685:. The DLSM can then be used to visualize terrain, drape remote sensing images, quantify ecological properties of a surface or extract land surface objects. The contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a DLSM. A DLSM implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area, i.e. that the map represents a complete surface. Digital Land Surface Models should not be confused with Digital Surface Models, which can be surfaces of the canopy, buildings and similar objects. For example, in the case of surface models produces using the lidar technology, one can have several surfaces – starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth. The difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures (height of trees etc.).
783:
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Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form the basis for much derived topographic work. Digital
Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and
709:
As with field notes, remote sensing data (aerial and satellite photography, for example), is raw and uninterpreted. It may contain holes (due to cloud cover for example) or inconsistencies (due to the timing of specific image captures). Most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of
836:
of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines the area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new
499:
Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or
349:
after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be
American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the "Topographical Bureau of the Army", formed during the
874:
and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).
953:
In mathematics the concept of topography is used to indicate the patterns or general organization of features on a map or as a term referring to the pattern in which variables (or their values) are distributed in a space.
554:
Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly they have become more and more a part of
507:
In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the
Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as
613:
can exploit other information on the scene known a priori (for example, symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three-dimensional co-ordinates starting from one only position of the camera).
674:, land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models. In civil engineering and entertainment businesses, the most representations of land surface employ some variant of TIN models. In
428:
There are a variety of approaches to studying topography. Which method(s) to use depends on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys.
654:
anging), a remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers.
597:
images (or more) taken starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight. In this technique, the common points are identified on each
571:
imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land-use information more clearly. Images can be in visible colours and in other spectrum.
609:) which determines the relative three-dimensional position of the point. Known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values. More sophisticated
761:
private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps.
693:
Topographic survey information is historically based upon the notes of surveyors. They may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources (for example,
396:
may be made for a variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information about
870:(GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial
757:
While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps."
512:
data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis.
362:
in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard.
701:
mapping). While of historical interest, these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve.
1222:
345:, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were the
519:(or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only recording of relief, but identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover.
1080:
678:, land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals – the smooth (spatially correlated) and the rough (noise) signal.
768:. The latter is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features.
381:
An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal
681:
In practice, surveyors first sample heights in an area, then use these to produce a
Digital Land Surface Model in the form of a
1088:
626:
mapping is one of the major techniques of generating
Digital Elevation Models (see below). Similar techniques are applied in
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115:
1164:
87:
34:
This article is about the study of Earth's surface shape and features. For discussion of land surfaces themselves, see
134:
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355:
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In the 20th century, the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where
330:, "writing"). In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, what is now largely called '
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334:'. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense.
754:, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest.
898:
68:
39:
605:) can be built from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of its rays (
389:. Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field.
178:
83:
1219:
1149:
947:
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196:. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or
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These maps show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water,
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258:
61:
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235:
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are experts in topography. They study and describe the surface features of a place or region.
747:. The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps."
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In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States,
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261:). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a
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contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on.
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257:. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (
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is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area.
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in a broader sense is used, particularly in medical fields such as
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307:, as the detailed description of a place. The word comes from the
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and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only
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Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by
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Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or
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is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the
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in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the
223:
features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. In the
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to determine the terrain of the ocean floor. In recent years,
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of Earth without liquid water with 20× elevation exaggeration
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Topography has been applied to different science fields. In
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of an object are determined by the measurements made in two
1207:
Charting the Inland Seas: A History of the U.S. Lake Survey
740:
1296:
1165:"Revolutionary Cartography and the Cassini Map of France"
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reconstitute a sight in synthesized images of the ground,
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Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the
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Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or
341:(beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called
911:
discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for
882:
determine a trajectory of overflight of the ground,
670:) mathematical models. In the most applications in
75:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
662:Terrain is commonly modelled either using vector (
710:remotely sensed data in its compilation process.
