335:
123:
866:, are spread along routes linking them to the Mediterranean end of the Incense and Spice route. Together they reflect the hugely profitable trade in frankincense and myrrh from South Arabia to the Mediterranean, which flourished from the 3rd century B.C. until to 2nd century A.D. With the vestiges of their sophisticated irrigation systems, urban constructions, forts, and caravanserai they bear witness to the way in which the harsh desert was settled for trade and agriculture.
822:
690:(2006) is of the view that the trade along the land routes survived following the growing maritime contact between India and the Greco-Roman world. Pre-Islamic Meccans continued to use the old Incense Route to benefit from the Roman demand for luxury goods. The Meccan involvement saw the export of the same goods: Arabian frankincense, East African ivory and gold, Indian spices, Chinese silk etc. The decline of the incense trade saw Yemen take to the export of
415:
572:
704:
216:
597:). Eudoxos made two voyages to India, and subsequently, having quarrelled with his Ptolemaic employers, perished in an unsuccessful attempt to open up an alternative sea route to India, free of Ptolemaic control, by sailing around Africa. The establishment of direct contacts between Egypt and India was probably made possible by a weakening of Arab power at this period, for the
547:
as the administrator of the
Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with the east and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of the south. According to Milo Kearney (2003) "The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the
658:
The third century would thus appear to be a significant time in the history of the incense trade in Arabia. During the political and economic crisis of that century the nature of the trade changed dramatically; prior to that time the incense route from South Arabia seems to have continued to
560:
and
Arabian middlemen to adjust their prices so as to compete on the Roman market with the goods now being bought in by a direct sea route to India. Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power.
526:
was crossed by the overland route from India to Egypt. This position gave the
Nabateans a hold over the trade along the Incense Route. In order to release the Incense Route from the Nabatean control military expeditions were undertaken, without success, by
609:. Imports into Egypt of cinnamon and other eastern spices, such as pepper, increased substantially, though the Indian Ocean trade remained for the moment on quite a small scale, no more than twenty Egyptian ships venturing outside the Red Sea each year.
286:
commemorating the journey of a fleet that the Queen of Egypt had sent to the Land of Punt. Five ships are depicted in these reliefs, piled high with treasure, and one of them shows thirty-one small incense trees in tubs being carried on board.
584:
The trade with Arabia and India in incense and spices became increasingly important, and Greeks for the first time began to trade directly with India. The discovery, or rediscovery, of the sea-route to India is attributed to a certain
1988:
278:. Early ritual texts from Egypt show that incense was being bought to the upper Nile by traders, but perhaps the most spectacular evidence of this trade is provided by the frescos dated to around
834:
and Al-Balid vividly illustrate the trade in frankincense that flourished in this region for many centuries, as one of the most important trading activities of the ancient and medieval world.
659:
function. Much of this trade seems to have been brought to a standstill by the poor economic conditions of the third century, however, when the economic situation improved again under the
676:
342:(light blue) was based on the cultivation and trade of spices and aromatics including frankincense and myrrh. These were exported to the Mediterranean, India and
663:
many things had changed. By this time the two main routes in use seem to have been the Wadi Sirhan, now carrying trade which formerly would have passed through
106:
94:
110:
90:
102:
464:
and luxury goods from India bought wealth to the kingdoms of Arabia. The aromatics of Dhofar were shipped out from the natural harbor of
411:
administrator. The motive behind the attack was to gain control of the South
Arabian incense trade which had prospered along the region.
839:
126:
480:, Palestine upto Gaza. The tolls levied by the owners of wells and other facilities added to the overall cost of these luxury goods.
1091:
78:
37:
389:. The frankincense and myrrh trees were crucial to the economy of Yemen and were seen as a source of wealth by the its rulers.
896:
457:
of South Arabia, who were involved with the incense trade and occupied the northern trading outposts of the
Incense Route.
1459:"Mostar, Macao and Biblical vestiges in Israel are among the 17 cultural sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List"
274:
were the major suppliers of incense, while in modern times the commercial centre for the trade in gums has been Aden and
67:
26:
366:
colony. Gerrha exercised influence over the
Incense trade routes across Arabia to the Mediterranean and controlled the
830:
The frankincense trees of Wadi Dawkah and the remains of the caravan oasis of Shisr/Wubar and the affiliated ports of
437:
to control the northern end of the
Incence route, which ran up from Southern Arabia and could be tapped by commanding
219:
The incense trade, connecting Egypt to the incense producing lands, depended heavily on navigation along the Red Sea.
