623:

Hughes, Kevin A.; Convey, Peter; Turner, John (1 October 2021).

3496:"Record warming at the South Pole during the past three decades" 1834:

Sejas, Sergio A.; Taylor, Patrick C.; Cai, Ming (11 July 2018).

1531:"Scientists chart history of Greenland Ice Sheet for first time" 1138:

The icing of Antarctica began in the Late Palaeocene or middle

8711: 5761:

Wolovick, Michael; Moore, John; Keefer, Bowie (27 March 2023).

5712:

Wolovick, Michael; Moore, John; Keefer, Bowie (27 March 2023).

5055: 2958: 1142:

between 60 and 45.5 million years ago and escalated during the

1139: 1123: 1063: 1026: 983: 948: 675: 441: 356: 313: 33:

South facing visualization of the Antarctic ice sheet from the

6408:"New CO2 data helps unlock the secrets of Antarctic formation" 6208: 5258:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 2021. 4734: 2895: 2290:"Antarctic climate cooling and terrestrial ecosystem response" 1284: 1096:

If the entire ice sheet were to disappear, then the change in

797:, they are likely to worsen in the future. As of early 2020s, 403:

Climate change in Antarctica § Temperature and weather changes

8625:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

7718: 6817: 5636:"Sea-level rise: West Antarctic ice shelf melt 'unavoidable'" 4995: 4382: 4120:"Collapse may not always be inevitable for marine ice cliffs" 3728: 3384: 2189:"Interpretation of Recent Southern Hemisphere Climate Change" 1010: 910: 729: 60: 6267: 5656: 5584: 4308: 2265: 6566:

10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0163:EOTITS>2.3.CO;2

5339: 4982: 4835: 4556: 2747: 2172:

10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<1674:vatias>2.0.co;2

1794: 1772: 1021:, where the anthropogenic emissions increase continuously, 619:

Climate change in Antarctica § Observed changes in ice mass

567:

Local changes in atmospheric circulation patterns like the

532: 521:, and Peter Doran felt compelled to publish a statement in 78: 6180: 6109: 5957: 5900: 5415: 4692:(12). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1090–1097. 3920: 3805: 8801:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

5483: 3682:"Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading" 3319:"Ozone Hole Is Now Seen as a Cause for Antarctic Cooling" 3280:"Seasonal aspects of the recent pause in surface warming" 3016:"West Antarctic Ice Sheet warming twice earlier estimate" 2404: 939: 3145: 1898:

Singh, Hansi A.; Polvani, Lorenzo M. (10 January 2020).

1105: 4884: 3549:

Stammerjohn, Sharon E.; Scambos, Ted A. (August 2020).

2674: 2344: 1946: 947:

because it appears to have already occurred during the

869:

Climate change in Antarctica § Long-term sea level rise

858:, are also expected to unfold over multiple centuries. 348:, many of those areas had been covered by ice as well. 6322: 5500: 1637: 1619:. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper (1386-B). 8642:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

4933: 4004:"The paradigm shift in Antarctic ice sheet modelling" 3493: 2853:

A. Orsi; Bruce D. Cornuelle; J. Severinghaus (2012).

2486:"Guess what? Antarctica's getting colder, not warmer" 2287: 6431: 4632: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4436: 1564:"Antarctica and Greenland Ice Sheet Drainage Basins" 1192: 6024:"Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change" 5760: 5711: 5204: 5030: 4254: 3979:"Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change" 3449: 2545:"Antarctic cooling pushing life closer to the edge" 1769:"The "Unstable" West Antarctic Ice Sheet: A Primer" 766:Ice loss from Antarctica also generates more fresh 637:

Mass change of ice in Antarctica between 2002–2020.

