Redshift - Knowledge

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has been travelling to us for much longer times, the approximation of constant expansion rate fails, and the Hubble law becomes a non-linear integral relationship and dependent on the history of the expansion rate since the emission of the light from the galaxy in question. Observations of the redshift-distance relationship can be used, then, to determine the expansion history of the universe and thus the matter and energy content.

6174: 10648: 5386: 10672: 11877: 10624: 1340: 3880: 10660: 27: 4455:. They initially interpreted these redshifts and blueshifts as being due to random motions, but later Lemaître (1927) and Hubble (1929), using previous data, discovered a roughly linear correlation between the increasing redshifts of, and distances to, galaxies. Lemaître realized that these observations could be explained by a mechanism of producing redshifts seen in Friedmann's solutions to 2159:

and comoving with the source. Since in astronomical applications this measurement cannot be done directly, because that would require traveling to the distant star of interest, the method using spectral lines described here is used instead. Redshifts cannot be calculated by looking at unidentified features whose rest-frame frequency is unknown, or with a spectrum that is featureless or

10636: 5786: 4849:, a common cosmological analogy used to describe the expansion of space. If two objects are represented by ball bearings and spacetime by a stretching rubber sheet, the Doppler effect is caused by rolling the balls across the sheet to create peculiar motion. The cosmological redshift occurs when the ball bearings are stuck to the sheet and the sheet is stretched. 5479:, redshift is mainly a result of the expansion of space: this means that the farther away a galaxy is from us, the more the space has expanded in the time since the light left that galaxy, so the more the light has been stretched, the more redshifted the light is, and so the faster it appears to be moving away from us. Hubble's law follows in part from the 3560: 4860:(Doppler shift). The redshift due to expansion of the universe depends upon the recessional velocity in a fashion determined by the cosmological model chosen to describe the expansion of the universe, which is very different from how Doppler redshift depends upon local velocity. Describing the cosmological expansion origin of redshift, cosmologist 3820: 7016:: "Measurements of the gamma-ray spectra obtained during the main outburst of the GRB have found little value as redshift indicators, due to the lack of well-defined features. However, optical observations of GRB afterglows have produced spectra with identifiable lines, leading to precise redshift measurements." 9252:

Bañados, Eduardo; Venemans, Bram P.; Mazzucchelli, Chiara; Farina, Emanuele P.; Walter, Fabian; Wang, Feige; Decarli, Roberto; Stern, Daniel; Fan, Xiaohui; Davies, Frederick B.; Hennawi, Joseph F.; Simcoe, Robert A.; Turner, Monica L.; Rix, Hans-Walter; Yang, Jinyi; Kelson, Daniel D.; Rudie, Gwen C.;

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for the Planck 2018 cosmology parameters, from redshift 0 to 15, with distance (blue solid line) on the left axis, and time (orange dashed line) on the right. Note that the time that has passed (in giga years) from a given redshift until now is not the same as the distance (in giga light years) light

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The Hubble law's linear relationship between distance and redshift assumes that the rate of expansion of the universe is constant. However, when the universe was much younger, the expansion rate, and thus the Hubble "constant", was larger than it is today. For more distant galaxies, then, whose light

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is measured, even though the object is not moving away from the observer. Even when the source is moving towards the observer, if there is a transverse component to the motion then there is some speed at which the dilation just cancels the expected blueshift and at higher speed the approaching source

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Determining the redshift of an object in this way requires a frequency or wavelength range. In order to calculate the redshift, one has to know the wavelength of the emitted light in the rest frame of the source: in other words, the wavelength that would be measured by an observer located adjacent to

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said, "Light leaves a galaxy, which is stationary in its local region of space, and is eventually received by observers who are stationary in their own local region of space. Between the galaxy and the observer, light travels through vast regions of expanding space. As a result, all wavelengths of

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specific to hydrogen that has features at regular intervals. If restricted to absorption lines it would look similar to the illustration (top right). If the same pattern of intervals is seen in an observed spectrum from a distant source but occurring at shifted wavelengths, it can be identified as

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of radiation that radiate energy in the red and near infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These may be starburst galaxies that have a high redshift accompanied by reddening from intervening dust, or they could be highly redshifted elliptical galaxies with an older (and therefore redder)

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Photons climbing out of a gravitating object become less energetic. This loss of energy is known as a "redshifting", as photons in the visible spectrum would appear more red. Similarly, photons falling into a gravitational field become more energetic and exhibit a blueshifting. ... Note that the

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Carniani, Stefano; Hainline, Kevin; D’Eugenio, Francesco; Eisenstein, Daniel J.; Jakobsen, Peter; Witstok, Joris; Johnson, Benjamin D.; Chevallard, Jacopo; Maiolino, Roberto; Helton, Jakob M.; Willott, Chris; Robertson, Brant; Alberts, Stacey; Arribas, Santiago; Baker, William M. (2024-07-29).

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can result in shifts in the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic radiation. In such cases, the shifts correspond to a physical energy transfer to matter or other photons rather than being by a transformation between reference frames. Such shifts can be from such physical phenomena as

2821: 5917:. While such phenomena are sometimes referred to as "redshifts" and "blueshifts", in astrophysics light-matter interactions that result in energy shifts in the radiation field are generally referred to as "reddening" rather than "redshifting" which, as a term, is normally reserved for the 9741:

Sobral, David; Matthee, Jorryt; Darvish, Behnam; Schaerer, Daniel; Mobasher, Bahram; Röttgering, Huub J. A.; Santos, Sérgio; Hemmati, Shoubaneh (4 June 2015). "Evidence For POPIII-Like Stellar Populations In The Most Luminous LYMAN-α Emitters At The Epoch Of Re-Ionisation: Spectroscopic

3367: 5807:, a number of collaborations have been made to map the universe in redshift space. By combining redshift with angular position data, a redshift survey maps the 3D distribution of matter within a field of the sky. These observations are used to measure properties of the 3657: 5169:

of the source. For these reasons and others, the consensus among astronomers is that the redshifts they observe are due to some combination of the three established forms of Doppler-like redshifts. Alternative hypotheses and explanations for redshift such as

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Huggins, William (1868). "Further Observations on the Spectra of Some of the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt to Determine Therefrom Whether These Bodies are Moving towards or from the Earth, Also Observations on the Spectra of the Sun and of Comet II".

2349: 2068:. In it he stated that "the early discovery that the great Andromeda spiral had the quite exceptional velocity of –300 km(/s) showed the means then available, capable of investigating not only the spectra of the spirals but their velocities as well." 3705: 2026:, using solar rotation, about 0.1 Å in the red. In 1887, Vogel and Scheiner discovered the "annual Doppler effect", the yearly change in the Doppler shift of stars located near the ecliptic, due to the orbital velocity of the Earth. In 1901, 6699:

The magnitude of this velocity, which is the greatest hitherto observed, raises the question whether the velocity-like displacement might not be due to some other cause, but I believe we have at present no other interpretation for

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A more complete treatment of the Doppler redshift requires considering relativistic effects associated with motion of sources close to the speed of light. A complete derivation of the effect can be found in the article on the

2139:, or other variations in light intensity. If found, these features can be compared with known features in the spectrum of various chemical compounds found in experiments where that compound is located on Earth. A very common 6201:

magnitude of the redshifting (blueshifting) effect is not a function of the emitted angle or the received angle of the photon—it depends only on how far radially the photon had to climb out of (fall into) the potential well.

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Totani, Tomonori; Yoshii, Yuzuru; Iwamuro, Fumihide; Maihara, Toshinori; et al. (2001). "Hyper Extremely Red Objects in the Subaru Deep Field: Evidence for Primordial Elliptical Galaxies in the Dusty Starburst Phase".

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It is perfectly valid to interpret the equations of relativity in terms of an expanding space. The mistake is to push analogies too far and imbue space with physical properties that are not consistent with the equations of

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In general relativity one can derive several important special-case formulae for redshift in certain special spacetime geometries, as summarized in the following table. In all cases the magnitude of the shift (the value of

3035: 2640:) are associated with objects receding (moving away) from the observer with the light shifting to lower energies. Likewise, gravitational blueshifts are associated with light emitted from a source residing within a weaker 4791: 2702: 8033: 2969: 4153:

is the angle between the direction of relative motion and the direction of emission in the observer's frame (zero angle is directly away from the observer), the full form for the relativistic Doppler effect becomes:

10898: 3555:{\displaystyle 1+z={\sqrt {\frac {1-{\frac {r_{S}}{r_{\text{receiver}}}}}{1-{\frac {r_{S}}{r_{\text{source}}}}}}}={\sqrt {\frac {1-{\frac {2GM}{c^{2}r_{\text{receiver}}}}}{1-{\frac {2GM}{c^{2}r_{\text{source}}}}}}}} 4255: 4138:

of the velocity, this causes the redshift associated with the relativistic correction to be independent of the orientation of the source movement. In contrast, the classical part of the formula is dependent on the

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Redshift (and blueshift) may be characterized by the relative difference between the observed and emitted wavelengths (or frequency) of an object. In astronomy, it is customary to refer to this change using a

5022: 4122: 5865:; a follow-up to the pilot program DEEP1, DEEP2 is designed to measure faint galaxies with redshifts 0.7 and above, and it is therefore planned to provide a high-redshift complement to SDSS and 2dF. 4431: 2862: 7860: 4341: 3568: 5842:(SDSS), is ongoing as of 2013 and aims to measure the redshifts of around 3 million objects. SDSS has recorded redshifts for galaxies as high as 0.8, and has been involved in the detection of 4470:

is commonly attributed to stretching of the wavelengths of photons propagating through the expanding space. This interpretation can be misleading, however; expanding space is only a choice of

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Fixsen, D. J.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E. Jr.; Isaacman, R. B.; Mather, J. C.; Meyer, S. S.; Noerdlinger, P. D.; Shafer, R. A.; Weiss, R.; Wright, E. L.; Bennett, C. L.;

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the critical density demarcating a universe that eventually crunches from one that simply expands. This density is about three hydrogen atoms per cubic meter of space. At large redshifts,

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effect due to the scatter of peculiar velocities in a roughly spherical distribution. This added component gives cosmologists a chance to measure the masses of objects independent of the

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objects are, measuring the redshift is easier than more direct distance measurements, so redshift is sometimes in practice converted to a crude distance measurement using Hubble's law.

3894:(redshift to ~585 nm wavelength) as it passes, and returns to yellow when motion stops. To observe such a change in color, the object would have to be traveling at approximately 5,200 8995:

Watson, Darach; Christensen, Lise; Knudsen, Kirsten Kraiberg; Richard, Johan; Gallazzi, Anna; Michałowski, Michał Jerzy (2015). "A dusty, normal galaxy in the epoch of reionization".

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blueshift is caused by movement of a source towards the observer. The term applies to any decrease in wavelength and increase in frequency caused by relative motion, even outside the

8709:; Kelsall, T.; Moseley, S. H.; Silverberg, R. F.; Smoot, G. F.; Wilkinson, D. T. (January 1994). "Cosmic microwave background dipole spectrum measured by the COBE FIRAS instrument". 3993: 3247: 9167: 8039:

Davis, T. M.; Lineweaver, C. H.; Webb, J. K. (April 2003). "Solutions to the tethered galaxy problem in an expanding universe and the observation of receding blueshifted objects".

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While it was long believed that the expansion rate has been continuously decreasing since the Big Bang, observations beginning in 1988 of the redshift-distance relationship using

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There are several websites for calculating various times and distances from redshift, as the precise calculations require numerical integrals for most values of the parameters.

10300:, March 2005. (This article is useful for explaining the cosmological redshift mechanism as well as clearing up misconceptions regarding the physics of the expansion of space.) 5936:). Except possibly under carefully controlled conditions, scattering does not produce the same relative change in wavelength across the whole spectrum; that is, any calculated 3856: 2131:

of light that comes from a source (see idealized spectrum illustration top-right) can be measured. To determine the redshift, one searches for features in the spectrum such as

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This was recognized early on by physicists and astronomers working in cosmology in the 1930s. The earliest layman publication describing the details of this correspondence is

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It thus becomes urgent to investigate the effect of the redshift and of the metric of the universe on the apparent magnitude and observed numbers of nebulae of given magnitude

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determined the large-scale structure of one section of the universe, measuring redshifts for over 220,000 galaxies; data collection was completed in 2002, and the final

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and thus cannot have physical consequences. The cosmological redshift is more naturally interpreted as a Doppler shift arising due to the recession of distant objects.

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was the first to determine the velocity of a star moving away from the Earth by the method. In 1871, optical redshift was confirmed when the phenomenon was observed in

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If the universe were contracting instead of expanding, we would see distant galaxies blueshifted by an amount proportional to their distance instead of redshifted.

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which yields solutions where certain objects that "recede" are blueshifted and other objects that "approach" are redshifted. For more on this bizarre result see:

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contraction, a cosmological blueshift would be observed, with galaxies further away being increasingly blueshifted—the exact opposite of the actually observed

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is a function of the scattering angle. If multiple scattering occurs, or the scattering particles have relative motion, then there is generally distortion of

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hydrogen too. If the same spectral line is identified in both spectra—but at different wavelengths—then the redshift can be calculated using the table below.

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In the earlier part of the twentieth century, Slipher, Wirtz and others made the first measurements of the redshifts and blueshifts of galaxies beyond the

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Doppler blueshift, caused by movement of a source towards the observer and thus dependent on the received angle of the photon, gravitational blueshift is

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could be attributed to their motion with respect to the Earth. Before this was verified, it was found that stellar colors were primarily due to a star's

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Walter, Fabian; Bertoldi, Frank; Carilli, Chris; Cox, Pierre; et al. (2003). "Molecular gas in the host galaxy of a quasar at redshift z = 6.42".

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Egami, E.; et al. (2005). "Spitzer and Hubble Space Telescope Constraints on the Physical Properties of the z~7 Galaxy Strongly Lensed by A2218".

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Currently, the objects with the highest known redshifts are galaxies and the objects producing gamma ray bursts. The most reliable redshifts are from

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corresponds to present time), and it shows the state of the universe about 13.8 billion years ago, and 379,000 years after the initial moments of the

3075: 7667: 7483: 5282:. Similarly, small redshifts and blueshifts detected in the spectroscopic measurements of individual stars are one way astronomers have been able to 4035:. In the classical Doppler effect, the frequency of the source is not modified, but the recessional motion causes the illusion of a lower frequency. 2975: 5161:

is found to be remarkably constant. Although distant objects may be slightly blurred and lines broadened, it is by no more than can be explained by

2816:{\displaystyle 1+z=\gamma \left(1+{\frac {v_{\parallel }}{c}}\right)={\sqrt {\frac {1+{\frac {v_{\parallel }}{c}}}{1-{\frac {v_{\parallel }}{c}}}}}} 11621: 11052: 4688: 154: 8290:, tried to develop alternative redshift mechanisms, and very few of their fellow scientists acknowledged let alone accepted their work. Moreover, 10041: 8934:

Lehnert, M. D.; Nesvadba, N. P.; Cuby, J. G.; Swinbank, A. M.; et al. (2010). "Spectroscopic Confirmation of a galaxy at redshift z = 8.6".

8279: 7919: 5201:. Due to the broad wavelength ranges in photometric filters and the necessary assumptions about the nature of the spectrum at the light-source, 2901: 7329: 10912: 10908: 10790: 10704: 5353:—effectively redshifts and blueshifts over a single emission or absorption line. By measuring the broadening and shifts of the 21-centimeter 4160: 67: 10122:

Aoki, Kentaro; Kawaguchi, Toshihiro; Ohta, Kouji (January 2005). "The Largest Blueshifts of the Emission Line in Two Narrow-Line Quasars".

