Steel: Difference between revisions

1657:

York Times |date=6 February 1996 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/06/science/ancient-smelter-used-wind-to-make-high-grade-steel.html?n=Top%2FNews%2FScience%2FTopics%2FArchaeology%20and%20Anthropology}}</ref> This came to be known as ], produced in South India by about the sixth century BC and exported globally.<ref name="SR_IISc">{{cite book |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Sharada |last2=Ranganathan |first2=Srinivasa |title=India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World |date=2004 |publisher=National Institute of Advanced Studies |oclc=82439861 |url= http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm |access-date=5 December 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190211082829/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm |archive-date=11 February 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ann">{{cite journal |last=Feuerbach |first=Ann |title=An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus |url= https://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/iams/jour_25/iams25_Feuerbach.pdf |journal=IAMS |volume=25 |date=2005 |pages=27–43 (p. 29) |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430044256/https://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/iams/jour_25/iams25_Feuerbach.pdf |archive-date=30 April 2011}}</ref> The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of ], Arabic, and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the Romans, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called ''Seric Iron''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Srinivasan |first=Sharada |date=1994 |title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India |journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology |volume=5 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.5334/pia.60 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A ], in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the ].<ref>Hobbies – Volume 68, Issue 5 – p. 45. Lightner Publishing Company (1963)</ref><ref name="Mahathevan">{{cite news |url= http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/24/stories/2010062451701100.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100701211040/http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/24/stories/2010062451701100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 July 2010 |title=An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil |last=Mahathevan |first=Iravatham |date=24 June 2010 |work=] |access-date=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ragupathy">{{cite news |url= http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32303 |title=Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population |last=Ragupathy |first=P. |date=28 June 2010 |work=Tamilnet |access-date=31 October 2010}}</ref> The Chinese and locals in ], Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the ] Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 282">{{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |date=1986 |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1, Civil Engineering and Nautics |location=Taipei |publisher=Caves Books |page=282 |isbn=0-521-05802-3 |url= https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf |access-date=4 August 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170703010030/https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Ancient and Mediaeval India. Vol.2 by Charlotte Speir Manning p.365">{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365 |title=Ancient and Mediæval India. Volume 2 |isbn=978-0-543-92943-3 |last1=Manning |first1=Charlotte Speir}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel.<ref name="Juleff1">{{cite journal |last=Juleff |first=G. |title=An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka |journal=] |volume=379 |issue=3 |pages=60–63 |date=1996 |doi=10.1038/379060a0 |bibcode=1996Natur.379...60J |s2cid=205026185}}</ref><ref name="Herbert Henery Coghlan 1977 pp 99-100">Coghlan, Herbert Henery. (1977). ''Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World''. Oxprint. pp. 99–100</ref> Since the technology was acquired from the ] from South India,<ref name="Ancient and Medieval India. Vol.2 by Charlotte Speir Manning p.365">{{Cite book |last1=Manning |first1=Charlotte Speir |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365 |title=Ancient and Medieval India. Volume 2 |isbn=978-0-543-92943-3}}</ref> the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC.<ref name="SR_IISc" /><ref name="Herbert Henery Coghlan 1977 pp 99-100" />

2531:

of AHSS, such as ], which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength steel.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dual-phase steel |publisher=Intota Expert Knowledge Services |url= http://www.intota.com/experts.asp?strSearchType=all&strQuery=dual%2Dphase+steel |access-date=1 March 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110525170931/http://www.intota.com/experts.asp?strSearchType=all&strQuery=dual%2Dphase+steel |archive-date=25 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of ] at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the austenite undergoes a ] to martensite without the addition of heat.<ref>{{cite web |last=Werner |first=Ewald |title=Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history |url= http://www.wkm.mw.tum.de/Forschung/projekte_html/transtrip.html |access-date=1 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071223184922/http://www.wkm.mw.tum.de/Forschung/projekte_html/transtrip.html |archive-date=23 December 2007}}</ref> Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mirko |first1=Centi |last2=Saliceti |first2=Stefano |title=Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) and Dual-Phase (DP) Steels |publisher=Tampere University of Technology |url= http://www.dimet.unige.it/resta/studenti/2002/27839/26/TWIP,TRIPandDualphase%20mirko.doc |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080307200557/http://www.dimet.unige.it/resta/studenti/2002/27839/26/TWIP%2CTRIPandDualphase%20mirko.doc |archive-date=7 March 2008 |access-date=1 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

1576:|first2=Donald |date=1978 |title=Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania |journal=Science |volume=201 |issue=4361 |pages=1085–1089 |jstor=1746308 |doi=10.1126/science.201.4361.1085 |pmid=17830304 |bibcode=1978Sci...201.1085S |s2cid=37926350}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Peter |last2=Avery |first2=Donald |date=1983 |title=More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=421–434 |doi=10.1179/009346983791504228}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture |last=Schmidt |first=Peter |publisher=Greenwood Press |date=1978 |location=Westport, Connecticut}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production |last1=Avery |first1=Donald |last2=Schmidt |first2=Peter |publisher=University of Florida Press |date=1996 |location=Gainesville, Florida |pages=267–276 |chapter=Preheating: Practice or illusion}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Companion to African History |last=Schmidt |first=Peter |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |date=2019 |editor-last=Worger |editor-first=W. |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |pages=267–288 |chapter=Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology |editor-last2=Ambler |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Achebe |editor-first3=N.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Childs |first=S. Terry |chapter=Technological history and culture in western Tanzania |title=The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production |publisher=University of Florida Press |date=1996 |editor-last=Schmidt |editor-first=P. |location=Gainesville, Florida}}</ref> 1693:

2023}} In 327 BC, ] was rewarded by the defeated King ], not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel.<ref>{{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |title=The Story of Civilization, Our Oriental Heritage |date=1942 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-671-54800-X |page=529 |url= https://archive.org/details/storyofcivilizat035369mbp/page/529}}</ref> A recent study has speculated that ] were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though, given the technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sharpest cut from nanotube sword |first=Katharine |last=Sanderson |date=15 November 2006 |doi=10.1038/news061113-11 |journal=Nature News |s2cid=136774602 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The ] managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil,<ref name="Juleff1" /> a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.<ref name="Juleff1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wayman |first1=M. L. |last2=Juleff |first2=G. |title=Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka |journal=Historical Metallurgy |volume=33 |issue=1 |date=1999 |page=26}}</ref>

2782:

alloy's temperature resistance.<ref name="EM2" /> Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include ]s such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://aisc.org/MSCTemplate.cfm?Section=Steel_Interchange2&Template=/CustomSource/Faq/SteelInterchange.cfm&FaqID=2311 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071222180444/http://aisc.org/MSCTemplate.cfm?Section=Steel_Interchange2&Template=%2FCustomSource%2FFaq%2FSteelInterchange.cfm&FaqID=2311 |archive-date=22 December 2007 |title=Steel Interchange |publisher=American Institute of Steel Construction |access-date=28 February 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ] is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains little carbon (0.01%). This creates a very strong but still ] steel.<ref>{{cite web |title=Properties of Maraging Steels |url= http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=103 |access-date=19 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211327/http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=103 |archive-date=25 February 2009}}</ref>

2204:|access-date=12 July 2009 |work=Cristian Science Monitor |last=Chopra |first=Anuj |date=12 February 2007}}</ref> and Chinese<ref>{{cite web |title=Worldsteel | World crude steel output decreases by −2.8% in 2015 |url= https://www.worldsteel.org/media-centre/press-releases/2016/--World-crude-steel-output-decreases-by--2.8--in-2015.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170202084313/http://www.worldsteel.org/media-centre/Press-releases/2016/--World-crude-steel-output-decreases-by--2.8--in-2015.html |archive-date=2 February 2017 |access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> steel firms have expanded to meet demand, such as ] (which bought ] in 2007), ] and ]. {{Asof|2017}}, though, ] is the world's ].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.worldsteel.org/en/dam/jcr:1a0978ce-d387-4ce9-8d1b-5f929f343ac1/2017_2016+top+steel+producers_Extended+list.pdf |publisher=World Steel Association |title=Top Steelmakers in 2017 |access-date=22 August 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180823005844/https://www.worldsteel.org/en/dam/jcr:1a0978ce-d387-4ce9-8d1b-5f929f343ac1/2017_2016+top+steel+producers_Extended+list.pdf |archive-date=23 August 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> 4426: 1003:

for it to ] out of solution as ], leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, cementite and ferrite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called ], named for its resemblance to ]. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite ] until the percentage of carbon in the ] has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|pp=365–372}}.</ref> The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.{{Cn|date=January 2024}}

5004: 2089:

https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/rob-magazine/article-how-my-great-grandfathers-dofasco-steel-empire-rose-and-fell-and-his/ |work=] |date=4 September 2019}}</ref> and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used,<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Basic oxygen process |title=] |date=2007}}</ref> and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time.<ref name="zs" /> Today, ]s (EAF) are a common method of reprocessing ] to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.{{sfnp|Fruehan|Wakelin|1998|pp=48–52}}

746:], was first applied to metals with lower ] points, such as ], which melts at about {{convert|250|C|F|abbr=on}}, and ], which melts at about {{convert|1100|C|F|abbr=on}}, and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than {{convert|1083|C|F|abbr=on}}. In comparison, cast iron melts at about {{convert|1375|C|F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Smelting">{{cite book |chapter=Smelting |title=] |edition=online |date=2007 |chapter-url= https://www.britannica.com/technology/smelting}}</ref> Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid-state, by heating the ore in a ] fire and then ] the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.{{Cn|date=January 2024}} 1504:

https://www.socantscot.org/product/an-inherited-place/ |title=An Inherited Place: Broxmouth Hillfort and the South-East Scottish Iron Age |date=2013 |publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |isbn=978-1-908332-05-9}}</ref> and ultrahigh-carbon steel was produced in the ] from the 2nd-4th centuries AD.<ref>{{cite journal |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440304000202 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=31 |issue=8 |date=2004 |title=A Germanic ultrahigh carbon steel punch of the Late Roman-Iron Age |last1=Godfrey |first1=Evelyne |display-authors=etal |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2004.02.002 |pages=1117–1125 |bibcode=2004JArSc..31.1117G}}</ref> The Roman author ] identifies steel weapons such as the '']'' in the ], while ] was used by the ].<ref>"Noricus ensis", ], Odes, i. 16.9</ref>