7155:Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs 5036: 3680:Hausfather, Zeke; Peters, Glen (29 January 2020). 3622: 3548: 2635: 2401:"Scientific winds blow hot and cold in Antarctica" 2005: 1114:Polar climatic temperature changes throughout the 1101:and a correspondingly low impact on global albedo. 752: 748:0.5 cm to global sea levels per year by 2100. 6543: 4433: 3606:"Antarctica appears to have broken a heat record" 3178: 3121:20.500.11820/64ecd5a1-af19-43e8-9d34-da7274cc4ae0 2752:"Two Decades of Temperature Change in Antarctica" 1799:"Two Decades of Temperature Change in Antarctica" 457:Moreover, there were fewer than twenty permanent 8942: 8842:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 4683: 4058: 3679: 2510: 1584: 817:. This would be similar to some projections for 682:can still gain mass in spite of warming because 647:Ice Sheet Mass Balance Inter-comparison Exercise 527:decrying the misinterpretation of his work. The 428:. Because Antarctica is so dry, there is little 6154: 5874: 5423:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4202:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4065:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3343: 2483: 2186: 1719:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1601: 1399:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5273:Fretwell, P.; et al. (28 February 2013). 4376: 2187:Thompson, David W. J.; Solomon, Susan (2002). 1833: 1761: 1658: 1617:Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World 1462:Fretwell, P.; et al. (28 February 2013). 1457: 1455: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1280: 1278: 1261:"Antarctic Bedrock: Bedmap2 Surface Elevation" 982:- a key part of the Wilkes Basin - during the 7587:History of climate change policy and politics 7382: 6833: 5049: 4491: 3954:and Giovinetto (Zwally and Giovinetto, 2011). 3344:Shindell, Drew T.; Schmidt, Gavin A. (2004). 2776: 2012:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1999: 1644:. American Geophysical Union. pp. 1–38. 883:emissions significantly (lowest trace), then 694: 386: 5111: 5109: 2754:. Earth Observatory Newsroom. Archived from 2351:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 2077:Chapman, William L.; Walsh, John E. (2007). 2076: 1897: 1713:"East and West: The Geography of Antarctica" 1631: 1388: 1386: 1025:, would result in Antarctica alone losing a 809:, with greater losses occurring afterwards. 684:effects of climate change on the water cycle 611: 383:are the two most important outlet glaciers. 149:Ongoing net loss of ice, regionally variable 7704:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 6270:"The hysteresis of the Antarctic Ice Sheet" 6155:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 5875:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 5659:"The hysteresis of the Antarctic Ice Sheet" 4973: 4971: 4728: 2574: 2513:"Antarctica Gives Mixed Signals on Warming" 1731: 1607: 1452: 1337: 1275: 999:East Antarctic Ice Sheet § Long-term future 819:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 595:Models predict that under the most intense 8923: 8911: 8368: 7389: 7375: 6840: 6826: 5490:. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting. 3859: 3736:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 2732:. British Antarctic Survey. Archived from 2451: 1739:"Antarctic and Greenland Drainage Systems" 1522: 1427: 1362: 556:concentrations caused by human activity. 319:The Antarctic ice sheet is divided by the 8663: 8469:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 7612:United Nations Climate Change conferences 6356: 6244: 6234: 6132: 6078: 5991: 5934: 5835: 5786: 5737: 5610: 5460: 5442: 5301: 5165: 5106: 5089: 5021: 4959: 4910: 4861: 4760: 4628: 4626: 4590: 4533: 4416: 4343: 4285: 4231: 4221: 4180: 4170: 4094: 4084: 4035: 3946: 3889: 3747: 3705: 3648: 3369: 3254: 3163: 3119: 2982: 2919: 2880: 2829: 2170: 2102: 1976: 1923: 1867: 1687: 1490: 1418: 1383: 1320: 1310: 1254: 1252: 1007:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 907:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 8173:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 5633: 5272: 5182: 4989: 4968: 4829: 4455:"Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change" 3766: 2675:Eric Steig; Gavin Schmidt (2004-12-03). 2633: 2606: 2272:Arts & Sciences Faculty Publications 1704: 1561: 1528: 1461: 1356: 1109: 973: 874: 784: 756: 707: 645:of all previous studies and data by the 624: 558: 476: 408: 390: 294: 8529:National Adaptation Programme of Action 8318:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 6698:Shakun, Jeremy D.; et al. (2018). 6578: 5198: 4927: 4787:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 4117: 3013: 2079:"A Synthesis of Antarctic Temperatures" 850:in the Southern Ocean with a potential 842:, with a corresponding increase in the 190:. However, it is often subdivided into 8943: 8178:Economics of climate change mitigation 8141:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 7664: 7492:Scientific consensus on climate change 6697: 6492: 5390: 4940:Communications Earth & Environment 4623: 3998: 3603: 2253:PDF available at Annular Modes Website 2142: 1787: 1249: 1029:of 1.46 m (4 ft 9 in) ( 593:record of 17.5 °C in March 2015. 258:Southern Ocean overturning circulation 256:, which weakens the lower cell of the 202:(AP), due to the large differences in 8837:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 8662: 8367: 8103: 7663: 7575: 7456: 7408: 7370: 6821: 6640: 5321:from the original on 16 February 2020 5192:The Global Tipping Points Report 2023 5115: 3749:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 3604:Larson, Christina (8 February 2020). 3316: 3236: 2935: 2789:from the original on 13 November 2014 2779:"Warming in Antarctica Looks Certain" 2424: 2000:John Theodore, Houghton, ed. (2001). 1510:from the original on 16 February 2020 1258: 1106:Situation during geologic time scales 323:into two unequal sections called the 8859:Representative Concentration Pathway 7810:Tipping points in the climate system 7486:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 7346: 6641:Naish, Timothy; et al. (2009). 2746: 2677:"Antarctic cooling, global warming?" 2511:Bijal P. Trivedi (25 January 2002). 1793: 1710: 1562:Shepherd, Andrew (18 January 2024). 1555: 1543:from the original on 7 December 2023 1433: 1174:levels to have been more important. 1122:of Antarctica toward the end of the 1087:tipping points in the climate system 832:tipping points in the climate system 815:tipping points in the climate system 778:(Sv; represents a flow of 1 million 244:, which is difficult to simulate in 8630:Nationally determined contributions 8340:Individual action on climate change 7555:World energy supply and consumption 4258:npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 2938:"The heat is on in West Antarctica" 2589:from the original on April 11, 2009 1904:npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 1840:npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 861: 508:which alleged a conspiracy amongst 13: 8769:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 7396: 5634:Poynting, Mark (24 October 2023). 3629:Environmental Science & Policy 3014:McGrath, Matt (23 December 2012). 986:~120,000 years ago and an earlier 467:satellite temperature measurements 14: 8972: 8696:Satellite temperature measurement 8301:forestry for carbon sequestration 7592:History of climate change science 5559: 5262:from the original on 7 July 2021. 2777:Kenneth Chang (21 January 2009). 2454:"Antarctic cools in warmer world" 1711:Hale, George (19 November 2014). 1227:List of glaciers in the Antarctic 1166:of some size. The opening of the 1144:Eocene–Oligocene extinction event 934:Over even longer timescales, the 668:European Remote-Sensing Satellite 649:(IMBIE) estimated an increase in 8922: 8910: 8899: 8898: 8886: 8547:Climate Change Performance Index 7345: 7336: 7335: 7095: 6759: 6691: 6634: 6572: 6537: 6486: 6425: 6400: 6381: 6316: 5627: 5553: 5409: 5384: 5252:"Anticipating Future Sea Levels" 5136:warming and Greenland melting". 3767:Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022). 3551:"Warming reaches the South Pole" 2936:Steig, Eric (23 December 2012). 