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reddening of the Sun seen in the sunrise or sunset and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color. This phenomenon is distinct from red

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However, photometry does at least allow a qualitative characterization of a redshift. For example, if a Sun-like spectrum had a redshift of

2529: 1955:; however, the resulting changes are distinguishable from (astronomical) redshift and are not generally referred to as such (see section on 7228: 4505: 3086: 1370: 359: 4846: 2018:

seen in stars as being due to the Doppler effect. The effect is sometimes called the "Doppler–Fizeau effect". In 1868, British astronomer

11296: 11015: 8469:; Dewitt, Curtis; et al. (2006). "The First Extrasolar Planet Discovered with a New-Generation High-Throughput Doppler Instrument". 8463:

is the newest observing project to use this technique, able to track the redshift variations in multiple objects at once, as reported in

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velocities associated with the objects being observed. Observations of such redshifts and blueshifts have enabled astronomers to measure

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of extragalactic observations by their redshift up to z=20. There are websites for calculating many such physical measures from redshift.

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and the highest-known redshift molecular material is the detection of emission from the CO molecule from the quasar SDSS J1148+5251 at

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is the radial coordinate of the source (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object, but is actually a

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Winters, Jan Martin (January 2018). "An 800-million-solar-mass black hole in a significantly neutral Universe at a redshift of 7.5".

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Light travel distance was calculated from redshift value using the UCLA Cosmological Calculator, with parameters values as of 2018: H

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Light travel distance was calculated from redshift value using the UCLA Cosmological Calculator, with parameters values as of 2015: H

522: 364: 5761:. Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift), and may have started the production of 1983:, who offered the first known physical explanation for the phenomenon in 1842. In 1845, the hypothesis was tested and confirmed for 11224: 1793: 768: 477: 6831: 6225:: when a gravitational well evolves while a photon is passing, the amount of blueshift on approach will differ from the amount of 11219: 10903: 6414: 5283: 1394: 11698: 10287:

Feb. 2003; pp31–35 (This article is useful further reading in distinguishing between the 3 types of redshift and their causes.)

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was the first to discover galactic redshifts, in about 1912, while Hubble correlated Slipher's measurements with distances he

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as observed from within a stronger gravitational field, while gravitational redshifting implies the opposite conditions.

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proposed an effect known as tired light. While usually considered for historical interests, it is sometimes, along with

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Using a model of the expansion of the universe, redshift can be related to the age of an observed object, the so-called

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Smail, Ian; Owen, F. N.; Morrison, G. E.; Keel, W. C.; et al. (2002). "The Diversity of Extremely Red Objects".

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Bolzonella, M.; Miralles, J.-M.; Pelló, R. (2000). "Photometric redshifts based on standard SED fitting procedures".

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Chant, C. A. (1930). "Notes and Queries (Telescopes and Observatory Equipment – The Einstein Shift of Solar Lines)".

6382: 5441:) objects discovered before the improvement of telescopes allowed for the discovery of other high-redshift galaxies. 5107:

the red shift becomes infinite. It is also the dominant cause of large angular-scale temperature fluctuations in the

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clarified, "The increase of wavelength from emission to absorption of light does not depend on the rate of change of

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on Earth. When the redshift of various absorption and emission lines from a single astronomical object is measured,

4043:. In brief, objects moving close to the speed of light will experience deviations from the above formula due to the 6080:, but the wavelength of any reflected or emitted photon or other particle is shortened in the direction of travel. 5456:

or so, the redshift is approximately proportional to the galaxy's distance. This correlation was first observed by

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This phenomenon was first observed in a 1938 experiment performed by Herbert E. Ives and G.R. Stilwell, called the

1434: 1363: 10611: 5401:. The largest-observed redshift, corresponding to the greatest distance and furthest back in time, is that of the 3167: 2036:

used the term "red-shift" as early as 1923, although the word does not appear unhyphenated until about 1934, when

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Other physical processes exist that can lead to a shift in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation, including

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Asaoka, Ikuko (1989). "X-ray spectra at infinity from a relativistic accretion disk around a Kerr black hole".

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Bradley, L. D.; et al. (2008). "Discovery of a Very Bright Strongly Lensed Galaxy Candidate at z ~ 7.6".

11724: 11652: 11421: 10973: 7006: 5726: 5699: 5562: 3965: 3212: 2629:) are associated with objects approaching (moving closer to) the observer with the light shifting to greater 2344:{\displaystyle z={\frac {\lambda _{\mathrm {obsv} }-\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}{\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}}} 1611: 951: 874: 441: 149: 9909:"The 2dF galaxy redshift survey: Power-spectrum analysis of the final dataset and cosmological implications" 9170:; Chincarini, G.; et al. (2009). "GRB 090423 reveals an exploding star at the epoch of re-ionization". 7325: 5744: 487: 11921: 11154: 10713: 10690: 8204:(1967). "Perturbations of a cosmological model and angular variations of the cosmic microwave background". 4128: 507: 45:(left). Arrows indicate redshift. Wavelength increases up towards the red and beyond (frequency decreases). 11384: 8788: 11916: 11911: 11642: 11476: 11358: 11321: 6681: 6290: 6256:, which has a relative velocity of -1150 km/s. These types of galaxies are called "blue outliers". 6218: 6210: 5691: 5402: 5108: 4358: 4357:) to the direction of relative motion in the observer's frame, the relativistic redshift is known as the 4040: 3874: 2681: 1866: 1773: 1516: 1501: 1491: 1439: 1356: 1332: 879: 748: 239: 159: 7074:

See Binney and Merrifeld (1998), Carroll and Ostlie (1996), Kutner (2003) for applications in astronomy.

11837: 11822: 11647: 11583: 10602: 8700: 8600: 8523: 7575: 6950: 6214: 6023: 5831: 5715: 5096: 3828: 2055:, had considerable redshifts. Slipher first reported on his measurement in the inaugural volume of the 1496: 1486: 1292: 1098: 1078: 886: 831: 652: 200: 8282:

that the wider astronomical community has marginalized such discussions since the 1960s. Burbidge and

5679: 3998: 11693: 11536: 9744: 9113: 9058: 7120: 6614: 6161: 6121: 6003: 5891: 5804: 5374: 5256: 5061: 4446: 4144: 1929: 1900:, are subject to the same redshift phenomena. The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter 1882: 1841:). The opposite change, a decrease in wavelength and increase in frequency and energy, is known as a 1834: 1678: 924: 452: 264: 20: 8679: 6998: 6854: 5558: 2867: 11906: 11857: 11662: 10591: 10035: 8434: 6419: 6409: 5839: 5406: 4925: 4496: 1093: 858: 687: 677: 527: 344: 6309:

Ding, Qianhang (August 2021). "Detectability of primordial black hole binaries at high redshift".

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would have traveled from that redshift, due to the expansion of space over the intervening period.

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de Sitter, W. (1934). "On distance, magnitude, and related quantities in an expanding universe".

6619: 6285: 5194: 5162: 5140: 4456: 4135: 2120: 1630: 1404: 1061: 941: 672: 406: 10176: 8877:"A Remarkably Luminous Galaxy at z=11.1 Measured with Hubble Space Telescope Grism Spectroscopy" 7225: 3890:

wavelength) ball appears greenish (blueshift to ~565 nm wavelength) approaching observer, turns

3662: 3040: 11755: 10498: 10004:. Conference on Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation, Waikoloa, Hawaii, 22–28 Aug 2002. 7568: 7112: 6226: 6222: 6206: 6002:

and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the

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wide, provides a dramatic example of a large-scale structure that redshift surveys can detect.

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Oort, J. H. (1970). "The formation of galaxies and the origin of the high-velocity hydrogen".

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pointed out that alternative theories are unable to account for timescale stretch observed in

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corresponding to recession speeds proportional to their distances from Earth, a fact known as

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Ives, H.; Stilwell, G. (1938). "An Experimental study of the rate of a moving atomic clock".

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Lewis, Geraint F.; Francis, Matthew J.; Barnes, Luke A.; Kwan, Juliana; et al. (2008).

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of distant galaxies (right), as compared to absorption lines in the visible spectrum of the

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lines are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional

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which yields the following formula for redshift associated with a photon traveling in the

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is measured, the distinction between redshift and blueshift is simply a matter of whether

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When observing spiral galaxies, the side spinning toward us will have a slight blueshift

5987: 5983: 5971: 5906: 5898: 5830:, started in 1977 with the initial data collection completed in 1982. More recently, the 5827: 5808: 5589:, corresponding to 290 million years after the Big Bang. The previous record was held by 5540:

have suggested that in comparatively recent times the expansion rate of the universe has

5522: 5202: 4929: 2641: 2096: 2092: 1668: 1625: 1171: 1141: 1088: 1044: 936: 826: 632: 602: 597: 349: 10217: 10145: 10019: 9934: 9883: 9841: 9767: 9711: 9658: 9603: 9554: 9511: 9457: 9396: 9341: 9276: 9195: 9136: 9081: 9018: 8957: 8902: 8852: 8817: 8722: 8640: 8542: 8492: 8319: 8217: 8172: 8137: 8107: 8062: 7844: 7799: 7749: 7690: 7268: 7153: 6905: 6867: 6789: 6756: 6727: 6694: 6662: 6563: 6452: 6363: 6332: 5702:

of more than 46 billion light-years. The yet-to-be-observed first light from the oldest

5092: 4060:

into the classical Doppler formula as follows (for motion solely in the line of sight):

3347:{\displaystyle 1+z={\sqrt {\frac {g_{tt}({\text{receiver}})}{g_{tt}({\text{source}})}}}} 2440:{\displaystyle z={\frac {f_{\mathrm {emit} }-f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}{f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}}} 2079:

discovered an approximate relationship between the redshifts of such "nebulae", and the

1967:

The history of the subject began in the 19th century, with the development of classical

1211: 612: 582: 11786: 11466: 11353: 11169: 11057: 10724: 10664: 10652: 10523: 10502: 10229: 10203: 10157: 10131: 10005: 9948: 9920: 9861: 9806: 9779: 9753: 9723: 9697: 9670: 9644: 9617: 9589: 9523: 9497: 9469: 9443: 9416: 9382: 9355: 9327: 9296: 9262: 9215: 9181: 9148: 9122: 9093: 9067: 9038: 9004: 8977: 8943: 8916: 8888: 8572: 8554: 8504: 8478: 8440: 8406: 8343: 8333: 8305: 8263: 8246: 8074: 8048: 7761: 7735: 7704: 7676: 7610: 7584: 7280: 7254: 6944: 6917: 6879: 6501: 6318: 6273: 6073: 6015: 5874: 5714:. Other high-redshift events predicted by physics but not presently observable are the 5615: 5476: 5350: 5322: 5081: 4941: 4909: 4578: 4482: 4460: 4048: 3899: 2223: 2100: 2057: 1893: 1889: 1481: 1386: 1231: 1201: 1166: 1136: 1083: 1027: 796: 682: 567: 492: 339: 244: 229: 190: 52: 9775: 9562: 8911: 8876: 7245:

Bunn, E. F.; Hogg, D. W. (2009). "The kinematic origin of the cosmological redshift".

6808: 6771: 5369:

of our Milky Way. Similar measurements have been performed on other galaxies, such as

11842: 11827: 11118: 10529: 10508: 10483: 10477: 10462: 10443: 10436: 10420: 10401: 10379: 10358: 10339: 10320: 10256: 10097: 10064: 9943: 9908: 9853: 9612: 9577: 9527: 9408: 9359: 9300: 9288: 9219: 9207: 9030: 8969: 8920: 8857: 8839: 8768: 8659: 8558: 8466: 8361: 8275: 7911: 7891: 7699: 7662: 7641: 7630: 7366: 7339: 7305: 7205: 7180: 6956: 6921: 6883: 6813: 6524: 6388: 6245: 6146: 5748: 5537: 5509:

in the universe. This effect leads to such phenomena as nearby galaxies (such as the

5498: 5231:

spectrum, and the light intensity will be reduced in the filter by a factor of four,

5190: 5136: 4834: 2151: 2004: 1980: 1733: 1698: 1663: 1550: 1521: 1511: 1506: 1261: 512: 287: 10233: 10161: 9865: 9783: 9727: 9719: 9621: 9473: 9152: 9097: 8508: 8337: 8124:(1907). "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen". 7765: 7708: 7614: 6505: 5227:(1000nm) rather than at the blue-green(500nm) color associated with the peak of its 2518:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {\lambda _{\mathrm {obsv} }}{\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}}} 1693: 562: 11881: 11760: 11451: 11442: 10628: 10393: 10221: 10149: 10089: 10023: 9952: 9938: 9845: 9771: 9715: 9674: 9662: 9607: 9558: 9541:

Lineweaver, Charles; Davis, Tamara M. (2005). "Misconceptions about the Big Bang".

9515: 9461: 9420: 9400: 9345: 9280: 9199: 9172: 9140: 9085: 9042: 9022: 8981: 8961: 8906: 8847: 8829: 8726: 8593: 8546: 8496: 8323: 8221: 8176: 8078: 8066: 7848: 7803: 7753: 7694: 7602: 7284: 7272: 7157: 6940: 6909: 6871: 6803: 6793: 6587: 6567: 6493: 6456: 6336: 6131: 6092: 6069: 5975: 5914: 5762: 5648: 5510: 5370: 5362: 3895: 2140: 2128: 2072: 2037: 2033: 2023: 2011: 2007:, not motion. Only later was Doppler vindicated by verified redshift observations. 1854: 1703: 1673: 1344: 1146: 982: 851: 637: 592: 572: 517: 34: 10579: 9666: 8703:

experiment. The final published temperature of 2.73 K was reported in this paper:

8433:

A pedagogical overview of the K-correction by David Hogg and other members of the

6546:"On an Apparatus for the Laboratory Demonstration of the Doppler-Fizeau Principle" 5698:, corresponding to an age of approximately 379,000 years after the Big Bang and a 4463:. The correlation between redshifts and distances arises in all expanding models. 1156: 1131: 657: 11776: 11688: 10194:

Nemiroff, R. J. (1993). "Visual distortions near a neutron star and black hole".

9964: 9849: 8201: 8197: 8121: 7606: 7232: 7013: 7009: 6238: 6157: 5895: 5878: 5858: 5812: 5794: 5633: 5461: 5302: 5279: 4933: 4866: 4857: 4806: 4140: 3891: 3696: 3158: 2686: 2084: 2019: 1952: 1878: 1688: 1683: 1658: 1635: 1545: 1271: 1206: 1191: 1176: 1161: 1151: 1015: 912: 692: 667: 552: 547: 411: 292: 254: 10556: 8583:

was working on such measurements when he turned his attention to spiral nebulae.

6340: 2150:

The spectrum of originally featureless light shone through hydrogen will show a

2030:

verified optical redshift in the laboratory using a system of rotating mirrors.

462: 11400: 11073: 10682: 10616: 9797: 9433: 8834: 8699:

An accurate measurement of the cosmic microwave background was achieved by the

7100: 7092: 7025:

For a tutorial on how to define and interpret large redshift measurements, see:

6777:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6139: 6065: 5579: 5518: 5506: 5366: 5334: 5186: 5073: 4865:

the light are stretched by the expansion of space. It is as simple as that..."

4052: 4032: 3933: 3883: 3870: 3030:{\displaystyle z\approx {\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {v_{\perp }}{c}}\right)^{2}} 2619: 2206: 2088: 2071:

Slipher reported the velocities for 15 spiral nebulae spread across the entire

1972: 1897: 1760: 1728: 1589: 1444: 1256: 1216: 735: 702: 697: 385: 249: 10371: 8181: 8156: 7757: 6913: 6772:"A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" 5578:

data, and the highest-confirmed spectroscopic redshift of a galaxy is that of

11895: 11510: 11331: 11185: 10093: 8843: 8706: 8580: 7434: 7390: 7128: 7037: 5995: 5978:

can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as

5964: 5618:

redshifts, the highest of which is the lensed galaxy A1689-zD1 at a redshift

5601: 5575: 5566: 5465: 5449: 5354: 5148: 5128: 5123: 5104: 4786:{\displaystyle t(z)\approx {\frac {2}{3H_{0}{\Omega _{0}}^{1/2}}}z^{-3/2}\ ,} 4044: 3932:) occurs. This is true for all electromagnetic waves and is explained by the 2136: 2132: 2048: 2044: 2015: 1937: 1830: 1594: 1476: 1241: 1226: 1126: 662: 577: 557: 482: 380: 259: 30: 9350: 9315: 8294:"Timescale Stretch Parameterization of Type Ia Supernova B-Band Lightcurves" 7573:

Karachentsev, I. D.; et al. (2003). "Local galaxy flows within 5 Mpc".