487:] form, which is fairly soft. At about 910 °C ferrite will transition to the denser, face-centered cubic ] phase, which has considerably higher carbon ] but is similarly soft and metallic. As carbon-rich austenite cools, the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for ] to ] out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, and resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a stochiometric phase with the chemical formula of Fe3C. Cementite forms in regions of higher carbon content while other areas revert to ferrite around it. Self-reinforcing patterns often emerge during this process, leading to a patterned layering known as ] due to its ]-like appearance, or the similar but less beautiful ]. 1038:

within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centred austenite and forms ]. Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a ] (BCT) structure. There is no thermal ] for the transformation from austenite to martensite.{{clarify|date=April 2016}} There is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbours.<ref name="smith&hashemi">{{Harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|pp=373–378}}.</ref>

1084:

Then, between ] and ], iron tools and weapons displaced bronze ones throughout the near east. This process appears to have begun in ] and southern ], where iron artifacts dominate the archaeological record after ]. ] was fully into the iron age by ], central Europe by ]. The reason for this sudden adoption of iron remains a topic of debate among archaeologists. One prominent theory is that warfare and mass migrations beginning around 1200 BC disrupted the regional tin trade, forcing a switch from bronze to iron. ], on the other hand, did not experience such a rapid transition from the bronze to iron ages: although Egyptian smiths did produce iron artifacts, bronze remained in widespread use there until after Egypt's conquest by ] in ].

440:

the form of ] found as the ] ]. Iron oxide is a soft ]-like material with limited uses on its own. Iron is extracted from ] by removing the oxygen by combining it with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon. This process, known as ], was first applied to metals with lower ] points. ] and ] both melt at just over 1000 ], temperatures that could be reached with ancient methods that have been in use for at least 6000 years (since the ]). Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 °C, it is important that smelting take place in a fairly oxygen-free environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily, so that smelting results in an alloy containing too much carbon to be called steel.

1728:], formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in ] by the 9th to 10th century AD.<ref name="ann" /> In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in ] using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern ] that used partial ] via repeated forging under a ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hartwell |first=Robert |title=Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry |journal=] |volume=26 |date=1966 |pages=53–54 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700061842 |s2cid=154556274}}</ref> 1798:|pages=95–99, 102–105 |isbn=0-901462-88-8}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2024}} Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use ], which has proven more economical.<ref>{{cite book |last=Raistrick |first=A. |date=1953 |title=A Dynasty of Ironfounders}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2024}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hyde |first=C. K. |date=1977 |title=Technological Change and the British Iron Industry |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2024}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Trinder |first=B. |date=2000 |title=The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire |edition=3rd |location=Chichester |publisher=Phillimore |isbn=9781860771330}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2024}} 2834:

Edition |publisher=ASTM International |page=14 |date=2004 |edition=3rd. |url= http://astm.org/BOOKSTORE/PUBS/DS67B_SampleChapter.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070127135646/http://www.astm.org/BOOKSTORE/PUBS/DS67B_SampleChapter.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2007 |isbn=0-8031-3362-6 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ] has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as ], the most commonly used structural steel in the United States.<ref>Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. 1 pp. 1–5</ref> The ] also defines a series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries.

1074:

remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of ] on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal ] and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quench hardening of steel |url= http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=12 |access-date=19 July 2009 |work=keytometals.com |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090217103241/http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=12 |archive-date=17 February 2009}}</ref>

935:

structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at {{Convert|0|C|F|abbr=on}} and 0.021 wt% at {{convert|723|C|F|abbr=on}}. The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called ]. At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a ] (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%,<ref>Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. See:

2312:

https://singularityhub.com/2022/08/04/the-race-to-remake-the-2-5-trillion-steel-industry-with-green-steel/ |access-date=6 August 2022 |website=Singularity Hub}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Steel Industry's GHG Emissions |url= https://www.globalefficiencyintel.com/new-blog/2021/global-steel-industrys-ghg-emissions |access-date=6 August 2022 |website=Global Efficiency Intelligence |date=6 January 2021}}</ref> Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology.

2507:

nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.<ref name="EM2" /> ] has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/Corus/16plus/steelch3pg1.html |title=High strength low alloy steels |work=SchoolScience.co.uk |access-date=14 August 2007 |archive-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200921025905/http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/Corus/16plus/steelch3pg1.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

2802:] uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel for use in ] weapons. ], named after ], or manganese steel, contains 12–14% manganese which, when abraded, strain-hardens to form a very hard skin which resists wearing. Uses of this particular alloy include ], ] edges, and cutting blades on the ].<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |title=Sheffield Steel and America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1987 |editor-last=Tweedale |editor-first=Geoffrey |pages=57–62}}</ref> 1434:

III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey |journal=Anatolian Archaeological Studies |volume=14 |pages=147–158 |date=2005 |publisher=Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology |place=Tokyo}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel |url= http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |access-date=13 August 2022 |location=Chennai |work=] |date=26 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090329111924/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |archive-date=29 March 2009}}</ref>