2452:Derbyshire, David (2002-01-14). 1195: 997:This section is an excerpt from 867:This section is an excerpt from 795:Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation 700:This section is an excerpt from 617:This section is an excerpt from 569:Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation 401:This section is an excerpt from 59: 27: 8686:Instrumental temperature record 8637:Sustainable Development Goal 13 5194:(Report). University of Exeter. 5128: 4878: 4777: 4550: 4485: 4111: 4052: 3616: 3597: 3542: 3443: 3424: 3337: 3310: 3271: 3230: 3172: 3033: 3007: 2889: 2801: 2770: 2722: 2537: 2504: 2445: 2418: 2393: 2338: 2070: 2037: 1993: 1680:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.07.024 1529:Robinson, Ben (15 April 2019). 1436:"Antarctic ice volume measured" 1265:Scientific Visualization Studio 753:Weakening Antarctic circulation 583:began to recover following the 8754:Climate variability and change 8104: 7795:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 6847: 4151:Environmental Research Letters 4118:Perkins, Sid (June 17, 2021). 3152:Environmental Research Letters 2484:Peter N. Spotts (2002-01-18). 1352:. National Science Foundation. 1146:about 34 million years ago. CO 1126:, thawing near the end of the 172:Earth's two current ice sheets 16:Earth's southern polar ice cap 1: 8864:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 8399:Climate emergency declaration 5116:Logan, Tyne (29 March 2023). 3788:Australian Academy of Science 3317:Chang, Kenneth (2002-05-03). 2730:"Climate Change—Our Research" 2607:Davidson, Keay (2002-02-04). 2491:The Christian Science Monitor 2425:Chang, Kenneth (2002-04-02). 1434:Amos, Jonathan (2013-03-08). 1243: 8847:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 8073:Middle East and North Africa 7409: 5138:Geophysical Research Letters 3650:10.1016/j.envsci.2021.05.023 3092:Geophysical Research Letters 2860:Geophysical Research Letters 2143:Comiso, Josefino C. (2000). 1949:Geophysical Research Letters 1536:The University of Manchester 1259:Starr, Cindy (4 June 2013). 1015:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 915:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 722:marine ice sheet instability 284: 242:marine ice sheet instability 7: 7576: 6579:DeConto, Robert M. (2003). 5391:Voosen, Paul (2018-12-18). 3769:"Explainer: IPCC Scenarios" 2177:PDF available at AMS Online 2119:"Impacts of climate change" 1188: 1150:levels were then about 760 214:between the three regions. 10: 8977: 8681:Global surface temperature 8572:Popular culture depictions 8484:Ecosystem-based adaptation 8214:Carbon capture and storage 8136:Carbon offsets and credits 7457: 6349:10.1038/s41467-022-33310-z 6125:10.1038/s41467-022-32847-3 5984:10.1038/s41467-022-32847-3 5612:10.1038/s41558-023-01818-x 5219:10.1038/s41558-022-01555-7 5082:10.1038/s41467-022-27979-5 5023:10.1038/s41558-023-01667-8 4961:10.1038/s43247-023-00727-3 4912:10.1038/s41558-023-01667-8 4854:10.1038/s41598-020-71290-6 4706:10.1038/s41558-021-01212-5 4655:10.1038/s41586-023-05762-w 4518:10.1038/s41598-021-04231-6 4409:10.1038/s41467-018-04101-2 4336:10.1038/s41586-021-03427-0 4028:10.1038/s41467-018-05003-z 3707:10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3 3473:10.1007/s00382-023-06825-4 3432:"Chapter 3: Polar Regions" 3239:"Cooling in the Antarctic" 2634:Crichton, Michael (2004). 2575:Peter Doran (2006-07-27). 1925:10.1038/s41612-020-00143-w 1668:Quaternary Science Reviews 1212:Bibliography of Antarctica 1160:oxygen isotope ratio cycle 996: 866: 699: 695:Near-future sea level rise 616: 463:automatic weather stations 400: 387:Warming over the ice sheet 288: 8951:Environment of Antarctica 8893:Climate change portal 8880: 8819: 8786:Extreme event attribution 8704: 8673: 8669: 8658: 8602: 8537: 8459: 8409:School Strike for Climate 8381: 8377: 8363: 8332: 8288:Climate-smart agriculture 8249: 8206: 8116: 8112: 8099: 8023: 7886: 7833: 7676: 7672: 7659: 7582: 7571: 7500: 7469: 7465: 7452: 7435:Climate change adaptation 7430:Climate change mitigation 7425:Effects of climate change 7415: 7404: 7331: 7284: 7183: 7147: 7104: 7093: 7048: 6997: 6920: 6855: 6724:10.1038/s41586-018-0155-6 6294:10.1038/s41586-020-2727-5 6161:climatetippingpoints.info 5881:climatetippingpoints.info 5779:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad103 5730:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad053 5683:10.1038/s41586-020-2727-5 5256:EarthObservatory.NASA.gov 4469:10.1017/9781009157896.011 4278:10.1038/s41612-020-0121-5 3882:10.1038/s41586-018-0179-y 3575:10.1038/s41558-020-0827-8 3520:10.1038/s41558-020-0815-z 3062:10.1007/s00382-015-2582-5 2993:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00733.1 2646:, New York. p. 109. 1860:10.1038/s41612-018-0031-y 1377:10.1038/s41586-018-0179-y 612:Ice loss and accumulation 184:Antarctic mountain ranges 145: 134: 106: 96: 86: 58: 26: 21: 8961:Ice sheets of Antarctica 8796:Global warming potential 8603:International agreements 8250:Preserving and enhancing 7694:Arctic methane emissions 7616:Years in climate change 7523:Greenhouse gas emissions 7420:Causes of climate change 7005:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 4172:10.1088/1748-9326/aa92b6 3165:10.1088/1748-9326/acd8d4 2462:. London. Archived from 2052:(Report). Archived from 1805:Newsroom. Archived from 1610:"Glaciers of Antarctica" 1217:Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf 936:West Antarctic ice sheet 680:East Antarctic ice sheet 651:West Antarctic ice sheet 550:West Antarctic Ice Sheet 529:British Antarctic Survey 365:Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf 329:West Antarctic Ice Sheet 325:East Antarctic Ice Sheet 321:Transantarctic Mountains 196:West Antarctic ice sheet 192:East Antarctic ice sheet 51:East Antarctic ice sheet 43:West Antarctic ice sheet 8827:Climate change scenario 8479:Disaster risk reduction 8131:Carbon emission trading 7941:U.S. insurance industry 7921:Civilizational collapse 7768:sea surface temperature 6458:10.1126/science.1203909 6071:10.1126/science.abn7950 5828:10.1126/science.abn7950 5531:10.1126/science.ade0664 5444:10.1073/pnas.1902469117 5362:10.1126/science.1169335 5144:(23): 12, 252–12, 260. 4223:10.1073/pnas.1817205116 4086:10.1073/pnas.1904822116 3237:Steig, Eric J. (2016). 2614:San Francisco Chronicle 2218:10.1126/science.1069270 1590:IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: 1411:10.1073/pnas.1812883116 1222:Geography of Antarctica 1019:climate change scenario 807:climate change scenario 597:climate change scenario 485:A 2002 analysis led by 327:(EAIS) and the smaller 291:Geography of Antarctica 73:in white, its floating 8820:Research and modelling 8504:Nature-based solutions 8324:Nature-based solutions 8266:Carbon dioxide removal 8183:Fossil fuel divestment 8168:Climate risk insurance 8078:Small island countries 7699:Arctic sea ice decline 6196:10.1126/sciadv.abf7787 5927:10.1126/sciadv.abf7787 4753:10.1126/sciadv.aap9467 3792:Climate Action Tracker 2123:Discovering Antarctica 1135: 1068:Marine Isotope Stage 9 991: 902: 790: 772:Antarctic bottom water 763: 713: 638: 564: 517:hearing in support of 482: 421: 397: 300: 254:Antarctic bottom water 77:in gray, and ice-free 8781:Earth's energy budget 8664:Background and theory 8552:Climate crisis (term) 8224:Fossil fuel phase-out 8118:Economics and finance 8083:by individual country 8025:By country and region 8000:Security and conflict 7995:Psychological impacts 7684:Abrupt climate change 7607:Charles David Keeling 7440:By country and region 6329:Nature Communications 6236:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013 6113:Nature Communications 5964:Nature Communications 5591:Nature Climate Change 5303:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013 5207:Nature Climate Change 5062:Nature Communications 5002:Nature Climate Change 4891:Nature Climate Change 4686:Nature Climate Change 4389:Nature Communications 4008:Nature Communications 3927:Journal of Glaciology 3555:Nature Climate Change 3500:Nature Climate Change 3284:Nature Climate Change 1955:(22): e2020GL091103. 