5373:. As a diagnostic tool, redshift measurements are one of the most important 622: 11796: 11471: 10640: 10456: 10208: 9907:; Percival, Will J.; Peacock, John A.; Norberg, Peder; et al. (2005). 9857: 9412: 9292: 9211: 9034: 8973: 8861: 8259: 7726:

Chodorowski, Michal (2007). "Is space really expanding? A counterexample".

7161: 6817: 6460: 6253: 6181: 6177: 5902: 5862: 5816: 5457: 5338: 5240: 5177:

Spectroscopy, as a measurement, is considerably more difficult than simple

5152: 4912:, there is time dilation within a gravitational well. This is known as the 2076: 1933: 1723: 1246: 1221: 1196: 1181: 1037: 607: 587: 38: 10283:

Odenwald, S. & Fienberg, RT. 1993; "Galaxy Redshifts Reconsidered" in

8028:{\displaystyle 1+z=(1+z_{\mathrm {Doppler} })(1+z_{\mathrm {expansion} })} 6798: 5493:

interactions of galaxies with each other and clusters cause a significant

5080:

This gravitational redshift result can be derived from the assumptions of

2964:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v_{\perp }^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}} 2091:

worked on those observations with Hubble. These observations corroborated

11750: 11740: 10587: 10312: 10136: 10010: 9925: 9880: 9649: 9594: 9502: 9448: 9387: 9127: 8818:"Spectroscopic confirmation of two luminous galaxies at a redshift of 14" 8483: 8445: 8411: 8310: 8053: 7740: 7589: 6110: 6103: 5883: 5526: 5490: 5445: 5394: 5346: 5306: 5171: 4592: 4577:

In an expanding universe such as the one we inhabit, the scale factor is

4347: 3914:

If a source of the light is moving away from an observer, then redshift (

2160: 1988: 1971:

mechanics and the exploration of phenomena which are associated with the

1708: 1584: 994: 987: 497: 467: 9404: 9284: 9203: 9026: 8965: 6608: 6014:"Blueshift" redirects here. For the term as used in photochemistry, see 5239:. Both the photon count rate and the photon energy are redshifted. (See 4821: 1913:(which is greater than 1 for redshifts and less than 1 for blueshifts). 11745: 11437: 11409: 11195: 9904: 9688:

Grishchuk, Leonid P (2005). "Relic gravitational waves and cosmology".

8550: 8283: 7091:

parallel to line-of-sight (positive if moving away from receiver); c =

6973: 6875: 6497: 6265: 6034: 5947: 5910: 5887: 5820: 5718:

from about two seconds after the Big Bang (and a redshift in excess of

5637: 5514: 5484: 5393:

The most distant objects exhibit larger redshifts corresponding to the

5349:

of various emitting and absorbing objects can be obtained by measuring

5342: 5228: 5182: 5100: 4842: 4250:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {1+v\cos(\theta )/c}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}} 1984: 1956: 1948: 1925: 1822: 1738: 1718: 1560: 1555: 1236: 707: 269: 195: 127:{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }} 19:

This article is about the astronomical phenomenon. For other uses, see

11020: 10027: 9702: 8070: 7807: 7276: 6679:

Slipher, Vesto (1912). "The radial velocity of the Andromeda Nebula".

6106:; thus, when observed from Earth, its light is undergoing a blueshift. 5683:

stellar population. Objects that are even redder than EROs are termed

5658:. The highest-known redshift radio galaxy (TGSS1530) is at a redshift 5313:. Redshifts have also been used to make the first measurements of the 2594:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {f_{\mathrm {emit} }}{f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}}} 1865:

are the relative motions of radiation sources, which give rise to the

11559: 11494: 11389: 10959: 10892: 10888: 10856: 10785: 10252: 9635:

Lesgourgues, J; Pastor, S (2006). "Massive neutrinos and cosmology".

7522: 6096: 6084: 6077: 6057: 5868: 5800: 5287: 5252: 4567:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {a_{\mathrm {now} }}{a_{\mathrm {then} }}}} 4452: 3922: 3906: 3887: 3148:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {a_{\mathrm {now} }}{a_{\mathrm {then} }}}} 1941: 1917: 1862: 1858: 1826: 1536: 1186: 278: 10225: 8274:

that had been discussed in the literature since the 1930s. In 2001,

7301:

The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe

6184:

become more energetic and undergo observer-independent blueshifting.

5924:

In many circumstances scattering causes radiation to redden because

2110: 11588: 11578: 11368: 11270: 11264: 11259: 11249: 11244: 11239: 11234: 11229: 11010: 11005: 10153: 9957: 9758: 9519: 9465: 9332: 9267: 9144: 9089: 9009: 8893: 8814: 8730: 8500: 8328: 8293: 8225: 7853: 7828: 7088: 6572: 6545: 6323: 6173: 5835: 5766: 5494: 5424: 5398: 5357:

in different directions, astronomers have been able to measure the

5314: 5260: 5224: 5189:. When photometric data is all that is available (for example, the 4937: 4838: 4653:{\displaystyle \Omega _{0}={\frac {\rho }{\rho _{\text{crit}}}}\ ,} 4477:

The observational consequences of this effect can be derived using

3941: 2144: 2104: 2080: 1713: 821: 814: 647: 457: 297: 9186: 9072: 8948: 8242: 7681: 7259: 5385: 11128: 10546:

for applications of the cosmological and gravitational redshifts.

10457:

Misner, Charles; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973).

10352: 10002:

Science objectives and early results of the DEEP2 redshift survey

9251: 8874: 7572: 6741:

Slipher, Vesto (1915). "Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae".

6712:

Slipher, Vesto (1915). "Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae".

5925: 5213:, and are much less reliable than spectroscopic determinations. 5017:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {2GM}{rc^{2}}}}}},} 4489:. The cosmological redshift can thus be written as a function of 1976: 1814: 9802:"Astronomers Report Finding Earliest Stars That Enriched Cosmos" 9165: 8439:

Hogg, David W.; et al. (October 2002). "The K correction".

5600:, corresponding to 400 million years after the Big Bang, and by 1873:

escaping radiation. All sufficiently distant light sources show

11416: 10964: 10775: 9235:"Scientists observe supermassive black hole in infant universe" 8994: 8735:. The most accurate measurement as of 2006 was achieved by the 7564: 7478: 6249: 6242: 6127: 6099: 6038: 5950: 5929: 5843: 5770: 5751: 5590: 5453: 5431: 5318: 5243:

for more details on the photometric consequences of redshift.)

5166: 5135:

The redshift observed in astronomy can be measured because the

4880:

at the times of emission or absorption, but on the increase of

2630: 4852:

The redshifts of galaxies include both a component related to

4147:

which yields different results for different orientations. If

3879: 11190: 10979: 10948: 10826: 9828:

Geller, M. J.; Huchra, J. P. (1989). "Mapping the Universe".

9055: 8789:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011: Information for the Public" 8576: 7781:"A comparison between the Doppler and cosmological redshifts" 7036:. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Archived from 6946:

The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900–1931

6248:. One of the largest blueshifts is found in the narrow-line 6046: 5954: 5873:

The interactions and phenomena summarized in the subjects of

5268: 4920:. The theoretical derivation of this effect follows from the 2010:

The Doppler redshift was first described by French physicist

1996: 1921: 1838: 11528: 10247:

Bonometto, Silvio; Gorini, Vittorio; Moschella, Ugo (2002).

9740: 6049:, this shifts a color towards the blue end of the spectrum. 5345:

which exhibit both Doppler and gravitational redshifts. The

5255:

galaxy) observed redshifts are almost always related to the

804: 10969: 10954: 10944: 10372:

Feynman, Richard; Leighton, Robert; Sands, Matthew (1989).

10180: 8933: 8438: 7439: 7395: 7116: 7002: 5774: 5502: 5271: 5264: 5144: 5091:

The effect is very small but measurable on Earth using the

5049: 4856:

from expansion of the universe, and a component related to

2000: 1968: 1850: 26: 10635: 9903: 9582:

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters

8704: 8464: 6650:

Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands

6149:

are moving toward us, resulting in a very small blueshift.

5611:, corresponding to 600 million years after the Big Bang. 5501:

associated with galaxies superimpose a rough trace of the

1936:

objects, and are used in terrestrial technologies such as

1845:, or negative redshift. The terms derive from the colours 10084:

Woodhouse, Chris (2017-12-04). "M31 (Andromeda Galaxy)".

9976: 8291: 7636:(5th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 6440:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

6196:

and does not depend on the received angle of the photon:

5785: 5310: 5088:; the full theory of general relativity is not required. 4117:{\displaystyle 1+z=\left(1+{\frac {v}{c}}\right)\gamma .} 3921:) occurs; if the source moves towards the observer, then 3898:, or about 32 times faster than the speed record for the 1846: 42: 10246: 9999: 9372: 6852:

Friedman, A. A. (1922). "Über die Krümmung des Raumes".

5278:, a method first employed in 1868 by British astronomer 10333: 8396: 5389:

The age of the universe versus redshift from z=5 to 20.

4833:

additional Doppler redshifts and blueshifts due to the

2099:. They are now considered to be strong evidence for an 7660: 5301:

Finely detailed measurements of redshifts are used in

4426:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}} 2062:. Three years later, he wrote a review in the journal 1888:

All redshifts can be understood under the umbrella of

10600: 10504:

Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity

10310: 8354:

For a review of the subject of photometry, consider:

7922: 7663:"Cosmological Radar Ranging in an Expanding Universe" 6407: 6041:), with a corresponding increase in frequency, of an 6022:. For other uses of "blueshift" or "blue shift", see 4953: 4837:

of the galaxies relative to one another cause a wide

4822:

Distinguishing between cosmological and local effects

4691: 4613: 4508: 4370: 4276: 4163: 4069: 4001: 3968: 3831: 3708: 3665: 3571: 3370: 3273: 3215: 3170: 3089: 3043: 2978: 2904: 2870: 2830: 2705: 2532: 2456: 2358: 2262: 2226: 70: 10392: 9110: 8249:

upon which the citing charts and formulae are based.

6213:, and was confirmed experimentally in 1959 with the 6113:

system will be blueshifted when moving towards Earth

5513:) exhibiting blueshifts as we fall towards a common 4845:. The resulting situation can be illustrated by the 4587:

is positive and distant galaxies appear redshifted.

3936:. Consequently, this type of redshift is called the 2857:{\displaystyle z\approx {\frac {v_{\parallel }}{c}}} 9886:. Harvard & Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics 8258:When cosmological redshifts were first discovered, 8095:

Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada

8038: 7910:This is only true in a universe where there are no 6974:"Hubble census finds galaxies at redshifts 9 to 12" 6180:(protons, electrons, photons, etc.) falling into a 5475:In the widely accepted cosmological model based on 2895:For motion completely in the transverse direction: 10435: 8027: 7877: 7829:"The redshift-distance and velocity-distance laws" 7629: 6890:Friedman, A. (1999). "On the Curvature of Space". 6607: 6606: 5869:Effects from physical optics or radiative transfer 5016: 4891:in the whole period from emission to absorption." 4785: 4652: 4566: 4425: 4336:{\displaystyle 1+z={\sqrt {\frac {1+v/c}{1-v/c}}}} 4335: 4249: 4134:Since the Lorentz factor is dependent only on the 4116: 4013: 3987: 3940:. If the source moves away from the observer with 3850: 3814: 3684: 3651: 3554: 3346: 3241: 3201: 3147: 3056: 3029: 2963: 2883: 2856: 2815: 2593: 2517: 2439: 2343: 2232: 126: 10353:Carroll, Bradley W. & Dale A. Ostlie (1996). 10121: 9913:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 9634: 9320:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 8629:Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 7668:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 7563:Measurements of the peculiar velocities out to 5 7484:International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research 7070: 7068: 7066: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7058: 7056: 7054: 6152:Doppler blueshift of distant objects with a high 5197:), astronomers rely on a technique for measuring 4346:For the special case that the light is moving at 2111:Measurement, characterization, and interpretation 1857:. The main causes of electromagnetic redshift in 11893: 10712: 9575: 8144:The influence of a gravitational field on clocks 6408:O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (1998). 6264:In a hypothetical universe undergoing a runaway 6076:toward the observer are noticeably bluer to the 5743:In June 2015, astronomers reported evidence for 5205:for these sorts of measurements can range up to 5147:are distinctive and well known, calibrated from 9540: 8749: 8747: 8745: 8653: 7338:(2nd ed.). Springer. p. 77, Eq.4.79. 7324: 6384:Doppler Ultrasound in Obstetrics And Gynecology 5052:of the object creating the gravitational field, 2083:to them, with the formulation of his eponymous 10577: 9245: 8762: 7051: 5636:with a spectroscopic redshift measurement was 5497:in the normal plot of the Hubble diagram. The 4051:which can be corrected for by introducing the 3949:, which is much less than the speed of light ( 11544: 11267:(first-ever possible light from bh-bh merger) 10698: 10496: 10290:Lineweaver, Charles H. and Tamara M. Davis, " 10240: 10088:(2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 308–313. 8682:. The European Space Agency (ESA). 2013-04-02 7472: 7470: 5380: 1794: 1364: 769: 16:Change of wavelength in photons during travel 10567:Mike Luciuk's Astronomical Redshift tutorial 10433: 10419:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 10054: 9827: 9790: 8742: 8237: 8235: 7627: 7516: 7514: 7428: 7426: 7384: 7382: 7139: 6934: 6932: 5946:of wavelength. Furthermore, scattering from 5913:medium as occurs in the radio phenomenon of 5118: 4260:and for motion solely in the line of sight ( 3202:{\displaystyle z\approx {\frac {H_{0}D}{c}}} 10578:Merrifield, Michael; Hill, Richard (2009). 10117: 10115: 10113: 10040:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 9734: 8875:Oesch, P. A.; et al. (March 1, 2016). 8382:Baum, W. A. (1962). McVittie, G. C. (ed.). 7725: 7719: 5769:that are needed for the later formation of 5290:around other stars and have even made very 11551: 11537: 10705: 10691: 10357:. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 10177:"Gravitational Principles and Mathematics" 8243:"Paper-and-pencil cosmological calculator" 8196: 8154: 8126:Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik 7467: 6543: 6474:Reber, G. (1995). "Intergalactic Plasma". 6168: 5517:, and redshift maps of clusters showing a 5305:to determine the precise movements of the 5298:to determine precise orbital parameters. 1924:, or initially visible light perceived as 1801: 1787: 1371: 1357: 803: 776: 762: 11622:Religious interpretations of the Big Bang 10334:Binney, James; Michael Merrifeld (1998). 10207: 10135: 10083: 10009: 10000:Davis, Marc; DEEP2 collaboration (2002). 9942: 9924: 9757: 9701: 9687: 9648: 9611: 9593: 9576:Naoz, S.; Noter, S.; Barkana, R. (2006). 9501: 9447: 9386: 9349: 9331: 9316:"Discovery of a radio galaxy at z = 5.72" 9266: 9185: 9126: 9071: 9008: 8947: 8910: 8892: 8851: 8833: 8521: 8482: 8444: 8410: 8327: 8309: 8232: 8180: 8052: 7852: 7820: 7739: 7698: 7680: 7588: 7511: 7423: 7379: 7318: 7304:(2nd ed.). Basic Books. p. 34. 7258: 7199: 7142:Journal of the Optical Society of America 6939: 6929: 6807: 6797: 6646: 6586: 6571: 6518: 6431: 6429: 6322: 6259: 6217:. Gravitational blueshift contributes to 5932:photons over few high-energy ones (while 4897: 11612:Discovery of cosmic microwave background 11279:(first black hole - neutron star merger) 10562:Cosmic reference guide entry on redshift 10521: 10414: 10193: 10174: 10110: 9241:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 8654:Rybicki, G. B.; Lightman, A. R. (1979). 8270:. In 1981, H. J. Reboul summarised many 8120: 7883: 7871: 7826: 7297: 7291: 7244: 6889: 6851: 6358:. Vol. 69. Prague: G. Haase Söhne. 6172: 6056: 5928:results in the predominance of many low- 5784: 5557: 5384: 5185:of astronomical objects through certain 5174:are not generally considered plausible. 5122: 3905: 3878: 2633:. Conversely, Doppler effect redshifts ( 2114: 25: 10475: 10398:Einstein's General Theory of Relativity 9796: 8763:Binney, James; Treimane, Scott (1994). 8358:Introduction to Astronomical Photometry 8355: 8187:. This paper was the first measurement. 7890:. Oxford University Press. p. 11. 7520: 7358: 7352: 6740: 6711: 6678: 6435: 6415:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 6381:. In Maulik, Dev; Zalud, Ivica (eds.). 6353: 6156:can be subtracted from the much larger 4143:of the movement of the source into the 3988:{\displaystyle z\approx {\frac {v}{c}}} 3242:{\displaystyle D\ll {\frac {c}{H_{0}}}} 2119:High-redshift galaxy candidates in the 11894: 10417:Cosmology: The Science of the Universe 10355:An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics 10055:Kuhn, Karl F.; Koupelis, Theo (2004). 9878:See the CfA website for more details: 9313: 8658:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 288. 8626: 8380:The technique was first described by: 8252: 7778: 7628:Koupelis, Theo; Kuhn, Karl F. (2007). 7174: 6769: 6426: 6376: 5918: 5483:. Because it is usually not known how 2694:For motion completely in the radial or 2618:is positive or negative. For example, 2095:'s 1922 work, in which he derived the 1957:physical optics and radiative transfer 1869:, and gravitational potentials, which 11532: 10686: 10572:Animated GIF of Cosmological Redshift 10187: 10168: 8286:, while investigating the mystery of 8091: 7654: 7476: 7432: 7388: 6593:The Mathematical Theory of Relativity 6473: 6379:"Doppler Sonography: A Brief History" 5246: 4440: 2163:(random fluctuations in a spectrum). 2043:Beginning with observations in 1912, 1916:Examples of strong redshifting are a 10837:Stanford gravitational wave detector 9534: 8597: 8386:. IAU Symposium No. 15. p. 390. 8381: 7621: 7238: 6634:participating institution membership 6596:. The University Press. p. 164. 6308: 6160:to determine relative motion in the 6120:the side spinning away from us (see 6052: 6018:. For the political phenomenon, see 5554:List of most distant objects by type 5547: 5286:the presence and characteristics of 5099:. However, it is significant near a 2659:) is independent of the wavelength. 2647: 1928:. Subtler redshifts are seen in the 1825:, and corresponding decrease in the 10375:Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 9958:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey homepage 9232: 8656:Radiative Processes in Astrophysics 8384:Problems of extra-galactic research 8292:Goldhaber, G.; et al. (2001). 7335:Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics 6997:See, for example, this 25 May 2004 5780: 5444:For galaxies more distant than the 13: 10989:European Gravitational Observatory 10317:Discovering the Expanding Universe 9879: 8356:Budding, E. (September 24, 1993). 8016: 8013: 8010: 8007: 8004: 8001: 7998: 7995: 7992: 7968: 7965: 7962: 7959: 7956: 7953: 7950: 7914:. Otherwise, redshifts combine as 7550:=0.6847 (see Table/Planck2018 at " 7496:ICRAR Cosmology Calculator - Set H 7416:=0.3089 (see Table/Planck2015 at " 7226:Photons, Relativity, Doppler shift 7027: 6893:General Relativity and Gravitation 5826:The first redshift survey was the 5292:detailed differential measurements 5103:, and as an object approaches the 4729: 4615: 4556: 4553: 4550: 4547: 4535: 4532: 4529: 4487:homogeneous and isotropic universe 3137: 3134: 3131: 3128: 3116: 3113: 3110: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2574: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2498: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2477: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2302: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2278: 1099:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 87: 14: 11938: 11627:Timeline of cosmological theories 11273:(first-ever "mass gap" collision) 10550: 10438:Astronomy: A Physical Perspective 10292:Misconceptions about the Big Bang 9578:"The first stars in the Universe" 9563:10.1038/scientificamerican0305-36 9166:Salvaterra, R.; Valle, M. Della; 7538:KEMP Cosmology Calculator - Set H 7504:=0.315 (see Table/Planck2018 at " 7460:=0.315 (see Table/Planck2018 at " 7235:" at the University of Queensland 7179:. World Scientific. p. 120. 6033:. A blueshift is any decrease in 5647:. The most distant-known quasar, 5430:The luminous point-like cores of 3864: 3851:{\displaystyle v_{\text{e}}\ll c} 1314:Timeline of cosmological theories 1079:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 11875: 10670: 10658: 10646: 10634: 10622: 10610: 10479:Principles of Physical Cosmology 10461:. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. 9944:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09318.x 9613:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00251.x 7700:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13477.x 7177:Special Relativity for Beginners 7034:NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database 6232: 6029:The opposite of a redshift is a 5434:were the first "high-redshift" ( 4014:{\displaystyle \gamma \approx 1} 2014:in 1848, who noted the shift in 1975:. The effect is named after the 1768: 1767: 1754: 1393: 1338: 1327: 1326: 743: 742: 729: 59: 11720:Future of an expanding universe 10557:Ned Wright's Cosmology tutorial 10077: 10061:Jones & Bartlett Publishers 10048: 9993: 9969: 9897: 9872: 9821: 9720:10.1070/PU2005v048n12ABEH005795 9681: 9628: 9569: 9480: 9427: 9366: 9307: 9226: 9159: 9104: 9049: 8988: 8927: 8868: 8808: 8781: 8756: 8693: 8672: 8647: 8620: 8586: 8565: 8515: 8453: 8437:collaboration can be found at: 8427: 8390: 8374: 8348: 8272:alternative redshift mechanisms 8190: 8148: 8114: 8085: 7904: 7865: 7859:. A pdf file can be found here 7772: 7557: 7218: 7193: 7168: 7133: 7121:radial Schwarzschild coordinate 7077: 7019: 6991: 6966: 6845: 6824: 6763: 6734: 6705: 6672: 6640: 6600: 6241:that show a blueshift in their 6205:It is a natural consequence of 5838:was released 30 June 2003. The 5407:numerical value of its redshift 5223:, it would be brightest in the 4847:Expanding Rubber Sheet Universe 1853:which form the extremes of the 1094:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 947:Future of an expanding universe 11617:History of the Big Bang theory 10730:Gravitational-wave observatory 10507:(2nd ed.). W.H. Freeman. 10482:. Princeton University Press. 10442:. Cambridge University Press. 10338:. Princeton University Press. 10319:. Cambridge University Press. 8767:. Princeton University Press. 8575:measured the rotation rate of 8524:"Solar and stellar seismology" 8360:. Cambridge University Press. 8022: 7977: 7974: 7935: 7523:"KEMPNER Cosmology Calculator" 7435:"UCLA Cosmological Calculator" 7391:"UCLA Cosmological Calculator" 6580: 6537: 6512: 6477:Astrophysics and Space Science 6467: 6401: 6370: 6347: 6302: 6087:to determine relative motion: 6072:. Only objects moving at near- 6061:Doppler redshift and blueshift 5905:, or from fluctuations of the 5251:In nearby objects (within our 5095:and was first observed in the 4826:For cosmological redshifts of 4701: 4695: 4200: 4194: 3337: 3329: 3311: 3303: 2884:{\displaystyle v_{\parallel }} 1842: 1309:History of the Big Bang theory 1105:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 1: 11725:Ultimate fate of the universe 11653:Gravitational wave background 11558: 11422:Gravitational wave background 10974:LIGO Scientific Collaboration 9667:10.1016/j.physrep.2006.04.001 8465:Ge, Jian; Van Eyken, Julian; 8155:Pound, R.; Rebka, G. (1960). 7833:Astrophysical Journal, Part 1 6296: 6083:Doppler blueshift is used in 5819:of galaxies over 500 million 5727:gravitational wave background 4267:), this equation reduces to: 3079:(expanding Big Bang universe) 2215:is defined by the equations: 1301:Discovery of cosmic microwave 952:Ultimate fate of the universe 11225:First observation (GW150914) 11011:TAMA 20, later known as LISM 10714:Gravitational-wave astronomy 10544:physical cosmology textbooks 9850:10.1126/science.246.4932.897 9233:Chu, Jennifer (2017-12-06). 8157:"Apparent Weight of Photons" 7479:"ICRAR Cosmology Calculator" 6356:Beiträge zur fixsternenkunde 6009: 5789:Rendering of the 2dFGRS data 5632:. The most distant-observed 5460:and has come to be known as 5452:, but within a thousand mega 5365:, which in turn reveals the 4597:. Denote a density ratio as 4495:, the time-dependent cosmic 3959:), the redshift is given by 2449: 2255: 2189:represents frequency (note, 2097:Friedmann–Lemaître equations 2051:, then mostly thought to be 7: 11643:Cosmic microwave background 11359:Tests of general relativity 10396:; Hervik, Sigbjørn (2007). 10277: 10196:American Journal of Physics 10086:The Astrophotography Manual 9776:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139 8912:10.3847/0004-637X/819/2/129 8245:arxiv:1303.5961, including 8241:S.V. Pilipenko (2013-2021) 8041:American Journal of Physics 7788:American Journal of Physics 7552:Lambda-CDM model#Parameters 7506:Lambda-CDM model#Parameters 7462:Lambda-CDM model#Parameters 7418:Lambda-CDM model#Parameters 7247:American Journal of Physics 6682:Lowell Observatory Bulletin 6410:"Christian Andreas Doppler" 6354:Doppler, Christian (1846). 6341:10.1103/PhysRevD.104.043527 6291:Relativistic Doppler effect 6279: 6219:cosmic microwave background 5733:at a redshift in excess of 5692:cosmic microwave background 5685:hyper extremely red objects 5625:and the next highest being 5614:Slightly less reliable are 5403:cosmic microwave background 5109:cosmic microwave background 4041:relativistic Doppler effect 3875:Relativistic Doppler effect 1867:relativistic Doppler effect 1502:Relativistic Doppler effect 1440:Inertial frame of reference 1069:Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 240:Gravitational time dilation 10: 11943: 11648:Cosmic neutrino background 11584:Chronology of the universe 11021:Caltech 40m interferometer 10476:Peebles, P. J. E. (1993). 10272: 8835:10.1038/s41586-024-07860-9 8601:Astronomy and Astrophysics 8399:Astronomy and Astrophysics 7607:10.1051/0004-6361:20021566 7576:Astronomy and Astrophysics 6951:Cambridge University Press 6024:Blueshift (disambiguation) 6013: 5832:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey 5792: 5716:cosmic neutrino background 5640:, which had a redshift of 5551: 5381:Extragalactic observations 5375:spectroscopic measurements 4901: 4444: 3868: 3685:{\displaystyle r\gg r_{S}} 3057:{\displaystyle v_{\perp }} 2183:represents wavelength and 1962: 1497:Relativity of simultaneity 832:Chronology of the universe 360:Mathisson–Papapetrou–Dixon 201:Pseudo-Riemannian manifold 18: 11902:Astronomical spectroscopy 11871: 11815: 11769: 11733: 11712: 11694:Expansion of the universe 11671: 11635: 11602: 11566: 11430: 11377: 11346: 11286: 11212: 11205: 11178: 11145: 11111: 11095: 11086: 11066: 11045: 11029: 10998: 10937: 10926: 10881: 10865: 10799: 10758: 10747: 10738: 10720: 10525:Gravitation and Cosmology 10522:Weinberg, Steven (1971). 10415:Harrison, Edward (2000). 