1540:(202 BC—AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, thus producing a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 563g">{{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |date=1986 |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics |location=Taipei |publisher=Caves Books |page=563}}</ref><ref name="gernet 69">Gernet, Jacques (1982). ''A History of Chinese Civilization''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 69. {{ISBN|0-521-49781-7}}.</ref> 6441: 2381:

https://web.archive.org/web/20080414215636/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556346/Recycling.html |archive-date=14 April 2008}}</ref> in the United States alone, over {{convert|82,000,000|metric ton|LT ST}} were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%.<ref name="fenton-2008">{{cite book |last=Fenton |first=Michael D. |date=2008 |chapter=Iron and Steel Scrap |title=Minerals Yearbook 2008 |volume=1: Metals and Minerals |publisher=] |editor=United States Geological Survey |editor-link=United States Geological Survey |isbn=978-1-4113-3015-3}}</ref>

513:

grades defined by assorted ]s. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and ] intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Decarbonization in steel {{!}} McKinsey |url= https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/decarbonization-challenge-for-steel |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=McKinsey.com}}</ref> However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a ].<ref name="encarta-recycling" />

357:'''Steel''' is a ] ] whose major component is ], with ] being the primary alloying material. Carbon acts as a hardening agent, preventing iron atoms, which are naturally arranged in a ], from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of carbon and its distribution in the alloy controls the qualities of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and ] than iron, but is also more ]. One classical definition is that steels are iron-carbon alloys with up to 5.1 percent ]; ironically, alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as ]. 6166: 2240:

http://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1576&Itemid=46 |access-date=2 November 2010 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20240525020105/https://www.webcitation.org/5twr3Sstf?url=http://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/index.php%3Foption=com_content&task=view&id=1576&Itemid=46 |archive-date=25 May 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route.

2877:

It sees widespread use in ] and ]. Despite the growth in usage of ], steel is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, ] and ]s, and other household products and cooking utensils.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ochshorn |first=Jonathan |title=Steel in 20th Century Architecture |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Architecture |date=11 June 2002 |url= http://www.ochshorndesign.com/cornell/writings/steel.html |access-date=26 April 2010}}</ref>

2961:

applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Materials science |title=] |edition=online |date=2007 |chapter-url= https://www.britannica.com/technology/materials-science |last1=Venables |first1=John D. |last2=Girifalco |first2=Louis A. |last3=Patel |first3=C. Kumar N. |last4=McCullough |first4=R. L. |last5=Marchant |first5=Roger Eric |last6=Kukich |first6=Diane S.}}</ref> ] is replacing steel in some cost-insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high-end automobiles.

4992: 618:

have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="EM2">{{cite book |author1=Ashby, Michael F. |author2=Jones, David R.H. |name-list-style=amp |title=Engineering Materials 2 |orig-date=1986 |edition=with corrections |date=1992 |publisher=Pergamon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-08-032532-7}}</ref> Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: ], ], ], and traces of ], ], and ].

5858: 466:

the ]. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of ] steel began. ] replaced ]. ] were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Robert C. |last1=Allen |title=International Competition in Iron and Steel, 1850–1913 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=39 |issue=4 |date=December 1979 |pages=911–937 |publisher=] |doi=10.1017/S0022050700098673 |jstor=2120336}}</ref> American steel production was centred in ], ], and ] until the late 20th century.

5962: 5874: 5356: 841:

decrease grain size, thereby making the steel easier to ], but also more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys are nevertheless frequently used for components such as nuts, bolts, and washers in applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For the most part, however, ] elements such as sulphur, ], ], and lead are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are therefore removed from steel during the melting processing.<ref name="materialsengineer" />

5158: 2250:

decarburization could be stopped at the steel stage rather than proceeding all the way to wrought iron. This '''''open-hearth process''''' coexisted in industrial practice with the Bessemer process for many years, but eventually proved more economical and displaced it. Reasons for this include its ability to ] ] in addition to fresh pig iron, its greater scaleability (up to hundreds of tons per batch, compared to tens of tons for the Bessemer process), and the more precise ] it permitted.

780:"worked" at high temperature to remove any cracks or poorly-mixed regions from the solidification process, and to produce shapes such as plate, sheet, wire, etc. It is then heat-treated to produce a desirable crystal structure, and often "cold worked" to produce the final shape. In modern steelmaking these processes are often combined, with ore going in one end of the ] and finished steel coming out the other. These can be streamlined by a deft control of the interaction between ] and ]. 2030:

him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus ] came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Bessemer process |chapter-url= https://www.britannica.com/technology/Bessemer-process |volume=2 |page=168 |title=] |edition=online |date=2005}}</ref> The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or ''basic Bessemer process'') was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a ] material to remove phosphorus.

9445: 6674: 10456: 5205:(FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%, (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron. When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe 1469:] was developed in ] and ] in the 1st millennium BCE.<ref name="materials.iisc.ernet.in" /> Metal production sites in ] employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale wootz steel production in ] using crucibles occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy.{{sfnp|Davidson|1994|p=20}}<ref name="materials.iisc.ernet.in" /> 10446: 1738:

to England. In ], ], a Wealden ironmaster, and ], a ] craftsman in ]'s employ, cast the Weald's first one-piece iron cannon. English iron cannons gained a reputation for being superior to, and less expensive than, the bronze cannons made elsewhere in Europe, and at least initially, efforts to copy them outside the Weald failed. The superiority of English cannons over Spanish ones has been credited as one factor in England's ] defeat of the ].