1492:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013 1312:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013 1113: 977: 878: 788: 760: 711: 636: 573:Southern Annular Mode 562: 519:climate change denial 480: 412: 394: 346:Late Cenozoic Ice Age 298: 186:, and sparse coastal 8610:Glasgow Climate Pact 8271:Carbon sequestration 7846:Mass mortality event 6414:. September 13, 2009 5158:10.1002/2016GL070457 4807:10.1029/2020JC016998 3371:10.1029/2004GL020724 3304:10.1038/NCLIMATE2341 3112:10.1029/2022GL099543 2882:10.1029/2012GL051260 2758:on 20 September 2008 2371:10.1029/2019JD032180 2334:on 11 December 2004. 1969:10.1029/2020GL091103 1809:on 20 September 2008 1017:), the most intense 489:received widespread 371:that drain into the 212:glacier mass balance 163:covering 98% of the 69:, with the grounded 8749:Climate sensitivity 8524:The Adaptation Fund 7980:Infectious diseases 7887:Social and economic 7318:Robert Falcon Scott 6975:South magnetic pole 6933:Antarctic Peninsula 6928:Biogeographic realm 6800: / 6777:Antarctic ice sheet 6716:2018Natur.558..284S 6669:10.1038/nature07867 6661:2009Natur.458..322N 6612:10.1038/nature01290 6604:2003Natur.421..245D 6558:1996Geo....24..163D 6515:10.1038/nature03135 6507:2005Natur.433...53C 6450:2011Sci...334.1261P 6444:(6060): 1261–1264. 6341:2022NatCo..13.5526B 6286:2020Natur.585..538G 6227:2013TCry....7..375F 5976:2022NatCo..13.5328C 5919:2021SciA....7.7787P 5675:2020Natur.585..538G 5603:2023NatCC..13.1222N 5523:2023Sci...382.1384L 5517:(6677): 1384–1389. 5435:2020PNAS..117.3996T 5354:2009Sci...324..901B 5294:2013TCry....7..375F 5150:2016GeoRL..4312252B 5074:2022NatCo..13..340B 5014:2023NatCC..13..537G 4952:2023ComEE...4...69L 4903:2023NatCC..13..537G 4799:2021JGRC..12616998R 4698:2021NatCC..11.1090S 4647:2023Natur.615..841L 4592:20.500.11850/120143 4583:10.1038/nature19101 4575:2016Natur.537...89H 4510:2022NatSR..12..383P 4401:2018NatCo...9.1789P 4328:2021Natur.593...83D 4270:2020npCAS...3...18H 4214:2019PNAS..11611195B 4208:(23): 11195–11200. 4182:20.500.11850/230713 4163:2017ERL....12k4002N 4141:Nauels, Alexander; 4077:2019PNAS..11614887R 4071:(30): 14887–14892. 4020:2018NatCo...9.2728P 3939:2021JGlac..67..533Z 3874:2018Natur.558..219I 3828:10.1038/nature11621 3820:2012Natur.491..586K 3698:2020Natur.577..618H 3641:2021ESPol.124...12H 3567:2020NatCC..10..710S 3512:2020NatCC..10..762C 3465:2023ClDy...61.4623X 3459:(9–10): 4623–4641. 3402:2011NatGe...4..741T 3362:2004GeoRL..3118209S 3296:2014NatCC...4..911T 3208:10.1038/nature18645 3200:2016Natur.535..411T 3104:2022GeoRL..4999543D 3054:2016ClDy...46..263L 2975:2014JCli...27.8070N 2912:2013NatGe...6..139B 2873:2012GeoRL..39.9710O 2822:2011NatGe...4..398D 2525:on January 28, 2002 2518:National Geographic 2459:The Daily Telegraph 2363:2020JGRD..12532180O 2210:2002Sci...296..895T 2163:2000JCli...13.1674C 2095:2007JCli...20.4096C 2059:on 15 December 2007 1961:2020GeoRL..4791103S 1916:2020npCAS...3...39S 1852:2018npCAS...1...17S 1743:NASA Earth Sciences 1717:Operation IceBridge 1483:2013TCry....7..375F 1303:2013TCry....7..375F 1098:ice-albedo feedback 1036:Greenland ice sheet 1031:confidence interval 964:climate engineering 840:Southern Hemisphere 827:Southern Hemisphere 823:Greenland ice sheet 495:McMurdo Dry Valleys 472:Antarctic Peninsula 440:, which has a high 381:Pine Island Glacier 342:McMurdo Dry Valleys 333:Antarctic Peninsula 310:Greenland ice sheet 231:Pine Island Glacier 200:Antarctic Peninsula 161:continental glacier 157:Antarctic ice sheet 47:Antarctic Peninsula 22:Antarctic Ice Sheet 8320:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 8292:Forest management 8276:Direct air capture 8241:Sustainable energy 8198:Net zero emissions 8193:Low-carbon economy 8188:Green Climate Fund 7975:Indigenous peoples 7878:Plant biodiversity 7666:Effects and issues 7256:Telecommunications 7170:Territorial claims 6393:2012-06-16 at the 5822:(6611): eabn7950. 4842:Scientific Reports 4498:Scientific Reports 3948:10.1017/jog.2021.8 3350:Geophys. Res. Lett 3324:The New York Times 2962:Journal of Climate 2783:The New York Times 2582:The New York Times 2577:"Cold, Hard Facts" 2432:The New York Times 2150:Journal of Climate 2104:10.1175/JCLI4236.1 2083:Journal of Climate 1136: 992: 903: 846:, or a decline of 791: 764: 714: 672:GRACE and GRACE-FO 639: 565: 524:The New York Times 510:climate scientists 483: 422: 398: 301: 65:Geographic map of 8938: 8937: 8876: 8875: 8872: 8871: 8811:Radiative forcing 8654: 8653: 8650: 8649: 8474:Adaptive capacity 8359: 8358: 8355: 8354: 8219:Energy transition 8095: 8094: 8091: 8090: 7815:Tropical cyclones 7741:Urban heat island 7655: 7654: 7567: 7566: 7563: 7562: 7528:Carbon accounting 7482:Greenhouse effect 7448: 7447: 7364: 7363: 7323:Ernest Shackleton 7251:Research stations 7196:Antarctic English 7165:National programs 7160:Military activity 7134:COVID-19 pandemic 7091: 7090: 6960:Floristic Kingdom 6865:Antarctic sea ice 6710:(7709): 284–287. 6655:(7236): 322–328. 6598:(6920): 245–249. 6280:(7826): 538–544. 5669:(7826): 538–544. 5597:(11): 1222–1228. 5348:(5929): 901–903. 4641:(7954): 841–847. 3868:(7709): 219–222. 3814:(7425): 586–589. 3389:Nature Geoscience 3249:(7612): 358–359. 3194:(7612): 411–415. 2969:(21): 8070–8093. 2899:Nature Geoscience 2810:Nature Geoscience 2653:978-0-06-621413-9 2553:. 16 January 2002 2309:10.1038/nature710 2204:(5569): 895–899. 2157:(10): 1674–1696. 2089:(16): 4096–4117. 2019:978-0-521-80767-8 1803:Earth Observatory 1371:(7709): 219–222. 1076:Isostatic rebound 1044:thermal expansion 1042:, as well as the 1040:mountain glaciers 969:isostatic rebound 879:If countries cut 856:marine ecosystems 643:systematic review 634: 585:Montreal Protocol 418:greenhouse effect 269:Isostatic rebound 153: 152: 130: sq mi) 8968: 8926: 8925: 8914: 8913: 8902: 8901: 8891: 8890: 8889: 8854:Paleoclimatology 8671: 8670: 8660: 8659: 8421:Ecological grief 8404:Climate movement 8379: 8378: 8365: 8364: 8345:Plant-based diet 8236:Renewable energy 8114: 8113: 8101: 8100: 7936:Economic impacts 7868:Invasive species 7724:Coastal flooding 7674: 7673: 7661: 7660: 7597:Svante Arrhenius 7573: 7572: 7543:from agriculture 7533:Carbon footprint 7518:Greenhouse gases 7467: 7466: 7454: 7453: 7406: 7405: 7391: 7384: 7377: 7368: 7367: 7349: 7348: 7339: 7338: 7313:James Clark Ross 7285:Famous explorers 7099: 6918: 6917: 6842: 6835: 6828: 6819: 6818: 6815: 6814: 6812: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6801: 6798: 6797: 6796: 6793: 6763: 6762: 6752: 6751: 6695: 6689: 6688: 6638: 6632: 6631: 6589: 6576: 6570: 6569: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6490: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6480: 6429: 6423: 6422: 6420: 6419: 6404: 6398: 6385: 6379: 6378: 6360: 6320: 6314: 6313: 6265: 6259: 6258: 6248: 6238: 6206: 6200: 6199: 6184:Science Advances 6178: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6167: 6152: 6139: 6138: 6136: 6111:interglacials". 6107: 6101: 6100: 6082: 6050: 6035: 6034: 6028: 6018:Fox-Kemper, B.; 6015: 6006: 6005: 5995: 5955: 5949: 5948: 5938: 5907:Science Advances 5898: 5892: 5891: 5889: 5887: 5872: 5866: 5865: 5839: 5807: 5801: 5800: 5790: 5758: 5752: 5751: 5741: 5709: 5703: 5702: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5643: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5614: 5582: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5572: 5557: 5551: 5550: 5508: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5464: 5446: 5429:(8): 3996–4006. 5413: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5403: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5320: 5305: 5279: 5270: 5264: 5263: 5248: 5239: 5238: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5169: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5113: 5104: 5103: 5093: 5053: 5047: 5046: 5043:The Conversation 5034: 5028: 5027: 5025: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4985:. 29 March 2023. 4975: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4914: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4865: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4764: 4741:Science Advances 4732: 4726: 4725: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4630: 4621: 4620: 4594: 4554: 4548: 4547: 4537: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4449:Fox-Kemper, B.; 4446: 4431: 4430: 4420: 4380: 4374: 4373: 4347: 4306: 4300: 4299: 4289: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4235: 4225: 4193: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4174: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4098: 4088: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4039: 4002:(16 July 2018). 