9884:"The CfA Redshift Survey" 9745:The Astrophysical Journal 9490:The Astrophysical Journal 9436:The Astrophysical Journal 9114:The Astrophysical Journal 9059:The Astrophysical Journal 8881:The Astrophysical Journal 8471:The Astrophysical Journal 8266:suggestions, utilized by 8182:10.1103/PhysRevLett.4.337 7884:Weinberg, Steven (2008). 7827:Harrison, Edward (1992). 7758:10.2478/v10005-007-0002-2 7571:were reported in 2003 by 7365:. Springer. p. 161. 7298:Weinberg, Steven (1993). 7030:"Extragalactic Redshifts" 6615:Oxford English Dictionary 6588:Eddington, Arthur Stanley 6229:as it leaves the region. 6221:(CMB) anisotropy via the 6142:that appears blueshifted. 6095:is moving toward our own 5953:generally occurs at many 5892:electromagnetic radiation 5799:With advent of automated 5119:Observations in astronomy 4447:Expansion of the universe 2696:line-of-sight direction: 2220:Calculation of redshift, 1993:Christophorus Buys Ballot 1890:frame transformation laws 1835:electromagnetic radiation 925:Expansion of the universe 21:Redshift (disambiguation) 11462:Supermassive black holes 10592:University of Nottingham 10304: 10175:Nemiroff, R. J. (1993). 10094:10.4324/9781315159225-42 10057:In Quest of the Universe 8522:Libbrecht, Keng (1988). 7632:In Quest of the Universe 7521:Kempner, Joshua (2022). 6978:ESA/Hubble Press Release 6420:University of St Andrews 5840:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 5062:Schwarzschild coordinate 4579:monotonically increasing 4129:Ives–Stilwell experiment 1871:gravitationally redshift 1517:Bell's spaceship paradox 1089:Planck space observatory 875:Gravitational wave (GWB) 365:Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein 345:Einstein field equations 168:Mathematical formulation 11848:Observational cosmology 11301:Resonant mass detectors 10499:Wheeler, John Archibald 8614:1970A&A.....7..381O 8421:2000A&A...363..476B 8268:nonstandard cosmologies 8161:Physical Review Letters 7599:2003A&A...398..479K 7359:Longair, M. S. (1998). 7175:Freund, Jurgen (2008). 7127:= t,t component of the 6914:10.1023/A:1026751225741 6888:English translation in 6832:"Universe is Expanding" 6620:Oxford University Press 6544:Bélopolsky, A. (1901). 6490:1995Ap&SS.227...93R 6286:Gravitational potential 6211:mass–energy equivalence 6169:Gravitational blueshift 5934:conserving total energy 5919:effects discussed above 5470:measured by other means 5195:Hubble Ultra Deep Field 2121:Hubble Ultra Deep Field 1896:, which also travel at 1631:Galilean transformation 1492:Mass–energy equivalence 1405:Principle of relativity 942:Inhomogeneous cosmology 11699:Accelerating expansion 10400:. New York: Springer. 8029: 7779:Bedran, M. L. (2002). 7569:Hubble Space Telescope 7204:. Dover. p. 329. 7200:Ditchburn, R. (1961). 7162:10.1364/josa.28.000215 7113:gravitational constant 6855:Zeitschrift für Physik 6770:Hubble, Edwin (1929). 6523:. Dover. p. 451. 6521:A History of Astronomy 6519:Pannekoek, A. (1961). 6461:10.1098/rstl.1868.0022 6260:Cosmological blueshift 6227:gravitational redshift 6215:Pound–Rebka experiment 6207:conservation of energy 6203: 6185: 6062: 5980:interstellar reddening 5972:interstellar astronomy 5861:with the new "DEIMOS" 5790: 5729:emitted directly from 5571: 5472:to formulate his Law. 5390: 5359:recessional velocities 5276:spectroscopic binaries 5132: 5097:Pound–Rebka experiment 5038:gravitational constant 5018: 4922:Schwarzschild solution 4914:gravitational redshift 4904:Gravitational redshift 4898:Gravitational redshift 4862:Edward Robert Harrison 4787: 4654: 4581:as time passes, thus, 4568: 4427: 4337: 4251: 4118: 4015: 3989: 3911: 3910:Redshift and blueshift 3903: 3852: 3816: 3686: 3653: 3556: 3359:Schwarzschild geometry 3348: 3256:Gravitational redshift 3243: 3203: 3149: 3058: 3037: for small 3031: 2965: 2885: 2864: for small 2858: 2817: 2595: 2519: 2441: 2345: 2234: 2169:dimensionless quantity 2124: 1855:visible light spectrum 1821:is an increase in the 1455:Lorentz transformation 235:Gravitational redshift 128: 46: 11927:Concepts in astronomy 11802:Shape of the universe 11792:Large-scale structure 11605:cosmological theories 11486:Rotating neutron star 11297:Laser interferometers 10434:Kutner, Marc (2003). 10124:Astrophysical Journal 9351:10.1093/mnras/sty1996 8711:Astrophysical Journal 8531:Space Science Reviews 8298:Astrophysical Journal 8288:the nature of quasars 8206:Astrophysical Journal 8030: 7083:Where z = redshift; v 6799:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168 6551:Astrophysical Journal 6270:cosmological redshift 6198: 6176: 6158:cosmological redshift 6145:Nearby stars such as 6136:synchrotron radiation 6122:Tully–Fisher relation 6060: 6020:blue shift (politics) 5855:DEEP2 Redshift Survey 5811:of the universe. The 5809:large-scale structure 5788: 5676:Extremely red objects 5593:, with a redshift of 5561: 5388: 5199:photometric redshifts 5181:, which measures the 5126: 5086:equivalence principle 5019: 4942:spherically symmetric 4788: 4655: 4569: 4468:cosmological redshift 4428: 4338: 4252: 4119: 4016: 3995: (since 3990: 3909: 3882: 3853: 3817: 3687: 3654: 3557: 3349: 3244: 3204: 3150: 3071:Cosmological redshift 3059: 3032: 2966: 2886: 2859: 2818: 2596: 2520: 2442: 2346: 2235: 2118: 2047:discovered that most 1883:universe is expanding 1875:cosmological redshift 1435:Einstein's postulates 1033:Large-scale structure 1011:Shape of the universe 523:Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou 478:Kerr–Newman–de Sitter 298:Einstein–Rosen bridge 230:Gravitational lensing 186:Equivalence principle 129: 29: 11882:astronomy portal 11378:Effects / properties 11307:Atom interferometers 11220:List of observations 11147:Pulsar timing arrays 7920: 7012:that is researching 6377:Maulik, Dev (2005). 6134:toward us, emitting 6130:are known to propel 6043:electromagnetic wave 5899:elementary particles 5803:and improvements in 5745:Population III stars 5704:Population III stars 5680:astronomical sources 5481:Copernican principle 5327:rotation of galaxies 5294:of redshifts during 5284:diagnose and measure 5263:and parametrize the 4951: 4854:recessional velocity 4689: 4611: 4506: 4457:Einstein's equations 4437:will be redshifted. 4368: 4274: 4161: 4067: 3999: 3966: 3829: 3706: 3663: 3569: 3368: 3271: 3262:stationary spacetime 3213: 3168: 3087: 3041: 2976: 2902: 2868: 2828: 2703: 2682:Relativistic Doppler 2530: 2454: 2356: 2260: 2224: 2028:Aristarkh Belopolsky 1410:Theory of relativity 1345:Astronomy portal 1303:background radiation 1280:List of cosmologists 453:Einstein–Rosen waves 179:Fundamental concepts 68: 11922:Physical quantities 11807:Structure formation 11770:Structure formation 11684:Friedmann equations 11594:Observable universe 11574:Age of the universe 11467:Stellar black holes 11447:quantum fluctuation 11327:Pulsar timing array 11314:Indirect detection 11254:neutron star merger 11037:INDIGO (LIGO-India) 10311:Nussbaumer, Harry; 10297:Scientific American 10285:Sky & Telescope 10218:1993AmJPh..61..619N 10146:2005ApJ...618..601A 10020:2003SPIE.4834..161D 9935:2005MNRAS.362..505C 9842:1989Sci...246..897G 9768:2015ApJ...808..139S 9712:2005PhyU...48.1235G 9659:2006PhR...429..307L 9604:2006MNRAS.373L..98N 9555:2005SciAm.292c..36L 9543:Scientific American 9512:2001ApJ...558L..87T 9458:2002ApJ...581..844S 9405:10.1038/nature01821 9397:2003Natur.424..406W 9342:2018MNRAS.480.2733S 9314:Saxena, A. (2018). 9285:10.1038/nature25180 9277:2018Natur.553..473B 9204:10.1038/nature08445 9196:2009Natur.461.1258S 9137:2005ApJ...618L...5E 9082:2008ApJ...678..647B 9027:10.1038/nature14164 9019:2015Natur.519..327W 8966:10.1038/nature09462 8958:2010Natur.467..940L 8903:2016ApJ...819..129O 8723:1994ApJ...420..445F 8680:"Cosmic Detectives" 8641:1989PASJ...41..763A 8592:An early review by 8543:1988SSRv...47..275L 8493:2006ApJ...648..683G 8320:2001ApJ...558..359G 8218:1967ApJ...147...73S 8173:1960PhRvL...4..337P 8138:1908JRE.....4..411E 8108:1930JRASC..24..390C 8063:2003AmJPh..71..358D 7912:peculiar velocities 7845:1993ApJ...403...28H 7800:2002AmJPh..70..406B 7750:2007ONCP....4...15C 7691:2008MNRAS.388..960L 7269:2009AmJPh..77..688B 7154:1938JOSA...28..215I 6906:1999GReGr..31.1991F 6868:1922ZPhy...10..377F 6790:1929PNAS...15..168H 6757:1915PA.....23...21S 6728:1915PA.....23...21S 6695:1913LowOB...2...56S 6663:1934BAN.....7..205D 6618:(Online ed.). 6564:1901ApJ....13...15B 6453:1868RSPT..158..529H 6364:1846befi.book.....D 6333:2021PhRvD.104d3527D 6074:relativistic speeds 5984:Rayleigh scattering 5907:index of refraction 5828:CfA Redshift Survey 5582:with a redshift of 5542:begun to accelerate 5523:mass-to-light ratio 5499:peculiar velocities 5377:made in astronomy. 5323:interstellar clouds 4930:gravitational field 4805:is the present-day 4359:transverse redshift 3900:fastest space probe 3811: 3761: 2945: 2666: 2642:gravitational field 2246:Based on wavelength 2241: 2093:Alexander Friedmann 1894:Gravitational waves 1626:Galilean relativity 1546:Minkowski spacetime 1450:Maxwell's equations 1045:Structure formation 937:Friedmann equations 827:Age of the universe 791:Part of a series on 407:Kaluza–Klein theory 293:Minkowski spacetime 245:Gravitational waves 11917:Physical cosmology 11912:Effects of gravity 11787:Large quasar group 11354:General relativity 11058:Einstein Telescope 10960:Fermilab holometer 10725:Gravitational wave 10497:Taylor, Edwin F.; 10378:. Addison-Wesley. 10336:Galactic Astronomy 10209:astro-ph/9312003v1 10063:. pp. 122–3. 9963:2007-02-05 at the 9807:The New York Times 8573:Hermann Carl Vogel 8551:10.1007/BF00243557 8467:Mahadevan, Suvrath 8344:type Ia supernovae 8264:intrinsic redshift 8025: 7231:2006-08-27 at the 6876:10.1007/BF01332580 6498:10.1007/BF00678069 6274:expanding universe 6237:There are faraway 6223:Sachs–Wolfe effect 6186: 6162:expanding universe 6063: 6016:hypsochromic shift 5875:radiative transfer 5791: 5694:has a redshift of 5572: 5538:Type Ia supernovae 5507:virialized objects 5477:general relativity 5391: 5351:Doppler broadening 5296:planetary transits 5247:Local observations 5133: 5113:Sachs–Wolfe effect 5082:special relativity 5014: 4926:Einstein equations 4910:general relativity 4841:from the standard 4783: 4650: 4595:–redshift relation 4564: 4483:general relativity 4461:general relativity 4441:Expansion of space 4423: 4361:, and a redshift: 4333: 4247: 4114: 4049:special relativity 4011: 3985: 3912: 3904: 3848: 3812: 3775: 3725: 3682: 3649: 3552: 3344: 3239: 3199: 3145: 3054: 3027: 2961: 2931: 2881: 2854: 2813: 2662: 2591: 2515: 2437: 2341: 2251:Based on frequency 2230: 2218: 2152:signature spectrum 2125: 2101:expanding universe 2058:Lowell Observatory 1898:the speed of light 1761:Physics portal 1482:Length contraction 1387:Special relativity 1084:Dark Energy Survey 1028:Large quasar group 797:Physical cosmology 736:Physics portal 508:Oppenheimer–Snyder 448:Reissner–Nordström 340:Linearized gravity 288:Spacetime diagrams 191:Special relativity 124: 53:General relativity 47: 11889: 11888: 11843:Illustris project 11526: 11525: 11342: 11341: 11293:Direct detection 11141: 11140: 11137: 11136: 11119:Big Bang Observer 11082: 11081: 10922: 10921: 10535:978-0-471-92567-5 10514:978-0-7167-2327-1 10489:978-0-691-01933-8 10468:978-0-7167-0344-0 10449:978-0-521-52927-3 10426:978-0-521-66148-5 10407:978-0-387-69199-2 10385:978-0-201-51003-4 10364:978-0-201-54730-6 10345:978-0-691-02565-0 10326:978-0-521-51484-2 10262:978-0-7503-0810-6 10103:978-1-315-15922-5 10070:978-0-7637-0810-8 10028:10.1117/12.457897 9836:(4932): 897–903. 9696:(12): 1235–1247. 9261:(7689): 473–476. 9180:(7268): 1258–60. 9003:(7543): 327–330. 8942:(7318): 940–942. 8828:(8029): 318–322. 8774:978-0-691-08445-9 8765:Galactic dynamics 8461:Exoplanet Tracker 8276:Geoffrey Burbidge 8071:10.1119/1.1528916 7897:978-0-19-852682-7 7808:10.1119/1.1446856 7647:978-0-7637-4387-1 7546:=0.315, and Omega 7372:978-3-540-63785-1 7345:978-3-540-32924-4 7277:10.1119/1.3129103 7211:978-0-12-218101-6 7186:978-981-277-160-5 6961:978-0-521-34976-5 6941:Eddington, Arthur 6900:(12): 1991–2000. 6744:Popular Astronomy 6715:Popular Astronomy 6632:(Subscription or 6530:978-0-486-65994-7 6394:978-3-540-23088-5 6317:(4). id. 043527. 6311:Physical Review D 6132:relativistic jets 6053:Doppler blueshift 5884:coherence effects 5763:chemical elements 5749:Cosmos Redshift 7 5725:) and the cosmic 5604:at a redshift of 5563:Comoving distance 5548:Highest redshifts 5288:planetary systems 5191:Hubble Deep Field 5009: 5008: 5006: 4908:In the theory of 4815:is the redshift. 4779: 4754: 4646: 4642: 4639: 4562: 4421: 4420: 4331: 4330: 4245: 4244: 4101: 3983: 3862: 3861: 3839: 3804: 3795: 3789: 3773: 3754: 3745: 3739: 3723: 3642: 3639: 3615: 3612: 3586: 3550: 3549: 3546: 3542: 3501: 3497: 3451: 3450: 3447: 3444: 3415: 3412: 3342: 3341: 3335: 3309: 3237: 3197: 3143: 3015: 2993: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2852: 2811: 2810: 2807: 2782: 2747: 2648:Redshift formulae 2604: 2603: 2589: 2513: 2435: 2339: 2233:{\displaystyle z} 2065:Popular Astronomy 1981:Christian Doppler 1881:that implies the 1811: 1810: 1551:Spacetime diagram 1522:Ehrenfest paradox 1512:Relativistic disk 1507:Thomas precession 1487:Relativistic mass 1381: 1380: 1052: 1051: 894: 893: 786: 785: 419: 418: 305: 304: 11934: 11880: 11879: 11878: 11782:Galaxy formation 11761:Lambda-CDM model 11672:Present universe 11553: 11546: 11539: 11530: 11529: 11458:Binary inspiral 11452:Phase transition 11443:Cosmic inflation 11210: 11209: 11093: 11092: 10935: 10934: 10756: 10755: 10745: 10744: 10707: 10700: 10693: 10684: 10683: 10675: 10674: 10673: 10663: 10662: 10661: 10651: 10650: 10649: 10639: 10638: 10627: 10626: 10625: 10615: 10614: 10606: 10595: 10539: 10518: 10493: 10472: 10453: 10441: 10430: 10411: 10389: 10368: 10349: 10330: 10267: 10266: 10249:Modern Cosmology 10244: 10238: 10237: 10211: 10191: 10185: 10184: 10172: 10166: 10165: 10139: 10137:astro-ph/0409546 10119: 10108: 10107: 10081: 10075: 10074: 10052: 10046: 10045: 10039: 10031: 10013: 10011:astro-ph/0209419 9997: 9991: 9990: 9988: 9987: 9973: 9967: 9956: 9946: 9928: 9926:astro-ph/0501174 9901: 9895: 9894: 9892: 9891: 9876: 9870: 9869: 9825: 9819: 9818: 9816: 9814: 9800:(17 June 2015). 9794: 9788: 9787: 9761: 9738: 9732: 9731: 9705: 9685: 9679: 9678: 9652: 9650:astro-ph/0603494 9632: 9626: 9625: 9615: 9597: 9595:astro-ph/0604050 9573: 9567: 9566: 9538: 9532: 9531: 9505: 9503:astro-ph/0108145 9484: 9478: 9477: 9451: 9449:astro-ph/0208434 9431: 9425: 9424: 9390: 9388:astro-ph/0307410 9370: 9364: 9363: 9353: 9335: 9326:(2): 2733–2742. 9311: 9305: 9304: 9270: 9249: 9243: 9242: 9230: 9224: 9223: 9189: 9163: 9157: 9156: 9130: 9128:astro-ph/0411117 9108: 9102: 9101: 9075: 9053: 9047: 9046: 9012: 8992: 8986: 8985: 8951: 8931: 8925: 8924: 8914: 8896: 8872: 8866: 8865: 8855: 8837: 8812: 8806: 8805: 8803: 8802: 8793: 8785: 8779: 8778: 8760: 8754: 8751: 8740: 8734: 8697: 8691: 8690: 8688: 8687: 8676: 8670: 8669: 8651: 8645: 8644: 8624: 8618: 8617: 8596:on the subject: 8590: 8584: 8569: 8563: 8562: 8537:(3–4): 275–301. 8528: 8519: 8513: 8512: 8486: 8484:astro-ph/0605247 8457: 8451: 8450: 8448: 8446:astro-ph/0210394 8431: 8425: 8424: 8414: 8412:astro-ph/0003380 8394: 8388: 8387: 8378: 8372: 8371: 8352: 8346: 8341: 8331: 8313: 8311:astro-ph/0104382 8256: 8250: 8239: 8230: 8229: 8194: 8188: 8186: 8184: 8152: 8146: 8141: 8118: 8112: 8111: 8089: 8083: 8082: 8056: 8054:astro-ph/0104349 8034: 8032: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8020: 8019: 7973: 7972: 7971: 7908: 7902: 7901: 7881: 7875: 7869: 7863: 7858: 7856: 7824: 7818: 7817: 7815: 7814: 7785: 7776: 7770: 7769: 7743: 7741:astro-ph/0601171 7723: 7717: 7716: 7702: 7684: 7658: 7652: 7651: 7635: 7625: 7619: 7618: 7592: 7590:astro-ph/0211011 7561: 7555: 7537: 7535: 7533: 7518: 7509: 7495: 7493: 7491: 7474: 7465: 7451: 7449: 7447: 7430: 7421: 7412:=67.74 and Omega 7407: 7405: 7403: 7386: 7377: 7376: 7362:Galaxy Formation 7356: 7350: 7349: 7322: 7316: 7315: 7311:9780-465-02437-7 7295: 7289: 7288: 7262: 7242: 7236: 7222: 7216: 7215: 7197: 7191: 7190: 7172: 7166: 7165: 7137: 7131: 7081: 7075: 7072: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7045: 7023: 7017: 7014:gamma-ray bursts 6995: 6989: 6988: 6986: 6984: 6970: 6964: 6954: 6936: 6927: 6925: 6887: 6849: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6828: 6822: 6821: 6811: 6801: 6767: 6761: 6760: 6738: 6732: 6731: 6709: 6703: 6702: 6689:(8): 2.56–2.57. 