1432:
764:Topographic mapping should not be confused with
1189:Topographical Engineers – History and Personnel
539:
617:
1255:
1075:West, Terry R.; Shakoor, Abdul (2018-03-19).
892:
771:
657:
1220:National Geographic Trails Illustrated Maps
1074:
1262:
1248:
400:and surface features is essential for the
192:is the study of the forms and features of
1105:"US Topo—Topographic Maps for the Nation"
1079:(2nd ed.). Waveland Press. pp.
461:position of points and the distances and
135:Learn how and when to remove this message
852:
796:
781:
723:
435:
161:
146:
848:
812:The digital elevation model (DEM) is a
1433:
713:
704:
697:delineation may be derived from local
227:, topography often means specifically
1243:
1132:For example, see the websites of the
567:systems. False-color and non-visible
1218:See for example the publications of
961:
828:) of all or part of the Earth (or a
73:adding citations to reliable sources
44:
837:satellite or other remotely sensed
743:topographic maps show relief using
487:global navigation satellite systems
16:Study of the forms of land surfaces
13:
688:
14:
1462:
1162:
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522:
385:such as latitude, longitude, and
1412:
1401:
1400:
965:
496:, the great Italian astronomer.
356:Corps of Topographical Engineers
49:
957:
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431:
60:needs additional citations for
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1200:
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1077:Geology Applied to Engineering
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885:calculate surfaces or volumes,
664:triangulated irregular network
291:Topographic map § History
173:illustrates topography of the
1:
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868:geographic information system
423:
376:
337:Detailed military surveys in
267:cartographic relief depiction
1138:London Topographical Society
540:Passive sensor methodologies
284:
7:
1121:Online Etymology Dictionary
1009:
899:Topography (disambiguation)
888:trace topographic profiles,
820:dataset of the topography (
618:Active sensor methodologies
40:Topography (disambiguation)
10:
1467:
1209:, Arthur M. Woodford, 1991
996:
896:
893:Topography in other fields
775:
772:Digital elevation modeling
717:
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322:
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179:New York metropolitan area
33:
18:
1396:
1338:
1315:
1277:
1269:
1150:Oxford English Dictionary
948:superficial human anatomy
658:Forms of topographic data
494:Giovanni Domenico Cassini
203:Topography is a field of
253:; this is also known as
19:Not to be confused with
1169:New York Public Library
1134:Victoria County History
1021:Digital elevation model
933:atomic force microscopy
788:Sierra Nevada Mountains
778:Digital elevation model
459:three-dimensional space
1325:History of cartography
1026:Fall line (topography)
863:
809:
794:
736:
672:environmental sciences
601:. A line of sight (or
515:The original American
489:(GNSS) are also used.
444:
360:U.S. Geological Survey
269:techniques, including
186:
159:
38:. For other uses, see
1330:List of cartographers
1110:. USGS. October 2013.
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800:
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447:Further information:
440:A surveying point in
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165:
151:A topographic map of
150:
979:adding missing items
849:Topological modeling
666:or TIN) or gridded (
467:leveling instruments
69:improve this article
1153:– "Ordnance Survey"
1036:Global Relief Model
714:Topographic mapping
705:Remote sensing data
517:topographic surveys
465:between them using
354:, which became the
1225:2006-11-16 at the
1194:2014-09-26 at the
977:; you can help by
929:tissue engineering
921:corneal topography
864:
810:
807:topography of Mars
801:3D rendering of a
795:
737:
734:elevation modeling
546:Aerial photography
445:
231:, even though the
219:, artificial, and
187:
160:
1428:
1427:
1163:Baena, Victoria.