3996: 3990: 3989: 3983: 3973:Fox-Kemper, B.; 3970: 3957: 3956: 3950: 3933:(263): 533–559. 3918: 3912: 3911: 3893: 3857: 3848: 3847: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3783: 3781: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3751: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3709: 3692:(7792): 618–20. 3677: 3671: 3670: 3652: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3453:Climate Dynamics 3447: 3441: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3410:10.1038/ngeo1296 3382: 3376: 3375: 3373: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3331: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3258: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3185: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3167: 3143: 3134: 3133: 3123: 3089: 3080: 3074: 3073: 3048:(1–2): 263–271. 3042:Climate Dynamics 3037: 3031: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3011: 3005: 3004: 2986: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2933: 2930:10.1038/ngeo1671 2923: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2884: 2850: 2844: 2843: 2840:10.1038/ngeo1129 2833: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2774: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2763: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2717: 2716: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2672: 2666: 2664: 2641: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2621: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2595: 2594: 2572: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2521:. Archived from 2508: 2502: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2471: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2440: 2439: 2422: 2416: 2415: 2413: 2412: 2397: 2391: 2390: 2342: 2336: 2335: 2333: 2327:. Archived from 2303:(6871): 517–20. 2294: 2285: 2276: 2275: 2263: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2242: 2236:. Archived from 2193: 2184: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2140: 2134: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2115: 2109: 2108: 2106: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2065: 2064: 2058: 2051: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2032: 2031: 2022:. Archived from 2011: 1997: 1991: 1990: 1980: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1927: 1895: 1882: 1881: 1871: 1831: 1818: 1817: 1815: 1814: 1791: 1785: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1765: 1759: 1758: 1752: 1750: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1708: 1702: 1701: 1691: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1614: 1605: 1599: 1588: 1582: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1559: 1553: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1526: 1520: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1509: 1494: 1468: 1459: 1450: 1449: 1447: 1446: 1431: 1425: 1424: 1422: 1405:(4): 1095–1103. 1390: 1381: 1380: 1360: 1354: 1353: 1346: 1335: 1334: 1324: 1314: 1282: 1273: 1272: 1256: 1205: 1203:Geography portal 1200: 1199: 1198: 1091:Science Magazine 930: 929: 925: 922: 900: 899: 895: 892: 862:Long-term future 635: 543:and the revised 500:Michael Crichton 459:weather stations 451:greenhouse gases 377:Thwaites Glacier 308:on Earth is the 246:ice sheet models 233:is far greater. 126: 125: 116: 115: 63: 31: 19: 18: 8976: 8975: 8971: 8970: 8969: 8967: 8966: 8965: 8941: 8940: 8939: 8934: 8887: 8885: 8868: 8815: 8806:Orbital forcing 8700: 8665: 8646: 8620:Paris Agreement 8598: 8594:Warming stripes 8533: 8499:Managed retreat 8494:Loss and damage 8455: 8389:Business action 8373: 8351: 8328: 8251: 8245: 8202: 8163:Climate finance 8108: 8087: 8019: 7882: 7858:Extinction risk 7834:Flora and fauna 7829: 7790:Permafrost thaw 7785:Ozone depletion 7714:Extreme weather 7668: 7651: 7578: 7559: 7496: 7461: 7444: 7411: 7400: 7395: 7365: 7360: 7327: 7297:Richard E. Byrd 7280: 7241:Protected areas 7179: 7143: 7100: 7087: 7044: 6998:Bodies of Water 6993: 6982:West Antarctica 6938:East Antarctica 6916: 6851: 6846: 6808: 6806: 6802: 6799: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6787: 6786: 6784: 6783: 6782: 6764: 6760: 6755: 6696: 6692: 6639: 6635: 6587: 6584: 6577: 6573: 6542: 6538: 6501:(7021): 53–57. 6491: 6487: 6478: 6476: 6430: 6426: 6417: 6415: 6406: 6405: 6401: 6395:Wayback Machine 6386: 6382: 6321: 6317: 6266: 6262: 6207: 6203: 6179: 6175: 6165: 6163: 6153: 6142: 6108: 6104: 6051: 6038: 6026: 6016: 6009: 5956: 5952: 5899: 5895: 5885: 5883: 5873: 5869: 5808: 5804: 5759: 5755: 5710: 5706: 5655: 5651: 5641: 5639: 5632: 5628: 5583: 5579: 5570: 5568: 5558: 5554: 5506: 5499: 5495: 5482: 5478: 5414: 5410: 5401: 5399: 5389: 5385: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5318: 5277: 5271: 5267: 5250: 5249: 5242: 5203: 5199: 5187: 5183: 5133: 5129: 5114: 5107: 5054: 5050: 5035: 5031: 4994: 4990: 4977: 4976: 4969: 4932: 4928: 4883: 4879: 4834: 4830: 4782: 4778: 4747:(4): eaap9467. 4733: 4729: 4682: 4678: 4631: 4624: 4569:(7618): 89–92. 4555: 4551: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4447: 4434: 4381: 4377: 4322:(7857): 83–89. 4307: 4303: 4253: 4249: 4194: 4190: 4139: 4135: 4125: 4123: 4116: 4112: 4057: 4053: 3997: 3993: 3981: 3971: 3960: 3919: 3915: 3858: 3851: 3804: 3800: 3779: 3777: 3765: 3761: 3727: 3723: 3678: 3674: 3621: 3617: 3602: 3598: 3547: 3543: 3492: 3488: 3448: 3444: 3429: 3425: 3396:(11): 741–749. 3383: 3379: 3342: 3338: 3329: 3327: 3315: 3311: 3290:(10): 911–916. 3276: 3272: 3256:10.1038/535358a 3235: 3231: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3144: 3137: 3087: 3081: 3077: 3038: 3034: 3024: 3022: 3012: 3008: 2984:10.1.1.668.6627 2957: 2953: 2943: 2941: 2934: 2921:10.1.1.394.1974 2894: 2890: 2851: 2847: 2831:10.1.1.459.8689 2806: 2802: 2792: 2790: 2775: 2771: 2761: 2759: 2745: 2741: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2714: 2712: 2703: 2702: 2698: 2685: 2683: 2673: 2669: 2654: 2632: 2628: 2619: 2617: 2605: 2601: 2592: 2590: 2573: 2566: 2556: 2554: 2543: 2542: 2538: 2528: 2526: 2509: 2505: 2496: 2494: 2482: 2478: 2469: 2467: 2450: 2446: 2437: 2435: 2423: 2419: 2410: 2408: 2399: 2398: 2394: 2343: 2339: 2331: 2292: 2286: 2279: 2264: 2257: 2246: 2244: 2240: 2191: 2185: 2181: 2141: 2137: 2127: 2125: 2117: 2116: 2112: 2075: 2071: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2042: 2038: 2029: 2027: 2020: 1998: 1994: 1945: 1941: 1896: 1885: 1832: 1821: 1812: 1810: 1792: 1788: 1778: 1776: 1767: 1766: 1762: 1748: 1746: 1737: 1736: 1732: 1722: 1720: 1709: 1705: 1689:1854/LU-5767317 1663: 1659: 1652: 1636: 1632: 1625:10.3133/pp1386B 1612: 1606: 1602: 1589: 1585: 1572: 1570: 1560: 1556: 1546: 1544: 1527: 1523: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1466: 1460: 1453: 1444: 1442: 1432: 1428: 1391: 1384: 1361: 1357: 1348: 1347: 1338: 1283: 1276: 1257: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1237:Subglacial lake 1201: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1173: 1149: 1130:and subsequent 1108: 1103: 1102: 1081: 1072:ice sheet model 1002: 994: 993: 927: 923: 920: 918: 897: 893: 890: 888: 872: 864: 755: 750: 749: 745:Paris Agreement 705: 697: 692: 691: 625: 622: 614: 609: 608: 605:Paris Agreement 577:ozone depletion 406: 389: 369:outlet glaciers 337:drainage basins 293: 287: 123: 121: 113: 111: 82: 54: 49:, to the left; 17: 12: 11: 5: 8974: 8964: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8936: 8935: 8933: 8932: 8920: 8908: 8896: 8881: 8878: 8877: 8874: 8873: 8870: 8869: 8867: 8866: 8861: 8856: 8851: 8850: 8849: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8823: 8821: 8817: 8816: 8814: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8778: 8773: 8772: 8771: 8761: 8759:Cloud feedback 8756: 8751: 8746: 8741: 8740: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8714: 8708: 8706: 8702: 8701: 8699: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8677: 8675: 8667: 8666: 8656: 8655: 8652: 8651: 8648: 8647: 8645: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8633: 8632: 8627: 8617: 8615:Kyoto Protocol 8612: 