556:
coast of the Red Sea." The monopoly of the middlemen weakened with the development of monsoon trade, forcing the
488:
1958:
1937:
1916:
1895:
1874:
1853:
1805:
1781:
1757:
1736:
1715:
1694:
1673:
1627:
1578:
1554:
1530:
1509:
1488:
921:
346:
where they were greatly prized by many cultures, using camels on routes through Arabia, and to India by sea.
1832:
1654:
1605:
966:
931:
74:
33:
1011:
783:, marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia.
1329:
889:
757:
590:
407:. Gaza was eventually sacked and the ruler of Gaza escaped to Egypt but later continued to act as a
795:
645:, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise.
495:
468:
towards the western inhospitable South
Arabian coast. The caravans carried these products north to
294:
1843:
1411:
614:
1481:
Intercourse
Between India and the Western World: From the Earliest Times of the Fall of Rome
539:. The Nabatean control over trade increased and spread in many directions. The replacement of
1978:
1096:
1006:
926:
750:
671:, receiving goods from India and Arabia which before had gone to the Egyptian Red Sea ports.
1031:
882:
334:
8:
1066:
807:
426:
396:
98:
53:
1815:
1637:
1588:
1566:
986:
981:
961:
811:
734:
586:
1954:
1933:
1912:
1891:
1870:
1849:
1801:
1777:
1753:
1732:
1711:
1690:
1669:
1623:
1574:
1550:
1526:
1505:
1484:
1086:
765:
602:
528:
247:
fleet equipped at Ezion Geber, made several trading voyages to the east brining back
21:
418:
Tiglath-Pileser III attacked Gaza in order to control trade along the
Incense Route.
1983:
1615:
1076:
996:
951:
946:
936:
738:
680:
634:
622:
422:
386:
1523:
Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society
642:
637:, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from
441:. Archaeological inscriptions also speak of booty retrieved from the land of the
162:
502:. The Romans bypassed the land route in favour of the faster and safer searoute.
1542:
1146:
1061:
1036:
1001:
991:
976:
842:
on UNESCO’s World Heritage List on July 15, 2005. The official citation reads:
776:
687:
499:
375:
303:
271:
1909:
Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC-AD 305
1972:
1793:
1769:
1056:
772:
515:
450:
158:
378:. Gerrha was one of the important entry ports for goods shipped from India.
122:
1046:
863:
780:
696:
549:
544:
232:
173:
821:
1051:
905:
638:
438:
200:
166:
130:
1425:"World Heritage Committee Inscribes 61 New Sites on World Heritage List"
941:
306:, Southern Arabia and India involved with trade in frankincense, myrrh,
1071:
1016:
916:
761:
430:
414:
359:
862:, along with associated fortresses and agricultural landscapes in the
675:
571:
1441:
1126:
1081:
1041:
1021:
971:
831:
803:
764:, used to secure trade with India by the Greco Roman world since the
742:
660:
553:
536:
507:
465:
434:
400:
367:
343:
169:. The Incense Route served as a channel for trading of goods such as
1458:
1424:
589:, who was sent out for this purpose towards the end of the reign of
1026:
708:
557:
523:
519:
477:
454:
392:
363:
311:
279:
240:
224:
204:
196:
235:" and from Arabia. Indian goods were bought in Arabian vessels to
1687:
The Republic Of Yemen: Development Challenges in the 21st Century
851:
838:
The World Heritage Committee, headed by Themba Wakashe, recorded
746:
703:
664:
598:
552:. In response, the Romans destroyed Aden and favored the Western
371:
339:
228:
170:
129:
were linked to the Mediterranean end of the ancient Incense and
874:
859:
847:
799:
791:
691:
606:
594:
540:
469:
461:
408:
355:
351:
307:
299:
283:
270:
In the ancient period, it would seem that South Arabia and the
252:
244:
154:
145:
was a series of major ancient trading routes stretching across
1729:
Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery. Book 1
601:
kingdom of South-western Arabia collapsed and was replaced by
215:
855:
630:
532:
511:
382:
260:
259:
and precious stones. These goods were shipped at the port of
256:
188:
184:
181:
177:
150:
146:
58:
350:
Among the important trading points of the Incense Route was
815:
668:
626:
473:
404:
275:
248:
236:
192:
56:
to this revision, which may differ significantly from the
625:
was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the
683:
in 602 to 629, Strokes: Under Sassanid military control.