6676: 6670: 6669: 6644: 6638: 6637: 6629: 6627: 6626: 6611: 6604: 6598: 6597: 6584: 6578: 6577: 6575: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6516: 6510: 6509: 6471: 6465: 6464: 6433: 6424: 6423: 6405: 6399: 6398: 6374: 6368: 6367: 6351: 6345: 6344: 6326: 6306: 6109:Components of a 6093:Andromeda Galaxy 6070:visible spectrum 5994:ing because the 5962: 5941: 5852: 5781:Redshift surveys 5760: 5739: 5724: 5713: 5697: 5671: 5664: 5657: 5646: 5631: 5624: 5610: 5599: 5588: 5511:Andromeda Galaxy 5440: 5422: 5415: 5363:interstellar gas 5321:, velocities of 5238: 5222: 5212: 5160: 5093:Mössbauer effect 5071: 5059: 5047: 5035: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5004: 5003: 4990: 4979: 4971: 4967: 4890: 4879: 4835:peculiar motions 4832: 4814: 4804: 4792: 4790: 4789: 4784: 4777: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4755: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4747: 4738: 4737: 4736: 4725: 4724: 4708: 4681: 4671: 4659: 4657: 4656: 4651: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4637: 4628: 4623: 4622: 4603: 4586: 4573: 4571: 4570: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4540: 4539: 4538: 4522: 4494: 4485:that describe a 4432: 4430: 4429: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4418: 4409: 4404: 4403: 4388: 4384: 4356: 4342: 4340: 4339: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4325: 4310: 4306: 4291: 4290: 4266: 4256: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4233: 4228: 4227: 4212: 4211: 4207: 4177: 4152: 4123: 4121: 4120: 4115: 4107: 4103: 4102: 4094: 4059: 4030: 4020: 4018: 4017: 4012: 3994: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3984: 3976: 3958: 3948: 3938:Doppler redshift 3931: 3920: 3857: 3855: 3854: 3849: 3841: 3840: 3837: 3821: 3819: 3818: 3813: 3810: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3791: 3790: 3787: 3781: 3774: 3766: 3760: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3741: 3740: 3737: 3731: 3724: 3716: 3691: 3689: 3688: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3658: 3656: 3655: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3643: 3641: 3640: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3621: 3616: 3614: 3613: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3594: 3587: 3579: 3561: 3559: 3558: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3545: 3544: 3543: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3523: 3512: 3503: 3502: 3500: 3499: 3498: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3478: 3467: 3458: 3457: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3426: 3417: 3416: 3414: 3413: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3394: 3385: 3384: 3353: 3351: 3350: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3336: 3333: 3328: 3327: 3314: 3310: 3307: 3302: 3301: 3288: 3287: 3248: 3246: 3245: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3235: 3223: 3208: 3206: 3205: 3200: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3188: 3178: 3154: 3152: 3151: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3141: 3140: 3121: 3120: 3119: 3103: 3063: 3061: 3060: 3055: 3053: 3052: 3036: 3034: 3033: 3028: 3026: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3010: 3001: 2994: 2986: 2970: 2968: 2967: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2954: 2944: 2939: 2930: 2922: 2918: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2882: 2880: 2879: 2863: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2853: 2848: 2847: 2838: 2822: 2820: 2819: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2808: 2803: 2802: 2793: 2784: 2783: 2778: 2777: 2768: 2759: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2748: 2743: 2742: 2733: 2690:(flat spacetime) 2667: 2664:Redshift summary 2661: 2658: 2639: 2628: 2617: 2611: 2600: 2598: 2597: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2587: 2586: 2567: 2566: 2565: 2546: 2524: 2522: 2521: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2511: 2510: 2491: 2490: 2489: 2470: 2446: 2444: 2443: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2433: 2432: 2413: 2412: 2411: 2410: 2388: 2387: 2386: 2366: 2350: 2348: 2347: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2337: 2336: 2317: 2316: 2315: 2314: 2292: 2291: 2290: 2270: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2217: 2214: 2204: 2198: 2188: 2182: 2176: 2133:absorption lines 2073:celestial sphere 2038:Willem de Sitter 2034:Arthur Eddington 2024:Fraunhofer lines 2012:Hippolyte Fizeau 1932:observations of 1920:perceived as an 1912: 1905: 1803: 1796: 1789: 1776: 1771: 1770: 1763: 1759: 1758: 1651: 1578: 1539: 1470: 1428: 1397: 1383: 1382: 1373: 1366: 1359: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1330: 1329: 1023:Galaxy formation 983:Lambda-CDM model 972: 971: 964:Components 846: 845: 807: 788: 787: 778: 771: 764: 751: 746: 745: 738: 734: 733: 518:van Stockum dust 503:Robertson–Walker 329: 328: 219: 218: 133: 131: 130: 125: 123: 122: 110: 102: 101: 83: 82: 63: 49: 48: 35:visible spectrum 31:Absorption lines 11942: 11941: 11937: 11936: 11935: 11933: 11932: 11931: 11907:Doppler effects 11892: 11891: 11890: 11885: 11876: 11874: 11867: 11811: 11777:Galaxy filament 11765: 11729: 11713:Future universe 11708: 11667: 11663:Nucleosynthesis 11631: 11604: 11598: 11562: 11557: 11527: 11522: 11431:Types / sources 11426: 11373: 11364:Metric theories 11338: 11282: 11201: 11174: 11133: 11107: 11089:interferometers 11088: 11078: 11062: 11053:Cosmic Explorer 11041: 11025: 10994: 10930:interferometers 10929: 10918: 10913:Mario Schenberg 10877: 10861: 10795: 10791:Mario Schenberg 10750: 10734: 10716: 10711: 10681: 10671: 10669: 10659: 10657: 10647: 10645: 10633: 10623: 10621: 10609: 10601: 10553: 10536: 10515: 10490: 10469: 10450: 10427: 10408: 10386: 10365: 10346: 10327: 10307: 10280: 10275: 10270: 10263: 10245: 10241: 10226:10.1119/1.17224 10192: 10188: 10173: 10169: 10120: 10111: 10104: 10082: 10078: 10071: 10053: 10049: 10036:cite conference 10033: 10032: 9998: 9994: 9985: 9983: 9975: 9974: 9970: 9965:Wayback Machine 9902: 9898: 9889: 9887: 9881:Huchra, John P. 9877: 9873: 9826: 9822: 9812: 9810: 9798:Overbye, Dennis 9795: 9791: 9742:Confirmation". 9739: 9735: 9690:Physics-Uspekhi 9686: 9682: 9637:Physics Reports 9633: 9629: 9588:(1): L98–L102. 9574: 9570: 9539: 9535: 9485: 9481: 9432: 9428: 9381:(6947): 406–8. 9371: 9367: 9312: 9308: 9250: 9246: 9231: 9227: 9164: 9160: 9109: 9105: 9054: 9050: 8993: 8989: 8932: 8928: 8873: 8869: 8813: 8809: 8800: 8798: 8791: 8787: 8786: 8782: 8775: 8761: 8757: 8753:Peebles (1993). 8752: 8743: 8698: 8694: 8685: 8683: 8678: 8677: 8673: 8666: 8652: 8648: 8625: 8621: 8591: 8587: 8570: 8566: 8526: 8520: 8516: 8458: 8454: 8432: 8428: 8395: 8391: 8379: 8375: 8368: 8353: 8349: 8257: 8253: 8247:Fortran-90 code 8240: 8233: 8195: 8191: 8153: 8149: 8119: 8115: 8090: 8086: 7991: 7990: 7986: 7949: 7948: 7944: 7921: 7918: 7917: 7909: 7905: 7898: 7882: 7878: 7870: 7866: 7825: 7821: 7812: 7810: 7783: 7777: 7773: 7724: 7720: 7659: 7655: 7648: 7626: 7622: 7562: 7558: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7531: 7529: 7519: 7512: 7503: 7500:=67.4 and Omega 7499: 7489: 7487: 7475: 7468: 7459: 7456:=67.4 and Omega 7455: 7445: 7443: 7431: 7424: 7415: 7411: 7401: 7399: 7387: 7380: 7373: 7357: 7353: 7346: 7326:Bergström, Lars 7323: 7319: 7312: 7296: 7292: 7243: 7239: 7233:Wayback Machine 7223: 7219: 7212: 7198: 7194: 7187: 7173: 7169: 7138: 7134: 7126: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7073: 7052: 7043: 7041: 7026: 7024: 7020: 7010:space telescope 6996: 6992: 6982: 6980: 6972: 6971: 6967: 6937: 6930: 6850: 6846: 6837: 6835: 6830: 6829: 6825: 6768: 6764: 6739: 6735: 6710: 6706: 6677: 6673: 6645: 6641: 6631: 6624: 6622: 6605: 6601: 6585: 6581: 6542: 6538: 6531: 6517: 6513: 6472: 6468: 6434: 6427: 6406: 6402: 6395: 6375: 6371: 6352: 6348: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6282: 6272:in the present 6262: 6239:active galaxies 6235: 6171: 6055: 6027: 6012: 5976:visible spectra 5958: 5942:is generally a 5937: 5915:radio whistlers 5879:physical optics 5871: 5859:Keck telescopes 5847: 5797: 5795:Redshift survey 5783: 5777:as we know it. 5755: 5734: 5719: 5707: 5700:proper distance 5695: 5666: 5659: 5652: 5649:ULAS J1342+0928 5641: 5634:gamma-ray burst 5626: 5619: 5605: 5594: 5583: 5556: 5550: 5448:and the nearby 5435: 5417: 5410: 5405:radiation; the 5383: 5303:helioseismology 5280:William Huggins 5249: 5232: 5217: 5206: 5156: 5151:experiments in 5121: 5111:radiation (see 5067: 5055: 5043: 5031: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4980: 4978: 4966: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4906: 4900: 4881: 4870: 4867:Steven Weinberg 4858:peculiar motion 4827: 4824: 4810: 4807:Hubble constant 4803: 4797: 4767: 4760: 4756: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4728: 4727: 4726: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4680: 4673: 4670: 4664: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4618: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4602: 4598: 4582: 4546: 4545: 4541: 4528: 4527: 4523: 4521: 4507: 4504: 4503: 4490: 4449: 4443: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4399: 4395: 4383: 4369: 4366: 4365: 4351: 4321: 4311: 4302: 4292: 4289: 4275: 4272: 4271: 4261: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4223: 4219: 4203: 4178: 4176: 4162: 4159: 4158: 4148: 4093: 4086: 4082: 4068: 4065: 4064: 4055: 4026: 4000: 3997: 3996: 3975: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3950: 3944: 3926: 3915: 3886:, yellow (~575 3877: 3869:Main articles: 3867: 3836: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3826: 3806: 3801: 3786: 3782: 3780: 3776: 3765: 3756: 3751: 3736: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3715: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3697:escape velocity 3676: 3672: 3664: 3661: 3660: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3620: 3609: 3605: 3599: 3595: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3578: 3570: 3567: 3566: 3539: 3535: 3529: 3525: 3524: 3513: 3511: 3504: 3494: 3490: 3484: 3480: 3479: 3468: 3466: 3459: 3456: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3427: 3425: 3418: 3409: 3405: 3399: 3395: 3393: 3386: 3383: 3369: 3366: 3365: 3332: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3306: 3294: 3290: 3289: 3286: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3214: 3211: 3210: 3184: 3180: 3179: 3177: 3169: 3166: 3165: 3127: 3126: 3122: 3109: 3108: 3104: 3102: 3088: 3085: 3084: 3078: 3048: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3038: 3021: 3006: 3002: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2985: 2977: 2974: 2973: 2950: 2946: 2940: 2935: 2929: 2917: 2903: 2900: 2899: 2894: 2875: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2865: 2843: 2839: 2837: 2829: 2826: 2825: 2798: 2794: 2792: 2785: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2760: 2757: 2738: 2734: 2732: 2725: 2721: 2704: 2701: 2700: 2695: 2689: 2687:Minkowski space 2654: 2650: 2634: 2623: 2613: 2607: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2545: 2531: 2528: 2527: 2497: 2496: 2492: 2476: 2475: 2471: 2469: 2455: 2452: 2451: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2397: 2396: 2392: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2367: 2365: 2357: 2354: 2353: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2301: 2300: 2296: 2277: 2276: 2272: 2271: 2269: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2210: 2200: 2190: 2184: 2178: 2172: 2113: 2049:spiral galaxies 2020:William Huggins 1979:mathematician, 1965: 1953:optical effects 1907: 1901: 1807: 1766: 1753: 1752: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1653: 1652: 1649: 1641: 1640: 1636:Aether theories 1621: 1620: 1619: 1600: 1599: 1580: 1579: 1574: 1566: 1565: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1527: 1526: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1460: 1459: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1377: 1339: 1337: 1319: 1318: 1305: 1302: 1295: 1293:Subject history 1285: 1284: 1276: 1121: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1064: 1054: 1053: 1016:Galaxy filament 969: 957: 956: 908: 903:Expansion 896: 895: 880:Microwave (CMB) 859:Nucleosynthesis 843: 782: 741: 728: 727: 720: 719: 543: 542: 533: 532: 488:Lemaître–Tolman 433: 432: 421: 420: 412:Quantum gravity 399:Advanced theory 326: 325: 324: 307: 306: 255:Geodetic effect 216: 215: 206: 205: 181: 180: 164: 134: 115: 111: 106: 94: 90: 75: 71: 69: 66: 65: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 11940: 11930: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11887: 11886: 11872: 11869: 11868: 11866: 11865: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11819: 11817: 11813: 11812: 11810: 11809: 11804: 11799: 11794: 11789: 11784: 11779: 11773: 11771: 11767: 11766: 11764: 11763: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11737: 11735: 11731: 11730: 11728: 11727: 11722: 11716: 11714: 11710: 11709: 11707: 11706: 11701: 11696: 11691: 11686: 11681: 11675: 11673: 11669: 11668: 11666: 11665: 11660: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11639: 11637: 11633: 11632: 11630: 11629: 11624: 11619: 11614: 11608: 11606: 11600: 11599: 11597: 11596: 11591: 11586: 11581: 11576: 11570: 11568: 11564: 11563: 11556: 11555: 11548: 11541: 11533: 11524: 11523: 11521: 11520: 11519: 11518: 11504: 11503: 11502: 11489: 11488: 11487: 11481: 11480: 11479: 11474: 11469: 11464: 11456: 11455: 11454: 11449: 11434: 11432: 11428: 11427: 11425: 11424: 11419: 11413: 11408:Chirp signal ( 11406: 11403: 11401:speed of light 11397: 11392: 11387: 11381: 11379: 11375: 11374: 11372: 11371: 11366: 11361: 11356: 11350: 11348: 11344: 11343: 11340: 11339: 11337: 11336: 11335: 11334: 11329: 11324: 11312: 11311: 11310: 11302: 11299: 11290: 11288: 11284: 11283: 11281: 11280: 11274: 11268: 11262: 11257: 11247: 11242: 11237: 11232: 11227: 11222: 11216: 11214: 11207: 11203: 11202: 11200: 11199: 11193: 11188: 11182: 11180: 11176: 11175: 11173: 11172: 11167: 11162: 11157: 11151: 11149: 11143: 11142: 11139: 11138: 11135: 11134: 11132: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11115: 11113: 11109: 11108: 11106: 11105: 11099: 11097: 11090: 11084: 11083: 11080: 11079: 11077: 11076: 11074:LIGO-Australia 11070: 11068: 11067:Past proposals 11064: 11063: 11061: 11060: 11055: 11049: 11047: 11043: 11042: 11040: 11039: 11033: 11031: 11027: 11026: 11024: 11023: 11018: 11013: 11008: 11002: 11000: 10996: 10995: 10993: 10992: 10985:Advanced Virgo 10982: 10977: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10952: 10941: 10939: 10932: 10924: 10923: 10920: 10919: 10917: 10916: 10911:(downsized to 10906: 10901: 10896: 10891:(downsized to 10885: 10883: 10882:Past proposals 10879: 10878: 10876: 10875: 10869: 10867: 10863: 10862: 10860: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10834: 10824: 10814: 10803: 10801: 10797: 10796: 10794: 10793: 10788: 10783: 10773: 10762: 10760: 10753: 10742: 10736: 10735: 10733: 10732: 10727: 10721: 10718: 10717: 10710: 10709: 10702: 10695: 10687: 10680: 10679: 10667: 10655: 10643: 10631: 10619: 10597: 10596: 10575: 10569: 10564: 10559: 10552: 10551:External links 10549: 10548: 10547: 10540: 10534: 10528:. John Wiley. 10519: 10513: 10494: 10488: 10473: 10467: 10454: 10448: 10431: 10425: 10412: 10406: 10390: 10384: 10369: 10363: 10350: 10344: 10331: 10325: 10306: 10303: 10302: 10301: 10288: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10268: 10261: 10239: 10202:(7): 619–632. 10186: 10167: 10154:10.1086/426075 10130:(2): 601–608. 10109: 10102: 10076: 10069: 10047: 9992: 9968: 9896: 9871: 9820: 9789: 9733: 9680: 9643:(6): 307–379. 9627: 9568: 9533: 9520:10.1086/323619 9496:(2): L87–L91. 9479: 9466:10.1086/344440 9442:(2): 844–864. 9426: 9365: 9306: 9244: 9225: 9158: 9145:10.1086/427550 9103: 9090:10.1086/533519 9066:(2): 647–654. 9048: 8987: 8926: 8867: 8807: 8796:nobelprize.org 8780: 8773: 8755: 8741: 8731:10.1086/173575 8707:Boggess, N. W. 8692: 8671: 8664: 8646: 8635:(4): 763–778. 8619: 8585: 8564: 8514: 8501:10.1086/505699 8477:(1): 683–695. 8452: 8426: 8389: 8373: 8366: 8347: 8329:10.1086/322460 8304:(1): 359–386. 8278:remarked in a 8251: 8231: 8226:10.1086/148982 8189: 8167:(7): 337–341. 8147: 8113: 8084: 8047:(4): 358–364. 8036: 8035: 8024: 8018: 8015: 8012: 8009: 8006: 8003: 8000: 7997: 7994: 7989: 7985: 7982: 7979: 7976: 7970: 7967: 7964: 7961: 7958: 7955: 7952: 7947: 7943: 7940: 7937: 7934: 7931: 7928: 7925: 7903: 7896: 7876: 7874:, p. 302. 7864: 7854:10.1086/172179 7819: 7794:(4): 406–408. 7771: 7718: 7675:(3): 960–964. 7653: 7646: 7620: 7583:(2): 479–491. 7556: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7510: 7501: 7497: 7477:Staff (2022). 7466: 7457: 7453: 7433:Staff (2018). 7422: 7413: 7409: 7389:Staff (2015). 7378: 7371: 7351: 7344: 7317: 7310: 7290: 7253:(8): 688–694. 7237: 7217: 7210: 7192: 7185: 7167: 7148:(7): 215–226. 