6393: 9932: 1620:

centuries, smiths in the ] and later the ] scaled up this basic design, increasing the height of the flue to as tall as 5 meters (16 feet) and smelting as much as 350 kg (750 lb) of iron in each batch. These larger furnaces required more draft than could be provided by human power, and forging the large blooms that resulted was also beyond the capabilities of a single man. To this end, ]s were employed to power the bellows and hammers.

2214:

through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour.

6080: 4799: 2099:

remained relatively expensive in both time and fuel, and could not be used in any sort of modern industrial scale. The strong steels produced were however in high demand for specialty products such as ] and weapons. Sheffield's ] has preserved a water-wheel powered, scythe-making works dating from Huntsman's times. It is still operated for the public, several times per year, using crucible steel made on the Abbeydale site.

5922:(BOS), developed in 1952, and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used, and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time. Today, 6174: 2405:

https://www.worldsteel.org/en/dam/jcr:16ad9bcd-dbf5-449f-b42c-b220952767bf/fact_raw%2520materials_2018.pdf |title=Steel and raw materials |last=The World Steel Association |date=1 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809152848/https://www.worldsteel.org/en/dam/jcr:16ad9bcd-dbf5-449f-b42c-b220952767bf/fact_raw%20materials_2018.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

979:* {{harvnb|Ashby|Jones|1992}}—2.14%.</ref> (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at {{convert|1148|C|F|abbr=on}}, which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|p=363}}.</ref> When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe3C).{{Cn|date=January 2024}} 10493: 5446: 1294:

in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is ] into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|p=361}}</ref>

806:

it less prone to ].<ref name="materialsengineer">{{cite web |title=Alloying of Steels |publisher=Metallurgical Consultants |date=28 June 2006 |url= http://materialsengineer.com/E-Alloying-Steels.htm |access-date=28 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070221070822/http://www.materialsengineer.com/E-Alloying-Steels.htm |archive-date=21 February 2007}}</ref>

6449: 68: 6552: 6298: 699:

nickel (often 18 and 8 %, respectively) are added to ] so that a hard ] forms on the metal surface, to inhibit corrosion. ] interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in ''high speed steel''. On the other hand ], ], and ] make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing.

325:'''Steel''' is an ] of ] and ] with improved ] and ] compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high ] and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons. 1119:

of the furnace as a spongy mass, or '''''bloom''''', whose pores were filled with ash and slag. The bloom then had to be reheated to soften the iron and melt the slag, and then repeatedly beaten and folded to force the molten slag out of it. The result of this time-consuming and laborious process was ], a malleable but fairly soft alloy containing little carbon.

851:

something similar. In distant antiquity, iron was regarded as a precious metal, suitable for royal ornaments. The ]ian ruler ] died in ] and was buried with an iron dagger with a golden hilt. A ] with an iron blade and a gold-decorated bronze haft found in the excavation of ] has been dated to about ]. The early ]s sold iron to ] for 40 times its weight in ].

2761:] contains a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist ]. Some stainless steels, such as the ] stainless steels are ], while others, such as the ], are nonmagnetic.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://steel.org |title=Steel Glossary |publisher=] |access-date=30 July 2006}}</ref> Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES. 1913:|first=P. W. |title=The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century |journal=Journal of Industrial History |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=2003 |pages=25–49}}</ref><ref name="britannicaironandsteel">{{cite book |chapter=Iron and steel industry |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2007}}</ref> 1328:

tools and weapons. A mass grave in ] province, dated to the early third century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental, bronze weapons.

2286:

lined with ] or ], and additional lime was added to the molten metal as a flux. This added ] material removed phosphorus and sulfur from the steel as insoluble calcium or magnsium phosphates and sulfates. This development expanded the range of iron ores that could be used to make steel, especially in ] and ], where high-phosphorus ores abounded.

654:] as it has a lower ] than steel and good ] properties.<ref name="EM2" /> Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make ] or ] objects. Steel is distinguishable from ] (now largely obsolete), which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of ]. 3994:* {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Kenneth |title=Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |date=2001 |url= http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0558 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100501214026/http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0558 |archive-date=1 May 2010}} 3917:* {{cite book |last=Burn |first=Duncan |title=The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1961 |url= http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120726170156/http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930 |archive-date=26 July 2012}} 3950:* {{cite book |last=Scamehorn |first=H. Lee |title=Mill & Mine: The CF&I in the Twentieth Century |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |date=1992 |url= http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94821694 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120726043744/http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94821694 |archive-date=26 July 2012}} 3939:* {{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=J. C. |last2=Taplin |first2=W. |title=History of the British Steel Industry |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1962 |url= http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=808791 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120729081240/http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=808791 |archive-date=29 July 2012}} 5739: 3928:* {{cite book |last=Hasegawa |first=Harukiyu |title=The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain |publisher=Routledge |date=1996 |url= http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108742046 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120418193928/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108742046 |archive-date=18 April 2012}} 5055:, which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F). Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid-state, by heating the ore in a 6128:(CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as 2876:

Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as ] and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing.