494:
Roman maritime trade routes with India according to the
157:. The incense trade flourished from South Arabia to the
483:
617:
kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12.):
575:
Areas around the Arabian peninsula according to the
381:
Due to its prominent position in the Incense trade,
1502:The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia
753:, crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE.
522:at a point where the Incense Route from Arabia to
1867:History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce
487:
1970:
514:which stood halfway between the opening to the
472:and from there on to the kingdoms of Quataban,
1798:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1268:
1266:
890:
1774:Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1127:"Incense Route - Desert Cities in the Negev"
302:texts refer to several coastal sites in the
1948:
1275:
1152:. Message of the Republic of Yemen, Berlin.
453:. Some scholars identify this group as the
1888:Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements
1705:
1263:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
897:
883:
840:Incense Route - Desert Cities in the Negev
1927:
1478:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1209:
1207:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1165:
1121:
1119:
1117:
756:This advance marked the beginning of the
266:According to Himanshu Prabha Ray (2003):
1380:
1378:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1141:
1139:
820:
702:
674:
570:
413:
333:
214:
121:
66:Revision as of 21:12, 2 October 2007 by
47:
1864:
1768:
1747:
1684:
1614:
1216:
65:
14:
1971:
1663:
1520:
1343:
1204:
1190:
1147:"Traders of the Gold and Incense Road"
1114:
641:to India, whereas formerly, under the
566:The Cambridge History of Africa (1975)
1906:
1541:
1375:
1291:
1136:
878:
749:Sassanian Dynasty. The Arabs, led by
44:
25:
1885:
1792:
1726:
1565:
722: Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661
484:Greco Roman bypassing of land routes
17:
1499:
922:Austronesian maritime trade network
798:meeting since November 27, 2000 in
119:
88:
1706:Eckenstein, Lina (June 23, 2005).
1547:Meccan Trade And The Rise Of Islam
120:
2000:
1750:The Indian Ocean in World History
786:
314:and a range of gum resins termed
52:. The present address (URL) is a
1989:History of the Arabian peninsula
904:
728: Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750
489:
210:
1731:. University of Chicago Press.
1727:Lach, Donald Frederick (1994).
1571:The Cambridge History of Africa
1525:. University of Chicago Press.
1479:Rawlinson, Hugh George (2001).
1451:
1434:
1417:
1405:
1396:
1387:
1366:
1357:
1334:
1323:
1314:
1305:
1254:
1245:
716: Prophet Mohammad, 622-632
1622:. Cambridge University Press.
1573:. Cambridge University Press.
1504:. Cambridge University Press.
1483:. Asian Educational Services.
1236:
1181:
1156:
818:. The official citation reads:
760:and the fall of ports such as
329:
282:on the walls of the temple at
127:The desert Cities in the Negev
13:
1:
1886:Holl, Augustin F. C. (2003).
1869:. Adamant Media Corporation.
1710:. Adamant Media Corporation.
1666:The New Encyclopedia of Islam
1620:The Cambridge Ancient History
1500:Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003).
1471:
231:, importing spices from the "
707:Egypt under the rule of the
385:attracted settlers from the
354:, reported by the historian
7:
870:
846:The four Nabatean towns of
654:According to Young (2001):
24:of this page, as edited by
10:
2005:
1907:Young, Gary Keith (2001).
1844:The Encyclopedia Americana
1412:The Encyclopedia Americana
737:the areas under the Roman
649:
1949:O'Leary, De Lacy (2001).
1928:Archibald, Zofia (2001).
912:
758:Islamic conquest of Egypt
207:, animal skins and gold.
1108:
1092:Varangians to the Greeks
796:World Heritage Committee
694:via the Red Sea port of
577:Periplus Maris Erythraei
496:Periplus Maris Erythraei
395:documents indicate that
358:to have been founded by
295:Periplus Maris Erythraei
1685:Colburn, Marta (2002).
1521:Larsen, Curtis (1983).
1260:Archibald 2001: 168-169
932:Dvaravati–Kamboja route
1951:Arabia Before Muhammad
1748:Kearney, Milo (2003).