8606: 8604: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8596: 8591: 8590: 8589: 8584: 8579: 8569: 8567:Media coverage 8564: 8559: 8557:Climate spiral 8554: 8549: 8543: 8541: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8465: 8463: 8457: 8456: 8454: 8453: 8448: 8446:Public opinion 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8412: 8411: 8401: 8396: 8394:Climate action 8391: 8385: 8383: 8375: 8374: 8361: 8360: 8357: 8356: 8353: 8352: 8350: 8349: 8348: 8347: 8336: 8334: 8330: 8329: 8327: 8326: 8321: 8315: 8314: 8313: 8308: 8306:REDD and REDD+ 8303: 8298: 8290: 8285: 8283:Carbon farming 8280: 8279: 8278: 8273: 8263: 8257: 8255: 8247: 8246: 8244: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8227: 8226: 8216: 8210: 8208: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8144: 8143: 8133: 8128: 8122: 8120: 8110: 8109: 8097: 8096: 8093: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8086: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8065: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8029: 8027: 8021: 8020: 8018: 8017: 8015:Water security 8012: 8010:Water scarcity 8007: 8005:Urban flooding 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7944: 7943: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7907: 7906: 7901: 7890: 7888: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7863:Forest dieback 7860: 7855: 7850: 7849: 7848: 7837: 7835: 7831: 7830: 7828: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7800:Sea level rise 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7781: 7780: 7775: 7773:stratification 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7745: 7744: 7743: 7738: 7728: 7727: 7726: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7680: 7678: 7670: 7669: 7657: 7656: 7653: 7652: 7650: 7649: 7648: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7583: 7580: 7579: 7569: 7568: 7565: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7552: 7551: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7538:Carbon leakage 7535: 7530: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7504: 7502: 7498: 7497: 7495: 7494: 7489: 7479: 7477:Climate system 7473: 7471: 7463: 7462: 7450: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7443: 7442: 7437: 7432: 7427: 7422: 7416: 7413: 7412: 7402: 7401: 7398:Climate change 7394: 7393: 7386: 7379: 7371: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7353: 7343: 7332: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7307:Ui-te-Rangiora 7304: 7302:Douglas Mawson 7299: 7294: 7292:Roald Amundsen 7288: 7286: 7282: 7281: 7279: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7231:Gateway cities 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7191:Antarctica Day 7187: 7185: 7181: 7180: 7178: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7151: 7149: 7145: 7144: 7142: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7110: 7108: 7102: 7101: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7088: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7063: 7061:Microorganisms 7058: 7052: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7025:List of rivers 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7001: 6999: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6989: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6955:Extreme points 6952: 6951: 6950: 6945: 6935: 6930: 6924: 6922: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6883: 6882: 6877: 6875:Climate change 6867: 6861: 6859: 6853: 6852: 6845: 6844: 6837: 6830: 6822: 6765: 6758: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6753: 6690: 6633: 6582: 6571: 6536: 6485: 6424: 6399: 6380: 6315: 6260: 6221:(1): 375–393. 6215:The Cryosphere 6201: 6173: 6140: 6102: 6036: 6007: 5950: 5893: 5867: 5802: 5773:(4): pgad103. 5753: 5724:(3): pgad053. 5704: 5649: 5626: 5577: 5560:AHMED, Issam. 5552: 5493: 5476: 5408: 5383: 5332: 5282:The Cryosphere 5265: 5240: 5197: 5181: 5127: 5105: 5048: 5029: 4988: 4967: 4926: 4897:(6): 537–544. 4877: 4828: 4776: 4727: 4676: 4622: 4549: 4484: 4477: 4432: 4375: 4301: 4247: 4188: 4157:(11): 114002. 4133: 4110: 4051: 3991: 3958: 3913: 3849: 3798: 3759: 3721: 3672: 3615: 3596: 3561:(8): 710–711. 3541: 3506:(8): 762–770. 3486: 3442: 3423: 3377: 3356:(18): L18209. 3336: 3309: 3270: 3229: 3171: 3135: 3075: 3032: 3006: 2951: 2888: 2845: 2816:(6): 398–403. 2800: 2769: 2739: 2736:on 2006-02-07. 2721: 2696: 2667: 2652: 2626: 2599: 2564: 2536: 2503: 2476: 2444: 2417: 2392: 2337: 2277: 2255: 2179: 2135: 2110: 2069: 2036: 2018: 1992: 1939: 1883: 1819: 1786: 1760: 1730: 1703: 1657: 1650: 1630: 1600: 1583: 1554: 1521: 1471:The Cryosphere 1451: 1426: 1382: 1355: 1336: 1297:(1): 375–393. 1291:The Cryosphere 1274: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1240: 1239: 1234: 1232:Ross Ice Shelf 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1206: 1190: 1187: 1171: 1147: 1134:re-glaciation. 1107: 1104: 1052:Totten Glacier 1003: 995: 885:sea level rise 881:greenhouse gas 873: 865: 863: 860: 799:climate models 754: 751: 718:sea level rise 706: 698: 696: 693: 660:sea level rise 623: 615: 613: 610: 554:greenhouse gas 502:wrote a novel 491:media coverage 434:Southern Ocean 407: 399: 388: 385: 361:Ross Ice Shelf 355:. It would be 286: 283: 238:sea level rise 151: 150: 147: 143: 142: 136: 132: 131: 108: 104: 103: 98: 94: 93: 88: 84: 83: 64: 56: 55: 53:, background). 45:, foreground; 39:Southern Ocean 37:sector of the 32: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8973: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8948: 8946: 8931: 8930: 8921: 8919: 8918: 8909: 8907: 8906: 8897: 8895: 8894: 8883: 8882: 8879: 8865: 8862: 8860: 8857: 8855: 8852: 8848: 8845: 8844: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8832:Climate model 8830: 8828: 8825: 8824: 8822: 8818: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8770: 8767: 8766: 8765: 8764:Cloud forcing 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8742: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8719: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8709: 8707: 8703: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8678: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8661: 8657: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8622: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8601: 8595: 8592: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8574: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8542: 8540: 8539:Communication 8536: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8519:Vulnerability 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8489:Flood control 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8462: 8458: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8410: 8407: 8406: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8387: 8386: 8384: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8366: 8362: 8346: 8343: 8342: 8341: 8338: 8337: 8335: 8331: 8325: 8322: 8319: 8316: 8312: 8311:reforestation 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8296:afforestation 8294: 8293: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8268: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8258: 8256: 8254: 8248: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8231:Nuclear power 8229: 8225: 8222: 8221: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8211: 8209: 8205: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8142: 8139: 8138: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8126:Carbon budget 8124: 8123: 8121: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8102: 8098: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8030: 8028: 8026: 8022: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7964: 7963:Mental health 7961: 7960: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7942: 7939: 7938: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7905: 7904:United States 7902: 7900: 7897: 7896: 7895: 7892: 7891: 7889: 7885: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7847: 7844: 7843: 7842: 7839: 7838: 7836: 7832: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7758:deoxygenation 7756: 7754: 7753:acidification 7751: 7750: 7749: 7746: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7733: 7732: 7729: 7725: 7722: 