1090:978-1-4786-3722-6
1046:Marine topography
995:
994:
589:of the points in
550:Satellite imagery
410:civil engineering
394:topographic study
383:coordinate system
303:and continued in
275:hypsometric tints
209:planetary science
145:
144:
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119:
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1343:Animated mapping
1320:Early world maps
1292:Geovisualization
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1123:– etymonline.com
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557:geovisualization
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265:by a variety of
238:record not just
236:topographic maps
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1227:Wayback Machine
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901:
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830:telluric planet
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689:Raw survey data
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544:Main articles:
542:
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320:, "place") and
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937:nanotopography
897:Main article:
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630:surveys using
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581:Photogrammetry
579:Main article:
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534:Remote sensing
529:Remote sensing
527:Main article:
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523:Remote sensing
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301:ancient Greece
299:originated in
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279:relief shading
255:geomorphometry
185:at its center.
153:Stowe, Vermont
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973:This list is
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945:
944:human anatomy
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917:ophthalmology
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913:brain mapping
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676:geostatistics
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271:contour lines
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225:United States
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80:Find sources:
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58:This article
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26:
22:
1419:Portal:Atlas
1417:
1405:
1378:Thematic map
1358:Geologic map
1306:
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1202:
1184:
1172:. Retrieved
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1116:
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1004:Topographers
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1002:
999:Topographers
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958:Topographers
952:
941:
909:neuroimaging
905:neuroscience
902:
865:
860:STL 3D model
811:
786:Relief map:
763:
759:
756:
752:forest cover
749:
738:
733:
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680:
668:raster image
661:
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595:photographic
587:co-ordinates
584:
553:
532:
514:
506:
498:
491:
475:dumpy levels
456:
432:Field survey
427:
414:public works
406:construction
391:
380:
364:
347:Cassini maps
336:
327:
317:
305:ancient Rome
296:
294:
244:
228:
202:
189:
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131:
125:January 2021
122:
112:
105:
98:
91:
84:"Topography"
79:
67:Please help
62:verification
59:
1441:Cartography
1388:Weather map
1282:Cartography
1041:Hypsography
1016:Cartography
628:bathymetric
479:clinometers
471:theodolites
418:reclamation
352:War of 1812
215:, but also
168:false-color
1451:Topography
1435:Categories
1307:Topography
1062:References
975:incomplete
826:bathymetry
822:hypsometry
622:Satellite
611:algorithms
559:, whether
485:and other
424:Techniques
420:projects.
377:Objectives
297:topography
289:See also:
205:geoscience
190:Topography
175:urban core
95:newspapers
29:tomography
25:typography
1446:Geography
1348:Cartogram
1287:Geography
1233:products.
1056:Orography
872:modelling
728:A map of
699:cadastral
646:etection
449:Surveying
371:neurology
295:The term
285:Etymology
251:landforms
240:elevation
200:in maps.
198:depiction
183:Manhattan
1223:Archived
1192:Archived
1010:See also
986:May 2021
695:boundary
510:USGS DEM
504:-based.
469:such as
402:planning
387:altitude
328:-graphia
221:cultural
21:topology
1231:DeLorme
1174:16 June
832:). The
824:and/or
818:digital
816:-based
569:spectra
453:Geodesy
442:Germany
398:terrain
367:mapping
339:Britain
323:-γραφία
247:terrain
217:natural
181:, with
177:of the
109:scholar
36:Terrain
1087:
925:cornea
907:, the
845:data.
834:pixels
814:raster
732:using
730:Europe
463:angles
277:, and
229:relief
213:relief
111:
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90:
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1271:Atlas
1108:(PDF)
927:. In
915:. In
843:sonar
839:radar
792:Spain
636:LIDAR
632:sonar
624:RADAR
599:image
416:, or
318:topos
313:τόπος
309:Greek
166:This
155:with
116:JSTOR
102:books
27:, or
1229:and
1176:2024
1136:and
1085:ISBN
741:USGS
642:ght
561:maps
548:and
477:and
451:and
404:and
233:USGS
207:and
88:news
1297:Map
1081:545
981:.
942:In
841:or
803:DEM
683:TIN
650:nd
603:ray
565:GIS
563:or
502:GIS
483:GPS
263:map
259:DEM
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