2179:

The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Steel Industry |url= http://bx.businessweek.com/steel-industry/ |access-date=12 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=

2098:

As for alloys of intermediate carbon content (that is, steel), ] was rediscovered in the 1740s by ] in ] in ]. In his process, wrought iron and cast iron were heated in small ceramic crucibles, melting together to form steel. While producing steel superior to cement steel, the crucible steel process

1993:

By the 18th century, ] in western Europe was making ironworking and its charcoal-hungry processes increasingly expensive. In ] ] began smelting iron using ], a refined ] product, in place of charcoal at his ] at ] in ]. Although coke could be produced less expensively than charcoal, coke-fired iron

1362:

During the ] (] - ]), Chinese ironworking achieved a scale and sophistication not reached in the West until the eighteenth century. In the first century, the Han government established ironworking as a state monopoly and built a series of large blast furnaces in ] province, each capable of producing

1246:

Archaeologists and historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the West. Around ], however, metalworkers in the southern state of ] developed an iron smelting technology that would not be practiced in Europe until late medieval times. In Wu, iron smelters achieved

840:

To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard ] forms on the metal surface; this is known as ]. Tungsten slows the formation of ], keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing ] to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in ]. The addition of ] and ]

486:

Even in the narrow range of concentrations that make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form into a number of different structures, or ]s, with very different properties; understanding these is essential to making quality steel. Relatively pure iron at room temperature will tend to form the ]

5250:. Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a 4689:

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the

2833:

Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the ] has a series of ] defining many types of steel.<ref name="bringas">{{Cite book |last=Bringas |first=John E. |title=Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards: Third

2321:

These developments increased the availability and decreased the price of steel; 22 thousand tonnes were produced in 1867, 500 thousand in 1870, 1 million in 1880 and 28 million by 1900. Today, worldwide annual production is around 850 million tonnes. This

2062:

Another 18th-century European development was the re-invention of the ]. In particular, the form of coal-fired puddling furnace developed by the British engineer ] in ] made it possible to convert cast iron into wrought iron in large batches, finally rendering the ancient bloomery obsolete. Wrought

1877:

The production of steel by the ] was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in ] from 1601. A similar process for ] armour and files was described in a book published in ] in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir ]

1433:

The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an ] in ] (]) which are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Akanuma |first=H. |title=The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum

1410:

Archaeology and Literature |date=1994 |publisher=Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science |location=Bangalore |isbn=0-85115-355-0 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181119033451/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm |archive-date=19 November 2018}}</ref>

1317:

The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and ] into slabs, ], or ]. Slabs are hot or ] into ] or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into ], such as ]s and ]. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one ], with ore coming in

1118:

Iron smelting at this time was based on the ], a furnace where ] were used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burning ]. The ] produced by the charcoal reduced the iron oxides to metallic iron, but the bloomery was not hot enough to melt the iron. Instead, the iron collected in the bottom

769:

All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the ]. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond {{convert|800|C|F}}, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy (])

653:

Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as ]. With modern ] techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by

617:

The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (]-] ]s). Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called ]. ] is steel to which other alloying elements

465:

Steel was produced in ] furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the ] and production of ]. This was followed by the ] in ] in the mid-19th century, and then by

418:

5245:

As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects

5241:

has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure

2530:

Recent ] (CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. There are several commercially available grades

2285:

Initially, only ores low in phosphorus and sulfur could be used for quality steelmaking; ores rich in those elements yielded brittle metals little better than cast iron. This problem was solved in ] by ] and his cousin ] at the ironworks at ] in ]. Their modified Bessemer process used a converter

1922:

Also by the early 1600s, ironworkers in western Europe had found a means (called '''''cementation''''') to carburize wrought iron without individually forging each piece. Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then held at a red heat for up to a week. During this time, carbon

1912:

The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th century, it was realized that the best steel came from ] of a region north of ], Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used.<ref>{{cite journal |last=King

1772:

In ], ], a ] ironmaster, began importing Wealden iron ore for comparison to the ore available on the Continent. One difference he observed was that the English ore contained some calcareous material, and soon after, Dutch ironmasters introduced the use of limestone as a flux in the blast furnace.

1737:

The first English blast furnace was not built until ], when ] commissioned a new ironworks at ], in a part of ] known as the ]. Despite this late start, the production of English iron foundries rapidly grew, in no small part due to foreign craftsmen hired by Henry to bring the craft of iron casting

1692:

The manufacture of ] and ], famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. {{cns|It was originally created from several different materials including various ]s, apparently ultimately from the writings of ].|date=December

1513:

Perhaps as early as ], although certainly by ], high quality steel was being produced in southern ] by what Europeans would later call the ]. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in crucibles and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The resulting

1293:

When iron is ] from its ore, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. In the past, steel facilities would ] the raw steel product into ]s which would be stored until use

1047:

The oldest known samples of iron that appear to have been smelted from ] are small lumps found at copper-smelting sites on the ], dated to about 3000 BC. Some iron oxides are effective fluxes for copper smelting; it is possible that small amounts of metallic iron were made as a byproduct of copper

1037:

1002:

When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the ] phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is

885:

Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in pre-contact ]. Beginning around the year ], the ] people of ] began making ]s and other edged tools from pieces of the ]. These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found

805:

Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with the desired properties. ] and ] in steel add to its tensile strength and make the ] form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, ] increases hardness and melting temperature, and ] also increases hardness while making

745:

Iron is commonly found in the Earth's ] in the form of an ], usually an iron oxide, such as ] or ]. Iron is extracted from ] by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as