7721: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7662: 7658: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7584: 7581: 7574: 7570: 7556: 7553: 7549: 7548:from wetlands 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7525: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7508:Deforestation 7506: 7505: 7503: 7499: 7493: 7490: 7487: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7468: 7464: 7460: 7455: 7451: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7414: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7392: 7387: 7385: 7380: 7378: 7373: 7372: 7369: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7344: 7342: 7334: 7333: 7330: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7289: 7287: 7283: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7236:Midwinter Day 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7182: 7176: 7175:Treaty System 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7152: 7150: 7146: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7111: 7109: 7107: 7103: 7098: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7068: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7047: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7030:McMurdo Sound 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6996: 6988: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6980: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6940: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6919: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6860: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6843: 6838: 6836: 6831: 6829: 6824: 6823: 6820: 6816: 6813: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6772: 6768: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6694: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6649: 6644: 6637: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6586: 6575: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6540: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6489: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6428: 6413: 6409: 6403: 6396: 6392: 6389: 6384: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6319: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6264: 6256: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6205: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6177: 6162: 6158: 6151: 6149: 6147: 6145: 6135: 6134:10278/5003813 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6106: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6072: 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ScienceNews 4121: 4114: 4106: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 4000:Pattyn, Frank 3995: 3987: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3955: 3949: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3856: 3854: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3795: 3793: 3789: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3763: 3756: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3545: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3490: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3446: 3439: 3438: 3433: 3427: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3390: 3381: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3326: 3325: 3320: 3313: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3233: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3175: 3166: 3161: 3158:(6): 064034. 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3140: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3079: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3036: 3021: 3017: 3010: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2963: 2955: 2940:. RealClimate 2939: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2900: 2892: 2883: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2867:(9): L09710. 2866: 2862: 2861: 2856: 2849: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2804: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2743: 2735: 2731: 2725: 2711:on 2013-03-05 2710: 2706: 2700: 2693: 2682: 2678: 2671: 2665:First Edition 2663: 2661: 2655: 2649: 2645: 2644:HarperCollins 2640: 2639: 2638:State of Fear 2630: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2603: 2588: 2584: 2583: 2578: 2571: 2569: 2552: 2551: 2546: 2540: 2524: 2520: 2519: 2514: 2507: 2493: 2492: 2487: 2480: 2466:on 2014-06-02 2465: 2461: 2460: 2455: 2448: 2434: 2433: 2428: 2421: 2406: 2402: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2291: 2284: 2282: 2273: 2269: 2262: 2260: 2243:on 2011-08-11 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2198: 2190: 2183: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2151: 2146: 2139: 2124: 2120: 2114: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2073: 2055: 2048: 2040: 2026:on 2016-03-30 2025: 2021: 2015: 2010: 2009: 2003: 1996: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1943: 1935: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1830: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1790: 1775:. 12 May 2014 1774: 1770: 1764: 1757: 1744: 1740: 1734: 1718: 1714: 1707: 1699: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1661: 1653: 1651:9781118668313 1647: 1643: 1642: 1634: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1611: 1604: 1597: 1593: 1587: 1580: 1569: 1565: 1558: 1542: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1525: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1465: 1458: 1456: 1441: 1437: 1430: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1389: 1387: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1359: 1351: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1281: 1279: 1271: 1266: 1262: 1255: 1253: 1248: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1204: 1193: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1169: 1168:Drake Passage 1165: 1161: 1157: 1156:tipping point 1153: 1145: 1141: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1112: 1099: 1095: 1092: 1089:published in 1088: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1000: 989: 985: 981: 976: 972: 970: 965: 961: 956: 954: 950: 945: 941: 937: 932: 916: 912: 908: 886: 882: 877: 870: 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 836:precipitation 833: 828: 824: 820: 816: 810: 808: 804: 800: 796: 787: 783: 781: 777: 773: 769: 759: 746: 741: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 710: 703: 689: 688:precipitation 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 652: 648: 644: 620: 606: 602: 598: 594: 591: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 561: 557: 555: 551: 546: 542: 536: 534: 530: 526: 525: 520: 516: 511: 507: 506: 505:State of Fear 501: 496: 492: 488: 479: 475: 473: 468: 464: 460: 455: 452: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 419: 416: 411: 404: 393: 384: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 349: 347: 343: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 317: 315: 311: 307: 297: 292: 282: 279: 275: 270: 265: 261: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 234: 232: 228: 224: 223:precipitation 220: 215: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 166: 162: 158: 148: 144: 141: 137: 133: 129: 120: km (5.4 119: 109: 105: 102: 99: 95: 92: 89: 85: 80: 76: 72: 68: 62: 57: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 30: 25: 20: 8927: 8915: 8903: 8884: 8717:Carbon cycle 8674:Measurements 8369:Society and 8253:carbon sinks 8158:Climate debt 8148:Carbon price 7970:Human rights 7805:Season creep 7763:heat content 7689:Anoxic event 7602:James Hansen 7221:Firefighting 7206:Demographics 7129:Colonization 7124:World War II 6785: 6775: 6774: 6773:profile for 6770: 6707: 6703: 6693: 6652: 6646: 6636: 6595: 6591: 6574: 6549: 6545: 6539: 6498: 6494: 6488: 6477:. Retrieved 6441: 6437: 6427: 6416:. Retrieved 6411: 6402: 6383: 6332: 6328: 6318: 6277: 6273: 6263: 6218: 6214: 6204: 6187: 6183: 6176: 6164:. Retrieved 6160: 6116: 6112: 6105: 6080:10871/131584 6062: 6058: 6030: 6020:Hewitt, H.T. 5967: 5963: 5953: 5910: 5906: 5896: 5884:. Retrieved 5880: 5870: 5837:10871/131584 5819: 5815: 5805: 5770: 5766: 5756: 5721: 5717: 5707: 5666: 5662: 5652: 5640:. Retrieved 5629: 5594: 5590: 5580: 5569:. Retrieved 5565: 5555: 5514: 5510: 5496: 5486: 5479: 5426: 5422: 5411: 5400:. Retrieved 5396: 5386: 5345: 5341: 5335: 5323:. 