7132: 7124: 7101:Lorentz factor 7093:speed of light 7084: 7076: 7050: 7028:Huchra, John. 7018: 6990: 6965: 6928: 6862:(1): 377–386. 6844: 6823: 6784:(3): 168–173. 6762: 6733: 6704: 6671: 6639: 6599: 6579: 6573:10.1086/140786 6536: 6529: 6511: 6484:(1–2): 93–96. 6466: 6425: 6400: 6393: 6369: 6346: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6294: 6293: 6288: 6281: 6278: 6261: 6258: 6234: 6231: 6170: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6150: 6147:Barnard's Star 6143: 6140:bremsstrahlung 6125: 6114: 6107: 6054: 6051: 6011: 6008: 5965:spectral lines 5870: 5867: 5793:Main article: 5782: 5779: 5580:JADES-GS-z14-0 5549: 5546: 5519:fingers of god 5382: 5379: 5367:rotation curve 5248: 5245: 5165:or mechanical 5120: 5117: 5078: 5077: 5074:speed of light 5065: 5053: 5041: 5025: 5024: 5013: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4989: 4986: 4983: 4977: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4962: 4959: 4956: 4918:Einstein Shift 4902:Main article: 4899: 4896: 4823: 4820: 4801: 4794: 4793: 4782: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4759: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4735: 4731: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4706: 4703: 4700: 4697: 4694: 4678: 4668: 4661: 4660: 4649: 4635: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4600: 4575: 4574: 4558: 4555: 4552: 4549: 4544: 4537: 4534: 4531: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4514: 4511: 4445:Main article: 4442: 4439: 4434: 4433: 4417: 4413: 4408: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4379: 4376: 4373: 4344: 4343: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4317: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4298: 4295: 4288: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4258: 4257: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4199: 4196: 4193: 4190: 4187: 4184: 4181: 4175: 4172: 4169: 4166: 4125: 4124: 4113: 4110: 4106: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4078: 4075: 4072: 4053:Lorentz factor 4033:speed of light 4023: 4022: 4010: 4007: 4004: 3982: 3979: 3974: 3971: 3934:Doppler effect 3884:Doppler effect 3871:Doppler effect 3866: 3865:Doppler effect 3863: 3860: 3859: 3847: 3844: 3835: 3823: 3822: 3809: 3799: 3794: 3785: 3779: 3772: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3749: 3744: 3735: 3729: 3722: 3719: 3714: 3711: 3693: 3692: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3668: 3647: 3635: 3629: 3625: 3619: 3608: 3602: 3598: 3591: 3585: 3582: 3577: 3574: 3563: 3562: 3538: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3465: 3462: 3455: 3440: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3421: 3408: 3402: 3398: 3392: 3389: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3355: 3354: 3339: 3331: 3326: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3305: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3264: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3250: 3249: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3218: 3196: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3173: 3156: 3155: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3125: 3118: 3115: 3112: 3107: 3101: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3080: 3076:FLRW spacetime 3073: 3067: 3066: 3065: 3064: 3051: 3047: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3009: 3005: 2999: 2992: 2989: 2984: 2981: 2971: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2928: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2892: 2891: 2878: 2874: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2836: 2833: 2823: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2791: 2788: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2766: 2763: 2756: 2752: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2717: 2714: 2711: 2708: 2691: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2649: 2646: 2620:Doppler effect 2602: 2601: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2571: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2550: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2525: 2509: 2506: 2503: 2500: 2495: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2479: 2474: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2448: 2447: 2431: 2428: 2425: 2422: 2417: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2371: 2364: 2361: 2351: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2321: 2313: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2275: 2268: 2265: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2229: 2207:speed of light 2141:atomic element 2137:emission lines 2112: 2109: 2089:Milton Humason 2053:spiral nebulae 2016:spectral lines 1973:Doppler effect 1964: 1961: 1809: 1808: 1806: 1805: 1798: 1791: 1783: 1780: 1779: 1778: 1777: 1764: 1747: 1746: 1742: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1655: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1628: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1605: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1581: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1564: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1542: 1534: 1533: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1473: 1467: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1461: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1445:Speed of light 1442: 1437: 1431: 1425: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1399: 1398: 1390: 1389: 1379: 1378: 1376: 1375: 1368: 1361: 1353: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1347: 1335: 1321: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1299: 1296: 1291: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1282: 1275: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1103: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1065: 1060: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1050: 1049: 1048: 1047: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1013: 1005: 1004: 1000: 999: 998: 997: 985: 977: 976: 970: 963: 962: 959: 958: 955: 954: 949: 944: 939: 927: 922: 909: 902: 901: 898: 897: 892: 891: 890: 889: 887:Neutrino (CNB) 877: 869: 868: 864: 863: 862: 861: 844: 842:Early universe 841: 840: 837: 836: 835: 834: 829: 824: 809: 808: 800: 799: 793: 792: 784: 783: 781: 780: 773: 766: 758: 755: 754: 753: 752: 739: 722: 721: 718: 717: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 544: 540: 539: 538: 535: 534: 531: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 434: 428: 427: 426: 423: 422: 417: 416: 415: 414: 409: 401: 400: 396: 395: 394: 393: 391:Post-Newtonian 388: 383: 375: 374: 370: 369: 368: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 334: 333: 327: 323: 322: 319: 315: 314: 313: 312: 309: 308: 303: 302: 301: 300: 295: 290: 282: 281: 275: 274: 273: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 250:Frame-dragging 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 225:Kepler problem 217: 213: 212: 211: 208: 207: 204: 203: 198: 193: 188: 182: 178: 177: 176: 173: 172: 171: 170: 165: 163: 162: 157: 152: 146: 144: 136: 135: 121: 118: 114: 109: 105: 100: 97: 93: 89: 86: 81: 78: 74: 64: 56: 55: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11939: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11899: 11897: 11884: 11883: 11870: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11820: 11818: 11814: 11808: 11805: 11803: 11800: 11798: 11795: 11793: 11790: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11774: 11772: 11768: 11762: 11759: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11742: 11739: 11738: 11736: 11732: 11726: 11723: 11721: 11718: 11717: 11715: 11711: 11705: 11702: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11692: 11690: 11687: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11676: 11674: 11670: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11640: 11638: 11636:Past universe 11634: 11628: 11625: 11623: 11620: 11618: 11615: 11613: 11610: 11609: 11607: 11601: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11571: 11569: 11565: 11561: 11554: 11549: 11547: 11542: 11540: 11535: 11534: 11531: 11516: 11515:other unknown 11512: 11511:cosmic string 11508: 11507: 11505: 11500: 11496: 11493: 11492: 11490: 11485: 11484: 11482: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11472:Neutron stars 11470: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11459: 11457: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11444: 11441: 11440: 11439: 11436: 11435: 11433: 11429: 11423: 11420: 11418: 11414: 11411: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11386: 11383: 11382: 11380: 11376: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11351: 11349: 11345: 11333: 11332:Binary pulsar 11330: 11328: 11325: 11323: 11319: 11316: 11315: 11313: 11309: 11308: 11303: 11300: 11298: 11295: 11294: 11292: 11291: 11289: 11285: 11278: 11275: 11272: 11269: 11266: 11263: 11261: 11258: 11255: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11241: 11238: 11236: 11233: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11217: 11215: 11211: 11208: 11204: 11198:: Gravity Spy 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11186:Einstein@Home 11184: 11183: 11181: 11179:Data analysis 11177: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11161: 11158: 11156: 11153: 11152: 11150: 11148: 11144: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11116: 11114: 11110: 11104: 11101: 11100: 11098: 11094: 11091: 11085: 11075: 11072: 11071: 11069: 11065: 11059: 11056: 11054: 11051: 11050: 11048: 11044: 11038: 11035: 11034: 11032: 11028: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11007: 11004: 11003: 11001: 10997: 10990: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10975: 10971: 10970:Advanced LIGO 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10950: 10946: 10943: 10942: 10940: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10925: 10914: 10910: 10907: 10905: 10902: 10900: 10897: 10894: 10890: 10887: 10886: 10884: 10880: 10874: 10871: 10870: 10868: 10864: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10832: 10828: 10825: 10822: 10818: 10815: 10812: 10808: 10805: 10804: 10802: 10798: 10792: 10789: 10787: 10784: 10781: 10777: 10774: 10771: 10767: 10764: 10763: 10761: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749:Resonant mass 10746: 10743: 10741: 10737: 10731: 10728: 10726: 10723: 10722: 10719: 10715: 10708: 10703: 10701: 10696: 10694: 10689: 10688: 10685: 10678: 10668: 10666: 10656: 10654: 10644: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10630: 10620: 10618: 10613: 10608: 10607: 10604: 10599: 10593: 10589: 10585: 10584:SIXTψ SYMBΦLS 10581: 10576: 10573: 10570: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10554: 10545: 10541: 10537: 10531: 10527: 10526: 10520: 10516: 10510: 10506: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10491: 10485: 10481: 10480: 10474: 10470: 10464: 10460: 10455: 10451: 10445: 10440: 10439: 10432: 10428: 10422: 10418: 10413: 10409: 10403: 10399: 10395: 10391: 10387: 10381: 10377: 10376: 10370: 10366: 10360: 10356: 10351: 10347: 10341: 10337: 10332: 10328: 10322: 10318: 10314: 10309: 10308: 10299: 10298: 10293: 10289: 10286: 10282: 10281: 10264: 10258: 10254: 10250: 10243: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10223: 10219: 10215: 10210: 10205: 10201: 10197: 10190: 10182: 10178: 10171: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10129: 10125: 10118: 10116: 10114: 10105: 10099: 10095: 10091: 10087: 10080: 10072: 10066: 10062: 10058: 10051: 10043: 10037: 10029: 10025: 10021: 10017: 10012: 10007: 10003: 9996: 9982: 9981:www.sdss3.org 9978: 9972: 9966: 9962: 9959: 9954: 9950: 9945: 9940: 9936: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9919:(2): 505–34. 9918: 9914: 9910: 9906: 9900: 9885: 9882: 9875: 9867: 9863: 9859: 9855: 9851: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9831: 9824: 9809: 9808: 9803: 9799: 9793: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9751: 9747: 9746: 9737: 9729: 9725: 9721: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9704: 9703:gr-qc/0504018 9699: 9695: 9691: 9684: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9664: 9660: 9656: 9651: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9631: 9623: 9619: 9614: 9609: 9605: 9601: 9596: 9591: 9587: 9583: 9579: 9572: 9564: 9560: 9556: 9552: 9548: 9544: 9537: 9529: 9525: 9521: 9517: 9513: 9509: 9504: 9499: 9495: 9491: 9483: 9475: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9430: 9422: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9406: 9402: 9398: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9380: 9376: 9369: 9361: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9343: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9325: 9321: 9317: 9310: 9302: 9298: 9294: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9269: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9248: 9240: 9236: 9229: 9221: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9205: 9201: 9197: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9179: 9175: 9174: 9169: 9162: 9154: 9150: 9146: 9142: 9138: 9134: 9129: 9124: 9120: 9116: 9115: 9107: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9065: 9061: 9060: 9052: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9028: 9024: 9020: 9016: 9011: 9006: 9002: 8998: 8991: 8983: 8979: 8975: 8971: 8967: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8950: 8945: 8941: 8937: 8930: 8922: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8904: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8886: 8882: 8878: 8871: 8863: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8811: 8797: 8790: 8784: 8776: 8770: 8766: 8759: 8750: 8748: 8746: 8738: 8732: 8728: 8724: 8720: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8702: 8696: 8681: 8675: 8667: 8665:0-471-82759-2 8661: 8657: 8650: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8630: 8623: 8615: 8611: 8607: 8603: 8602: 8595: 8589: 8582: 8581:Vesto Slipher 8578: 8574: 8568: 8560: 8556: 8552: 8548: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8525: 8518: 8510: 8506: 8502: 8498: 8494: 8490: 8485: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8462: 8456: 8447: 8442: 8436: 8430: 8422: 8418: 8413: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8393: 8385: 8377: 8369: 8367:0-521-41867-4 8363: 8359: 8351: 8345: 8339: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8321: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8277: 8273: 8269: 8265: 8261: 8255: 8248: 8244: 8238: 8236: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8193: 8183: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8151: 8145: 8139: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8117: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8096: 8088: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8046: 8042: 7987: 7983: 7980: 7945: 7941: 7938: 7932: 7929: 7926: 7923: 7916: 7915: 7913: 7907: 7899: 7893: 7889: 7888: 7880: 7873: 7872:Harrison 2000 7868: 7861: 7855: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7823: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7782: 7775: 7767: 7763: 7759: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7728:Concepts Phys 7722: 7715: 7710: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7669: 7664: 7657: 7649: 7643: 7639: 7634: 7633: 7624: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7577: 7570: 7566: 7560: 7553: 7528: 7524: 7517: 7515: 7507: 7486: 7485: 7480: 7473: 7471: 7463: 7442: 7441: 7436: 7429: 7427: 7419: 7398: 7397: 7392: 7385: 7383: 7374: 7368: 7364: 7363: 7355: 7347: 7341: 7337: 7336: 7331: 7330:Goobar, Ariel 7327: 7321: 7313: 7307: 7303: 7302: 7294: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7241: 7234: 7230: 7227: 7221: 7213: 7207: 7203: 7196: 7188: 7182: 7178: 7171: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7136: 7130: 7129:metric tensor 7122: 7118: 7115:; M = object 7114: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7080: 7071: 7069: 7067: 7065: 7063: 7061: 7059: 7057: 7055: 7040:on 2013-12-22 7039: 7035: 7031: 7022: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6999:press release 6994: 6979: 6975: 6969: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6948: 6947: 6942: 6935: 6933: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6894: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6856: 6848: 6833: 6827: 6819: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6766: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6745: 6737: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6708: 6701: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6683: 