627:

Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of ] on the crystals of martensite and ] on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount

439:

Iron, like most metals, is not found in the ]'s ] in a native state. Since the rise of the ] and their excretion of ] into the atmosphere, iron can be found only in ] form, typically Fe2O3—

2029:

The modern era in ] began with the introduction of ]'s ] in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron.<ref>{{cite book |title=History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages |last=Swank |first=James Moore |isbn=0-8337-3463-6 |date=1892 |publisher=Burt Franklin}}</ref> His method let

1958:

For many years the best steels could be produced by buying expensive iron ore from ]. Although it was not understood at the time, Swedish ore had very low phosphorus content compared to most ores (notably those in England), which allowed for a finer and stronger crystal structure. Sales of Swedish

1666:

Eventually, the scaling up of the bloomery reached a point where the furnace was hot enough to produce cast iron. Although the brittle cast iron may initially have been a nuissance to the smith, as it was too brittle to be forged, the spread of ] to Europe in the 1300s provided an application for

1549:

By the ], smiths in the ] had developed techniques for forging wootz to produce steel blades of unusual flexibility and sharpness (]). The secret of forging this kind of steel was lost, even in the Middle East, by around 1600, and only recently have metallurgists found methods for reproducing its

1327:

Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can, however, be '''''decarburized''''' to steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these ironworking methods spread northward, and by ], iron was the material of choice throughout China for most

1166:

Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases: ], ], and ].

512:

Further refinements in the process, such as ] (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various

382:

Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): ]. The interaction of the ] with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and ] their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the ] has relatively little resistance to

3831:* {{Cite book |last1=Bugayev |first1=K. |last2=Konovalov |first2=Y. |last3=Bychkov |first3=Y. |last4=Tretyakov |first4=E. |last5=Savin |first5=Ivan V. |title=Iron and Steel Production |publisher=Minerva Group |date=2001 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MJdIVtmwuUsC |isbn=978-0-89499-109-7}} 2506:

Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfil many purposes.<ref name="materialsengineer" /> ], composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production.<ref name="EM2" /> ] is alloyed with other elements, usually ], manganese, chromium, or

2275:

At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/02/business/02steel.html?_r=1&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink |title=Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus |last=Uchitelle

1656:

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in ] is found in ] in ], the ] area in ] and ], regions of ], as well as in ] and Dehigaha Alakanda, regions of ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wilford |first=John Noble |title=Ancient Smelter Used Wind To Make High-Grade Steel |work=The New

1083:

Iron did not, however, replace bronze as the chief metal used for weapons and tools for several centuries. Working iron required more fuel and significantly more labor than working bronze, and the quality of iron produced by early smiths may have been inferior to bronze as a material for tools.

850:

Iron was in limited use long before it became possible to smelt it. About 6% of ]s are composed of an iron-] alloy, and iron recovered from meteorite falls allowed ancient peoples to manufacture small numbers of iron artifacts. The name for iron in several ancient languages means "sky metal" or

663:

At this point, if its carbon content is high enough to produce a significant concentration of martensite, the metal resembles spring steel: extremely hard, but very brittle. Often, steel undergoes further heat treatment at a lower temperature to destroy some of the martensite (by allowing enough

2939:

Before the introduction of the ] and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of ], ], ]s, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for ], including those used in

2414:

Alloy steels were known from antiquity, being ]-rich iron from ]s, and hot-worked into useful items. ]s, famous as the blades that the ]s wielded against the ]s, were probably ]ed iron ], mated wire obtained from meteorites, heated and worked to impart the properties of expensive "star metal" to

1575:

There is evidence that ] was made in Western ] by the ancestors of the ] as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.<ref name="SchmidtCS">{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Peter |last2=Avery

1409:

Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in ] and ]s.{{sfnp|Davidson|1994|p=20}}<ref name="materials.iisc.ernet.in">{{Cite news |author1=Srinivasan, S. |author2=Ranganathan, S. |url= https://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm |title=The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its

1318:

and finished steel products coming out.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|pp=361–362}}.</ref> Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare.<ref>{{harvnb|Bugayev|Konovalov|Bychkov|Tretyakov|Savin|2001|p=225}}</ref>

1176:

Wrought iron can be '''''carburized''''' into a mild steel by holding it in a charcoal fire for prolonged periods of time. By the beginning of the iron age, smiths had discovered that iron that was repeatedly re-forged produced a higher quality of metal. Quench-hardening was also known by this

1073:

Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of ] on the crystals of martensite and ] on the

934:

Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make steel, several different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At ], the most stable form of pure iron is the ] (BCC)

779:

When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and re-processed to remove the correct amount of carbon, at which point other elements can be added. Once this liquid is cast into ingots, it usually must be

698:

Other materials are often added to the iron-carbon mixture to tailor the resulting properties. ] in steel adds to the tensile strength and makes austenite more chemically stable, ] increases the hardness, and ] also increases the ] while reducing the effects of ]. Large amounts of chromium and

557:

The heat treatment process for most steels involves heating the alloy until austenite forms, then ''']''' the hot metal in ] or ], cooling it so rapidly that the transformation to ferrite or perlite does not have time to take place. The transformation into martensite, by contrast, occurs almost

6035:

In 2021, it was estimated that around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions resulted from the steel industry. Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or