1664:Glasse, Cyril (2001).
1442:"Land of Frankincense"
868:
836:
826:
812:The Frankincense trail
730:
684:
673:
647:
615:Roman trade with India
611:
580:
503:
419:
347:
327:
289:
220:
134:
1930:Hellenistic Economies
1865:Lindsay, W S (2006).
1776:. Osprey Publishing.
1549:. Gorgias Press LLC.
1178:Rawlinson 2001: 11-12
1097:Way of the Patriarchs
1007:Polynesian navigation
927:Canadian canoe routes
844:
828:
824:
706:
678:
656:
633:and the frontiers of
619:
582:
574:
493:
429:to the desire of the
417:
337:
290:
268:
218:
125:
45:21:12, 2 October 2007
1032:Sepik Coast exchange
591:Ptolemy Euergetes II
490:File:PeriplusMap.jpg
161:between roughly the
1890:. Lexington Books.
1668:. Rowman Altamira.
1567:Fage, John Donnelly
1288:Eckenstein 2005: 86
1272:Archibald 2001: 169
1251:Archibald 2001: 168
1067:Trans-Saharan trade
957:Incense trade route
808:World Heritage Site
427:Syro-Ephraimite War
397:Tiglath-Pileser III
338:The economy of the
95:← Previous revision
1823:Unknown parameter
1708:A History of Sinai
1645:Unknown parameter
1596:Unknown parameter
987:Maritime Silk Road
982:Maritime republics
962:Indian Ocean trade
827:
735:Roman-Persian Wars
731:
685:
621:At any rate, when
581:
504:
420:
348:
340:Kingdom of Qataban
227:had traded in the
221:
135:
1616:Edwards, I. E. S.
1402:Lindsay 2006: 101
1372:Farrokh 2007: 252
1242:Edwards 1969: 329
1233:Edwards 1969: 330
1105:
1104:
1087:Volga trade route
1012:Rome-India routes
766:Ptolemaic dynasty
741:were captured by
603:Himyarite Kingdom
564:According to the
529:Antigonus Cyclops
449:mentioned in the
399:advanced through
69:Havelock the Dane
28:Havelock the Dane
1996:
1964:
1943:
1922:
1901:
1880:
1859:
1836:
1830:
1826:
1825:|coauthors=
1821:
1819:
1811:
1787:
1763:
1742:
1721:
1700:
1679:
1658:
1652:
1648:
1647:|coauthors=
1643:
1641:
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1609:
1603:
1599:
1598:|coauthors=
1594:
1592:
1584:
1560:
1536:
1515:
1494:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1400:
1394:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1373:
1370:
1364:
1363:Colburn 2002: 14
1361:
1355:
1352:
1341:
1338:
1332:
1327:
1321:
1318:
1312:
1311:Kearney 2003: 42
1309:
1303:
1300:
1289:
1286:
1273:
1270:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1234:
1231:
1214:
1211:
1202:
1199:
1188:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1163:
1162:O'Leary 2001: 30
1160:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1143:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1123:
1077:Triangular trade
952:Hiri trade cycle
947:Hanseatic League
937:Grand Trunk Road
899:
892:
885:
876:
875:
739:Byzantine Empire
727:
721:
715:
681:Sassanian Empire
491:
423:I. E. S. Edwards
387:fertile crescent
239:. The "ships of
107:Newer revision →
85:
82:
61:
59:current revision
51:
50:
46:
42:
41:
2004:
2003:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1961:
1940:
1919:
1898:
1877:
1856:
1841:
1828:
1824:
1822:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1784:
1760:
1739:
1718:
1697:
1676:
1650:
1646:
1644:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1601:
1597:
1595:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1557:
1543:Crone, Patricia
1533:
1512:
1491:
1474:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1344:
1340:Young 2001: 128
1339:
1335:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1292:
1287:
1276:
1271:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1217:
1213:Glasse 2001: 59
1212:
1205:
1201:Larsen 1983: 56
1200:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1144:
1137:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1101:
997:Penarikan Route
908:
903:
873:
825:Ruins of Avdat.