6675: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6651: 6643: 6635: 6621: 6617: 6616: 6610: 6603: 6595: 6594: 6589: 6583: 6574: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6552: 6547: 6540: 6532: 6526: 6522: 6515: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6478: 6470: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6441: 6432: 6430: 6421: 6417: 6416: 6411: 6404: 6396: 6390: 6386: 6385: 6380: 6373: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6350: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6305: 6301: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6283: 6277: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6257: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6240: 6233:Blue outliers 6230: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6202: 6197: 6195: 6191: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6126: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6112: 6108: 6105: 6101: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6081: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6059: 6050: 6048: 6047:visible light 6044: 6040: 6037:(increase in 6036: 6032: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6007: 6005: 6004:line of sight 6001: 5997: 5996:spectroscopic 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5968: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5949: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5922: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5897: 5894:whether from 5893: 5889: 5885: 5880: 5876: 5866: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5850: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5824: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5805:spectroscopes 5802: 5796: 5787: 5778: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5765:heavier than 5764: 5758: 5753: 5750: 5746: 5741: 5737: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5701: 5693: 5688: 5686: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5662: 5655: 5650: 5644: 5639: 5635: 5629: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5608: 5603: 5602:UDFy-38135539 5597: 5592: 5586: 5581: 5577: 5576:spectroscopic 5568: 5567:lookback time 5564: 5560: 5555: 5545: 5543: 5539: 5534: 5530: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5491:Gravitational 5488: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5466:Vesto Slipher 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5450:Virgo Cluster 5447: 5442: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5426: 5420: 5413: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5387: 5378: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5355:hydrogen line 5352: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5339:neutron stars 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5257:line-of-sight 5254: 5244: 5242: 5236: 5230: 5226: 5220: 5214: 5210: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5175: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5150: 5149:spectroscopic 5146: 5142: 5138: 5130: 5129:lookback time 5125: 5116: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5105:event horizon 5102: 5098: 5094: 5089: 5087: 5083: 5075: 5070: 5066: 5063: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5046: 5042: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5029: 5028: 5011: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4987: 4984: 4981: 4975: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4960: 4957: 4954: 4947: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4905: 4895: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4877: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4850: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4819: 4816: 4813: 4808: 4800: 4780: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4761: 4757: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4733: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4704: 4698: 4692: 4685: 4684: 4683: 4682:, one finds: 4676: 4667: 4647: 4633: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4607: 4606: 4605: 4596: 4594: 4588: 4585: 4580: 4542: 4524: 4518: 4515: 4512: 4509: 4502: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4479:the equations 4475: 4473: 4469: 4464: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4448: 4438: 4415: 4411: 4406: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4377: 4374: 4371: 4364: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4354: 4349: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4315: 4312: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4296: 4293: 4286: 4283: 4280: 4277: 4270: 4269: 4268: 4264: 4239: 4235: 4230: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4197: 4191: 4188: 4185: 4182: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4167: 4164: 4157: 4156: 4155: 4151: 4146: 4145:line-of-sight 4142: 4137: 4132: 4130: 4111: 4108: 4104: 4098: 4095: 4090: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4073: 4070: 4063: 4062: 4061: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4045:time dilation 4042: 4036: 4034: 4029: 4008: 4005: 4002: 3980: 3977: 3972: 3969: 3962: 3961: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3929: 3924: 3918: 3908: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3858: 3845: 3842: 3833: 3807: 3797: 3792: 3783: 3777: 3770: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3747: 3742: 3733: 3727: 3720: 3717: 3712: 3709: 3702: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3666: 3645: 3633: 3627: 3623: 3617: 3606: 3600: 3596: 3589: 3583: 3580: 3575: 3572: 3565: 3564: 3536: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3508: 3505: 3491: 3485: 3481: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3453: 3438: 3432: 3428: 3422: 3419: 3406: 3400: 3396: 3390: 3387: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3364: 3363: 3362: 3360: 3324: 3321: 3317: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3267: 3266: 3265: 3263: 3259: 3257: 3254: 3253: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3216: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3171: 3164: 3163: 3162: 3160: 3123: 3105: 3099: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3083: 3082: 3081: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3068: 3049: 3045: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2997: 2990: 2987: 2982: 2979: 2972: 2951: 2947: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2898: 2897: 2896: 2876: 2872: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2834: 2831: 2824: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2789: 2786: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2764: 2761: 2754: 2750: 2744: 2739: 2735: 2729: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2699: 2698: 2697: 2692: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2670:Redshift type 2669: 2668: 2665: 2660: 2657: 2645: 2643: 2637: 2632: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2610: 2569: 2548: 2542: 2539: 2536: 2533: 2526: 2493: 2472: 2466: 2463: 2460: 2457: 2450: 2415: 2393: 2389: 2369: 2362: 2359: 2352: 2319: 2297: 2293: 2273: 2266: 2263: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2240: 2227: 2216: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2197: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2170: 2164: 2162: 2156: 2153: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2122: 2117: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2067: 2066: 2061: 2059: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2045:Vesto Slipher 2041: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1938:Doppler radar 1935: 1931: 1930:spectroscopic 1927: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1911: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1831:photon energy 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1785: 1784: 1782: 1781: 1775: 1765: 1762: 1757: 1751: 1750: 1749: 1748: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1720: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1707: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1645: 1644: 1637: 1634: 1632: 1629: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1604: 1603: 1596: 1595:Four-momentum 1593: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1582: 1577: 1570: 1569: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1538: 1531: 1530: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1478: 1477:Time dilation 1475: 1474: 1464: 1463: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1432: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1401: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1362: 1360: 1355: 1354: 1352: 1351: 1346: 1336: 1334: 1325: 1324: 1323: 1322: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1289: 1288: 1281: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1117: 1116: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1058: 1057: 1046: 1043: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1007: 1006: 1002: 1001: 996: 993: 989: 986: 984: 981: 980: 979: 978: 974: 973: 967: 961: 960: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 914: 911: 910: 906: 900: 899: 888: 885: 881: 878: 876: 873: 872: 871: 870: 866: 865: 860: 857: 853: 850: 849: 848: 847: 839: 838: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 816: 813: 812: 811: 810: 806: 802: 801: 798: 795: 794: 790: 789: 779: 774: 772: 767: 765: 760: 759: 757: 756: 750: 740: 737: 732: 726: 725: 724: 723: 716: 715: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 653:Chandrasekhar 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 568:Schwarzschild 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 545: 537: 536: 529: 528:Hartle–Thorne 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 443: 439: 438:Schwarzschild 436: 435: 431: 425: 424: 413: 410: 408: 405: 404: 403: 402: 398: 397: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 378: 377: 376: 372: 371: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 337: 336: 335: 331: 330: 320: 317: 316: 311: 310: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 285: 284: 283: 280: 277: 276: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 260:Event horizon 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 222: 221: 220: 210: 209: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 183: 175: 174: 169: 166: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 147: 145: 143: 140: 139: 138: 137: 119: 116: 112: 107: 103: 98: 95: 91: 84: 79: 76: 72: 62: 58: 57: 54: 51: 50: 44: 40: 36: 32: 28: 22: 11873: 11797:Reionization 11756:Quintessence 11703: 11689:Hubble's law 11514: 11498: 11399:Travel with 11394: 11385:Polarization 11304: 11206:Observations 10928:Ground-based 10677:Solar System 10598: 10583: 10580:"Z Redshift" 10524: 10503: 10478: 10458: 10437: 10416: 10397: 10394:Grøn, Øyvind 10374: 10354: 10335: 10316: 10295: 10284: 10248: 10242: 10199: 10195: 10189: 10170: 10127: 10123: 10085: 10079: 10056: 10050: 10001: 9995: 9984:. Retrieved 9980: 9971: 9916: 9912: 9899: 9888:. Retrieved 9874: 9833: 9829: 9823: 9811:. Retrieved 9805: 9792: 9749: 9743: 9736: 9693: 9689: 9683: 9640: 9636: 9630: 9585: 9581: 9571: 9549:(3): 36–45. 9546: 9542: 9536: 9493: 9489: 9482: 9439: 9435: 9429: 9378: 9374: 9368: 9323: 9319: 9309: 9258: 9254: 9247: 9238: 9228: 9177: 9171: 9161: 9121:(1): L5–L8. 9118: 9112: 9106: 9063: 9057: 9051: 9000: 8996: 8990: 8939: 8935: 8929: 8884: 8880: 8870: 8825: 8821: 8810: 8799:. Retrieved 8795: 8783: 8764: 8758: 8714: 8710: 8695: 8684:. Retrieved 8674: 8655: 8649: 8632: 8628: 8622: 8605: 8599: 8588: 8567: 8534: 8530: 8517: 8474: 8470: 8455: 8429: 8402: 8398: 8392: 8383: 8376: 8357: 8350: 8301: 8297: 8260:Fritz Zwicky 8254: 8209: 8205: 8202:Wolfe, A. M. 8198:Sachs, R. K. 8192: 8164: 8160: 8150: 8143: 8129: 8125: 8122:Einstein, A. 8116: 8099: 8093: 8087: 8044: 8040: 7906: 7886: 7879: 7867: 7836: 7832: 7822: 7811:. Retrieved 7791: 7787: 7774: 7734:(1): 17–34. 7731: 7727: 7721: 7712: 7672: 7666: 7656: 7631: 7623: 7580: 7574: 7559: 7542:=67.4, Omega 7530:. Retrieved 7526: 7488:. Retrieved 7482: 7444:. Retrieved 7438: 7400:. Retrieved 7394: 7361: 7354: 7334: 7320: 7300: 7293: 7250: 7246: 7240: 7220: 7201: 7195: 7176: 7170: 7145: 7141: 7135: 7109:scale factor 7104: 7096: 7079: 7042:. Retrieved 7038:the original 7033: 7021: 6993: 6981:. Retrieved 6977: 6968: 6945: 6897: 6891: 6859: 6853: 6847: 6836:. Retrieved 6834:. 2017-12-08 6826: 6781: 6775: 6765: 6748: 6742: 6736: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6698: 6686: 6680: 6674: 6666: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6623:. Retrieved 6613: 6602: 6592: 6582: 6555: 6549: 6539: 6520: 6514: 6481: 6475: 6469: 6444: 6438: 6413: 6403: 6387:. Springer. 6383: 6372: 6355: 6349: 6314: 6310: 6304: 6263: 6236: 6204: 6199: 6193: 6189: 6187: 6182:gravity well 6178:Matter waves 6153: 6117: 6082: 6064: 6030: 6028: 5991: 5969: 5959: 5938: 5923: 5903:particulates 5872: 5863:spectrograph 5848: 5825: 5817:supercluster 5798: 5756: 5742: 5735: 5720: 5709: 5689: 5684: 5675: 5674: 5667: 5660: 5653: 5642: 5627: 5620: 5613: 5606: 5595: 5584: 5573: 5535: 5531: 5489: 5474: 5462:Hubble's law 5458:Edwin Hubble 5443: 5436: 5429: 5418: 5411: 5392: 5347:temperatures 5300: 5250: 5241:K correction 5234: 5218: 5215: 5208: 5176: 5157: 5153:laboratories 5143:spectra for 5134: 5090: 5079: 5068: 5056: 5044: 5032: 5026: 4917: 4907: 4893: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4871: 4851: 4828: 4825: 4817: 4811: 4798: 4795: 4674: 4665: 4662: 4591: 4589: 4583: 4576: 4497:scale factor 4491: 4476: 4465: 4450: 4435: 4352: 4345: 4262: 4259: 4149: 4133: 4126: 4056: 4037: 4027: 4024: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3937: 3927: 3916: 3913: 3824: 3695:In terms of 3694: 3356: 3159:Hubble's law 3157: 2893: 2693: 2663: 2655: 2651: 2635: 2624: 2622:blueshifts ( 2614: 2608: 2605: 2250: 2245: 2219: 2211: 2201: 2195: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2173: 2165: 2157: 2149: 2143:in space is 2126: 2085:Hubble's law 2077:Edwin Hubble 2070: 2063: 2056: 2042: 2032: 2009: 1966: 1946: 1934:astronomical 1915: 1909: 1902: 1887: 1879:Hubble's law 1818: 1812: 1469:Consequences 1415:Formulations 1107:Probe (WMAP) 1041: 1038:Reionization 1019: 991: 965: 933: 919: 916: 913:Hubble's law 904: 883: 855: 818: 713: 673:Raychaudhuri 142:Introduction 39:supercluster 11816:Experiments 11751:Dark matter 11741:Dark energy 11679:FLRW metric 11506:Hypothesis 11483:Continuous 11087:Space-based 10665:Outer space 10653:Spaceflight 10588:Brady Haran 10574:by Wayne Hu 10459:Gravitation 10313:Lydia Bieri 9905:Cole, Shaun 9168:Campana, S. 8739:experiment. 8594:Oort, J. H. 8405:: 476–492. 8142:See p. 458 8132:: 411–462. 7714:relativity. 7527:Kempner.net 6983:13 December 6447:: 529–564. 6254:PG 1543+489 6188:Unlike the 6118:relative to 6111:binary star 6104:Local Group 6102:within the 5988:atmospheric 5986:causes the 5982:—similarly 5821:light-years 5678:(EROs) are 5616:Lyman-break 5527:dark matter 5446:Local Group 5395:Hubble flow 5343:black holes 5307:photosphere 5172:tired light 4938:nonrotating 4593:cosmic time 4472:coordinates 4348:right angle 3659: for 3209: for 2161:white noise 2005:temperature 1985:sound waves 1926:radio waves 1590:Proper mass 1585:Proper time 1427:Foundations 1062:Experiments 995:Dark matter 988:Dark energy 930:FLRW metric 867:Backgrounds 688:van Stockum 618:Oppenheimer 473:Kerr–Newman 265:Singularity 11896:Categories 11746:Dark fluid 11734:Components 11603:History of 11567:Background 11509:Colliding 11438:Stochastic 11410:chirp mass 11305:Proposed: 11196:Zooniverse 9986:2023-03-20 9977:"SDSS-III" 9890:2023-03-20 9759:1504.01734 9752:(2): 139. 9333:1806.01191 9268:1712.01860 9010:1503.00002 8894:1603.00461 8887:(2): 129. 8801:2023-06-13 8686:2013-04-25 8284:Halton Arp 8212:(73): 73. 7813:2023-03-16 7567:using the 7044:2023-03-16 6955:(Reprint: 6838:2023-09-06 6636:required.) 6625:2023-03-17 6609:"redshift" 6324:2011.13643 6297:References 6266:Big Crunch 6035:wavelength 5911:dielectric 5888:scattering 5813:Great Wall 5801:telescopes 5638:GRB 090423 5552:See also: 5515:barycenter 5329:, and the 5261:velocities 5183:brightness 5179:photometry 5141:absorption 5101:black hole 4843:Hubble Law 4141:projection 1991:scientist 1949:scattering 1942:radar guns 1823:wavelength 1679:FitzGerald 1664:Sommerfeld 1616:Precursors 1561:Light cone 1556:World line 1142:Copernicus 1120:Scientists 975:Components 541:Scientists 373:Formalisms 321:Formalisms 270:Black hole 196:World line 11833:BOOMERanG 11658:Inflation 11560:Cosmology 11495:Supernova 11390:Spin-flip 11016:TENKO-100 10893:MiniGRAIL 10857:Weber bar 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