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Retrieved 1439: 1429: 1402: 1398: 1368: 1364: 1358: 1350:"Ice Sheets" 1294: 1290: 1268: 1264: 1176: 1137: 1083: 1080: 1056:Wilkes Basin 1049: 1004: 980:Cook Glacier 959: 957: 953:Amundsen Sea 933: 931: ft)). 904: 811: 792: 780:cubic meters 765: 715: 566: 545:Byrd Station 537: 522: 503: 484: 456: 423: 373:Amundsen Sea 350: 318: 302: 278:Aurora Basin 274:Wilkes Basin 264:Paleoclimate 262: 235: 216: 198:(WAIS), and 156: 154: 127: 117: 8744:Carbon sink 8722:atmospheric 8587:video games 8261:Blue carbon 7894:Agriculture 7873:Marine life 7820:Water cycle 7778:temperature 7513:Fossil fuel 7309:(legendary) 7216:Field camps 7114:Expeditions 7040:Weddell Sea 7020:Lake Vostok 7015:Lake Mercer 6887:Ice shelves 6807: / 6335:(1): 5526. 5970:(1): 5328. 5008:: 701–709. 4395:(1): 1789. 4014:(1): 2728. 3891:2268/225208 3742:: 343–371. 3025:16 February 1978:1885/274441 1060:Pleistocene 988:Pleistocene 978:Retreat of 854:of certain 825:. However, 738:ice shelves 656:ice shelves 599:, known as 581:ozone layer 487:Peter Doran 430:water vapor 176:fresh water 75:ice shelves 8956:Glaciology 8945:Categories 8776:Cryosphere 8737:permafrost 8509:Resilience 8461:Adaptation 8436:Litigation 8426:Governance 8371:adaptation 8153:Carbon tax 8106:Mitigation 8043:Antarctica 7931:Disability 7119:Heroic Age 6970:South Pole 6880:Heat waves 6849:Antarctica 6552:(2): 163. 6479:2014-01-28 6418:2023-06-06 6358:2164/19437 6246:1808/18763 5767:PNAS Nexus 5718:PNAS Nexus 5642:26 October 5571:2023-12-23 5402:2018-12-28 5288:(1): 390. 5068:(1): 340. 4504:(1): 383. 3330:2013-04-13 2944:20 January 2906:(2): 139. 2762:2008-08-14 2715:2013-04-13 2686:2008-08-14 2620:2013-04-13 2593:2008-08-14 2497:2013-04-13 2470:2013-04-13 2438:2013-04-13 2411:2013-04-13 2063:2007-11-05 2030:2019-12-18 1813:2008-08-14 1756:Mountains. 1749:31 January 1723:31 January 1573:31 January 1547:7 December 1477:(1): 390. 1445:2014-01-28 1322:1808/18763 1270:thickness. 1244:References 1120:glaciation 1118:, showing 734:buttressed 590:South Pole 446:atmosphere 289:See also: 204:topography 101:Antarctica 67:Antarctica 8791:Feedbacks 8562:Education 8063:Caribbean 8058:Australia 7985:Migration 7948:Fisheries 7899:Livestock 7825:Wildfires 7731:Heat wave 7271:Transport 7010:Lake CECs 6987:ice sheet 6943:ice sheet 6912:Volcanoes 6902:Mountains 6857:Geography 6474:206533232 6367:2041-1723 6310:221885420 6255:1994-0424 6166:2 October 6097:252161375 6089:0036-8075 5886:2 October 5862:252161375 5846:0036-8075 5699:221885420 5621:264476246 5547:266436146 5453:0027-8424 5325:6 January 5235:255028552 5213:: 83–90. 5176:133069692 4946:(1): 69. 4921:1758-6798 4823:237695196 4815:2169-9275 4722:244726388 4714:1758-678X 4671:257807573 4617:205250191 4601:1476-4687 4526:2045-2322 4370:233868268 4354:1476-4687 4296:218541055 4264:(1): 18. 4126:9 January 3667:236282417 3659:1462-9011 3635:: 12–22. 3591:220260051 3583:1758-6798 3536:220261150 3528:1758-6798 3481:258777741 3440:. p. 212. 3224:205249862 3130:251854055 3070:131723421 2979:CiteSeerX 2916:CiteSeerX 2826:CiteSeerX 2550:USA Today 2387:219738421 2379:2169-897X 2247:14 August 1987:229063736 1934:222179485 1910:(1): 39. 1846:(1): 17. 1698:0277-3791 1674:: 10–30. 1568:imbie.org 1514:6 January 1331:1994-0424 1128:Oligocene 848:fisheries 768:meltwater 686:increase 541:ice cores 515:US Senate 426:elevation 353:sea level 306:ice sheet 285:Geography 250:meltwater 219:elevation 168:continent 165:Antarctic 135:Thickness 91:Ice sheet 81:in brown. 71:ice sheet 8917:Glossary 8905:Category 8727:biologic 8441:Politics 8333:Personal 8038:Americas 7911:Children 7677:Physical 7470:Overview 7410:Overview 7341:Category 7246:Religion 7148:Politics 7066:Wildlife 7035:Ross Sea 6897:Glaciers 6804:90°S 0°E 6748:49185845 6740:29899483 6685:15213187 6677:19295607 6620:12529638 6523:15635407 6466:22144622 6412:phys.org 6391:Archived 6375:36130952 6302:32968257 6119:: 5328. 6065:(6611). 6002:36088458 5945:33931453 5854:36074831 5797:37091546 5788:10118300 5748:37007716 5739:10062297 5691:32968257 5566:phys.org 5539:38127761 5471:32047039 5378:11083712 5370:19443778 5316:Archived 5312:13129041 5260:Archived 5122:ABC News 5100:35039511 4872:32934273 4771:29675467 4663:36991191 4609:27582222 4544:35013425 4427:29724994 4362:33953408 4242:31110015 4105:31285345 4046:30013142 3908:49188002 3900:29899482 3836:23086145 3716:31996825 3610:phys.org 3418:40243634 3265:27443735 3216:27443743 3020:BBC News 3001:21537289 2793:13 April 2787:Archived 2750:(2007). 2587:Archived 2557:13 April 2529:13 April 2317:11793010 2226:11988571 1878:33102742 1797:(2007). 1592:Glossary 1541:Archived 1505:Archived 1501:13129041 1440:BBC News 1267:. NASA. 1189:See also 1183:Ross Sea 1179:Pliocene 1116:Cenozoic 1013:and the 944:ice caps 913:and the 852:collapse 776:sverdrup 726:seafloor 415:negative 227:Thwaites 208:ice flow 194:(EAIS), 180:nunataks 97:Location 8732:oceanic 8582:fiction 8431:Justice 8382:Society 7990:Poverty 7709:Drought 7577:History 7501:Sources 7351:Commons 7266:Tourism 7211:Economy 7184:Society 7106:History 7076:Mammals 6965:Islands 6921:Regions 6892:Geology 6870:Climate 6767:Scholia 6732:1905199 6712:Bibcode 6657:Bibcode 6628:4326971 6600:Bibcode 6554:Bibcode 6546:Geology 6503:Bibcode 6446:Bibcode 6438:Science 6337:Bibcode 6282:Bibcode 6223:Bibcode 6059:Science 5993:9464198 5972:Bibcode 5936:8087405 5915:Bibcode 5816:Science 5671:Bibcode 5599:Bibcode 5519:Bibcode 5511:Science 5462:7049167 5431:Bibcode 5397:Science 5350:Bibcode 5342:Science 5290:Bibcode 5227:2242376 5146:Bibcode 5091:8764023 5070:Bibcode 5010:Bibcode 4948:Bibcode 4899:Bibcode 4863:7492216 4795:Bibcode 4762:5906079 4694:Bibcode 4643:Bibcode 4571:Bibcode 4535:8748732 4506:Bibcode 4418:5934442 4397:Bibcode 4324:Bibcode 4266:Bibcode 4233:6561295 4210:Bibcode 4159:Bibcode 4096:6660720 4073:Bibcode 4037:6048022 4016:Bibcode 3935:Bibcode 3870:Bibcode 3844:4414976 3816:Bibcode 3694:Bibcode 3637:Bibcode 3563:Bibcode 3508:Bibcode 3461:Bibcode 3434:(PDF). 3398:Bibcode 3358:Bibcode 3292:Bibcode 3196:Bibcode 3100:Bibcode 3050:Bibcode 2971:Bibcode 2908:Bibcode 2869:Bibcode 2818:Bibcode 2660:calving 2359:Bibcode 2234:7732719 2206:Bibcode 2197:Science 2159:Bibcode 2091:Bibcode 1957:Bibcode 1912:Bibcode 1869:7580794 1848:Bibcode 1479:Bibcode 1420:6347714 1299:Bibcode 1164:ice age 1132:Miocene 926:⁄ 896:⁄ 838:in the 664:Envisat 571:or the 438:sea ice 396:trends. 312:in the 188:bedrock 182:of the 140:maximum 35:Pacific 8712:Albedo 8705:Theory 8416:Denial 8207:Energy 8068:Europe 8048:Arctic 8033:Africa 7958:Health 7953:Gender 7916:Cities 7841:Biomes 7748:Oceans 7736:Marine 7459:Causes 6948:shield 6907:Tundra 6809:-90; 0 6769:has a 6746: 6738: 6730: 6704:Nature 6683: 6675: 6648:Nature 6626: 6618: 6592:Nature 6531:830008 6529: 6521: 6495:Nature 6472: 6464: 6373: 6365: 6308: 6300: 6274:Nature 6253: 6190:(18). 6095: 6087: 6000: 5990: 5943: 5933: 5913:(18). 5860: 5852: 5844: 5795: 5785: 5746: 5736: 5697: 5689: 5663:Nature 5619: 5545: 5537: 5469: 5459: 5451: 5376: 5368: 5310: 5233: 5225: 5174: 5098: 5088: 4919: 4870: 4860: 4821: 4813: 4769: 4759: 4720: 4712: 4669: 4661: 4635:Nature 4615: 4607: 4599: 4563:Nature 4542: 4532: 4524: 4475: 4425: 4415: 4368: 4360: 4352: 4316:Nature 4294: 4240: 4230: 4103: 4093: 4044: 4034: 3906: 3898: 3862:Nature 3842: 3834: 3808:Nature 3774:Cosmos 3714: 3686:Nature 3665: 3657: 3589: 3581: 3534: 3526: 3479: 3416: 3263: 3243:Nature 3222: 3214: 3188:Nature 3128: 3098:(16). 3068: 2999: 2981: 2918: 2828: 2650: 2385: 2377: 2357:(13). 2325:387284 2323: 2315: 2297:Nature 2232: 2224: 2128:15 May 2016: 1985: 1932: 1876: 1866: 1779:8 July 1696: 1648: 1499: 1417: 1365:Nature 1329: 1140:Eocene 1124:Eocene 1074:used. 1064:Eemian 1027:median 1023:RCP8.5 984:Eemian 949:Eemian 730:cliffs 676:ICESat 607:goals. 601:RCP8.5 442:albedo 367:, and 363:, the 357:seabed 314:Arctic 210:, and 146:Status 8929:Index 8691:Proxy 8451:Women 7926:Crime 7853:Birds 7719:Flood 7356:Index 7276:Women 7226:Flags 7201:Crime 7139:Years 7081:Krill 7071:Birds 7056:Flora 6771:topic 6744:S2CID 6681:S2CID 6624:S2CID 6588:(PDF) 6527:S2CID 6470:S2CID 6306:S2CID 6093:S2CID 6027:(PDF) 5858:S2CID 5695:S2CID 5638:. 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