789:
751:'Amr ibn al-'As
729:
725:
723:
719:
717:
713:
652:
486:
460:Aromatics from
332:
213:
163:3rd century BCE
118:
117:
116:
115:
114:
99:Latest revision
87:
86:
83:
72:
70:
57:
48:
31:
29:
12:
11:
5:
2002:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1966:
1965:
1959:
1945:
1944:
1938:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1903:
1902:
1896:
1882:
1881:
1875:
1861:
1860:
1854:
1838:
1837:
1806:
1794:Meri, Josef W.
1789:
1788:
1782:
1770:Farrokh, Kaveh
1765:
1764:
1758:
1744:
1743:
1737:
1723:
1722:
1716:
1702:
1701:
1695:
1689:. Progressio.
1681:
1680:
1674:
1660:
1659:
1628:
1611:
1610:
1579:
1562:
1561:
1555:
1538:
1537:
1531:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1496:
1495:
1489:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1450:
1433:
1416:
1404:
1395:
1386:
1384:Meri 2006: 224
1374:
1365:
1356:
1354:Crone 2004: 10
1342:
1333:
1322:
1320:Fage 1975: 164
1313:
1304:
1290:
1274:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1235:
1215:
1203:
1189:
1180:
1164:
1155:
1135:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1062:Tea Horse Road
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1037:Siberian Route
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
1002:Manila galleon
999:
994:
992:Old Salt Route
989:
984:
979:
977:Lapita culture
974:
969:
967:King's Highway
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
913:
910:
909:
902:
901:
894:
887:
879:
872:
869:
788:
787:Present status
785:
777:Constantinople
733:Following the
724:
718:
712:
688:Patricia Crone
651:
648:
500:1st century CE
485:
482:
376:1st century BC
331:
328:
304:Horn of Africa
272:Horn of Africa
212:
209:
167:2nd century CE
68:
54:permanent link
27:
16:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2001:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1962:
1956:
1953:. Routledge.
1952:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1935:
1932:. Routledge.
1931:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1914:
1911:. Routledge.
1910:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1893:
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1872:
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1829:|author=
1817:
1809:
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1800:. Routledge.
1799:
1795:
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1752:. Routledge.
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1302:Lach 1994: 13
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1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1057:Brouwer Route
1055:
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1038:
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773:Ottoman Turks
771:Finally, the
769:
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754:
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748:
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531:, emperor of
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516:Gulf of Akaba
513:
509:
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481:
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451:Old testament
448:
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436:
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425:connects the
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211:Early History
208:
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172:
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164:
160:
159:Mediterranean
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
139:Incense Route
132:
131:Spice trading
128:
124:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
80:
76:
71:
64:
63:
60:
55:
39:
35:
30:
23:
1979:Trade routes
1950:
1929:
1908:
1887:
1866:
1842:
1831:suggested) (
1797:
1773:
1749:
1728:
1707:
1686:
1665:
1653:suggested) (
1619:
1604:suggested) (
1570:
1546:
1522:
1501:
1480:
1453:
1436:
1419:
1407:
1398:
1393:Holl 2003: 9
1389:
1368:
1359:
1336:
1325:
1316:
1307:
1256:
1247:
1238:
1187:Ray 2003: 31
1183:
1158:
1047:Spanish Road
956:
906:Trade routes
864:Negev Desert
845:
837:
829:
790:
781:15th century
770:
755:
732:
695:
686:
657:
653:
620:
612:
583:
576:
565:
563:
550:Gulf of Aden
545:Roman empire
505:
459:
446:
442:
421:
391:
380:
362:exiles as a
349:
323:
319:
315:
293:
291:
269:
265:
233:Land of Punt
222:
203:rare woods,
201:East African
174:frankincense
143:Incense Road
142:
138:
136:
22:old revision
19:
18:
1848:. Grolier.
1052:Spice Route
639:Myos Hormos
445:, possibly
443:mu-u-na-a-a
439:Transjordan
330:Land routes
20:This is an
1973:Categories
1960:0415231884
1939:0415234662
1918:0415242193
1897:0739104071
1876:0543942538
1855:0717201201
1807:0415966906
1783:1846031087
1759:0415312779
1738:0226467317
1717:0543952150
1696:1852872497
1675:0759101906
1629:0521227178
1580:0521215927
1556:1593331029
1532:0226469069
1511:0521011094
1490:8120615492
1472:References
1072:Trepanging
1017:Royal Road
917:Amber Road
810:status to
775:conquered
762:Alexandria
629:as far as
554:Abyssinian
431:Israelites
360:Babylonian
298:and other
1827:ignored (
1816:cite book
1649:ignored (
1638:cite book
1600:ignored (
1589:cite book
1464:. UNESCO.
1447:. UNESCO.
1430:. UNESCO.
1414:1989: 176
1132:. UNESCO.
1082:Via Maris
1042:Silk Road
1022:Salt road
972:Kula ring
832:Khor Rori
806:attached
804:Australia
743:Khosrow I
661:Tetrarchy
643:Ptolemies
537:Palestine
508:Nabateans
466:Khor Rori
435:Aramaeans
401:Phoenicia
370:trade to
368:aromatics
344:Abyssinia
324:mok rotu.
225:Egyptians
195:and fine
84:(general)
49:(general)
1796:(2006).
1772:(2007).
1618:(1969).
1569:(1975).
1545:(2004).
1027:Sea lane
942:Hærvejen
871:See also
709:Rashidun
697:al-Mocha
635:Ethiopia
558:Parthian
524:Damascus
520:Dead Sea
518:and the
455:Minaeans
447:Meunites
433:and the
393:Assyrian
364:Chaldean
320:kankamon
312:bdellium
280:1500 BCE
241:Tarshish
205:feathers
197:textiles
153:through
79:contribs
38:contribs
1984:Incense
852:Mamshit
779:in the
747:Persian
745:of the
679:Green:
665:Palmyra
650:Decline
605:around
599:Sabaean
587:Eudoxos
543:by the
510:seized
374:in the
372:Babylon
229:Red sea
171:Arabian
165:to the
141:or the
133:routes.
1957:
1936:
1915:
1894:
1873:
1852:
1846:(1989)
1804:
1780:
1756:
1735:
1714:
1693:
1672:
1626:
1577:
1553:
1529:
1508:
1487:
1462:(HTML)
1445:(HTML)
1428:(HTML)
1330:Source
1150:(HTML)
1130:(HTML)
860:Shivta
848:Haluza
800:Cairns
792:UNESCO
726:
720:
714:
692:Coffee
667:, and
623:Gallus
607:115 BC
595:116 BC
593:(died
541:Greece
470:Shabwa
462:Dhofar
409:vassal
356:Strabo
352:Gerrha
308:cassia
284:Thebes
253:silver
245:Tyrian
199:; and
185:spices
182:Indian
155:Arabia
1109:Notes
856:Avdat
631:Syene
533:Syria
512:Petra
478:Ma'in
383:Yemen
316:duaka
300:Greek
261:Ophir
257:ivory
243:," a
189:ebony
178:myrrh
151:India
147:Egypt
1955:ISBN
1934:ISBN
1913:ISBN
1892:ISBN
1871:ISBN
1850:ISBN
1833:help
1802:ISBN
1778:ISBN
1754:ISBN
1733:ISBN
1712:ISBN
1691:ISBN
1670:ISBN
1655:help
1624:ISBN
1606:help
1575:ISBN
1551:ISBN
1527:ISBN
1506:ISBN
1485:ISBN
858:and
816:Oman
669:Aila
627:Nile
613:The
535:and
506:The
474:Saba
405:Gaza
322:and
318:and
292:The
276:Oman
249:gold
237:Aden
223:The
193:silk
176:and
137:The
111:diff
105:) |
103:diff
91:diff
75:talk
34:talk
814:in
794:'s
403:to
263:.
149:to
43:at
1975::
1820::
1818:}}
1814:{{
1642::
1640:}}
1636:{{
1593::
1591:}}
1587:{{
1377:^
1345:^
1293:^
1277:^
1265:^
1218:^
1206:^
1192:^
1167:^
1138:^
1116:^
854:,
850:,
802:,
768:.
711:.
498:,
476:,
310:,
255:,
251:,
191:,
187:,
180:;
97:|
93:)
77:|
36:|
1963:.
1942:.
1921:.
1900:.
1879:.
1858:.
1835:)
1810:.
1786:.
1762:.
1741:.
1720:.
1699:.
1678:.
1657:)
1632:.
1608:)
1583:.
1559:.
1535:.
1514:.
1493:.
898:e
891:t
884:v
699:.
579:.
568::
113:)
109:(
101:(
89:(
81:)
73:(
62:.
40:)
32:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