2781:

Alloy steels are plain-carbon steels in which small amounts of alloying elements like chromium and vanadium have been added. Some more modern steels include ]s, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and ] or other elements to maximize ]. This also allows the use of ] and improves the

1443:

Also during this time, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel. According to legend, the sword of ], the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention

2249:

In ], the ]-] engineer ] introduced an improved puddling furnace that used brick ] to preheat the incoming air and conserve fuel. The next year, ] and ], French ironmasters who had licensed Siemens' furnace design, developed a method for measuring the carbon content of molten iron. Thus, the

2213:

The problem of mass-producing steel was solved in ] by ], with the introduction of the ] at his steelworks in ], ]. (An early converter can still be seen at the city's ]). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown

1948:

Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a ] rather than having been ], with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of ] in the 1740s.

1203:

brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or ] and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|p=388}}.</ref>

1202:

Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or ]. This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure.<ref name="smith&hashemi" /> The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce

6427:

With the advent of faster and cheaper production methods, steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some

2960:

2239:

In 2005, the ] stated ] was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; ], ], and the ] were second, third, and fourth, respectively, according to the survey.<ref>{{cite web |title=Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand |work=The News |date=1 March 2008 |url=

1619:

The middle ages in Europe saw the construction of progressively larger bloomeries. By the 8th century, smiths in northern ] had developed a style that become known as a ], a furnace about 1 meter (3 feet) tall, capable of smelting up to 150 kg (350 lb) of iron in each batch. In succeeding

2380:

Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a ] of over 60% globally;<ref name="encarta-recycling">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hartman |first=Roy A. |date=2009 |title=Recycling |encyclopedia=] |url= http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556346/Recycling.html |archive-url=

2203:

The ] in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian<ref>{{cite web |url= http://csmonitor.com/2007/0212/p07s02-wosc.html |title=India's steel industry steps onto world stage

1797:

Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into ] in a ].<ref name="Tylecote">{{cite book |last=Tylecote |first=R. F. |date=1992 |title=A History of Metallurgy |edition=2nd |publisher=Institute of Materials |location=London

664:

time for cementite, etc., to form) and help settle the internal stresses and defects. This softens the steel, producing a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. Because time is so critical to the end result, this process is known as ''']''', source of the term '''tempered steel'''.

5311:

419:

dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the ], ], need for ], ], ], and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.

1503:

High-carbon steel was produced in ] at ] from 490–375 BC,<ref>{{Cite news |title=East Lothian's Broxmouth fort reveals edge of steel |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-25734877 |work=] |date=15 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=

2088:

These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of ] (BOS), developed in 1952,<ref name="zs">{{cite news |last1=Sherman |first1=Zander |title=How my great-grandfather's Dofasco steel empire rose and fell, and his descendants with it |url=

1539:

The ] of the ] (403–221 BC) had ] steel,<ref>{{cite book |last=Wagner |first=Donald B. |date=1993 |title=Iron and Steel in Ancient China |edition=2nd |location=Leiden |publisher=E. J. Brill |isbn=90-04-09632-9 |page=243}}</ref> while Chinese of the ]

5331:. This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or 5698:

were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though, given the technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The

1702:

The oldest known blast furnace in Europe was constructed at Lapphyttan in ], sometime between 1150 and 1350. Other early European blast furnaces were built throughout the ] valley: blast furnaces were in operation near ] (a city in modern-day ]) in the 1340s, and at ] in ] by

4772:(BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted 522:

Perhaps the most important allotrope is ], a chemically ] substance with about four to five times the strength of ferrite. Martensite has a very similar unit cell structure to austenite, and identical chemical composition. As such, it requires extremely little thermal ] to

2322:

widespread availability of inexpensive steel powered the ] and modern society as we know it. It also led to the introduction of newer "niche" steels (such as ]), all of them dependent on the wide availability of inexpensive iron and steel and the ability to alloy it at will.

2180:

https://web.archive.org/web/20090618230340/http://bx.businessweek.com/steel-industry/ |archive-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000.<ref>"''''". ].</ref>

2404:

As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel produced - in 2016, {{convert|1,628,000,000|t}} of crude steel was produced globally, with {{convert|630,000,000|t}} recycled.<ref>{{Cite web |url=

5197:(BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called 4639:

and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons.

3972:* {{cite book |editor=Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute |title=Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering |volume=2: Applications |location=Berlin, Heidelberg / Düsseldorf |publisher=Springer-Verlag / Verlag Stahleisen |date=1993 |isbn=3-540-54075-X }} 3961:* {{cite book |editor=Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute |title=Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering |volume=1: Fundamentals |location=Berlin, Heidelberg / Düsseldorf |publisher=Springer-Verlag / Verlag Stahleisen |date=1992 |isbn=3-540-52968-3 }} 2311:

In 2021, it was estimated that around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions resulted from the steel industry.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rossi |first=Marcello |date=4 August 2022 |title=The Race to Remake the $ 2.5 Trillion Steel Industry With Green Steel |url=

1363:

several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to ''''']''''' molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and became wrought iron. (In ], the process was called ''chao'', literally, stir-frying.)

910:

The ] of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between {{convert|7750|and|8050|kg/m3|lb/ft3|abbr=on}}, or {{convert|7.75|and|8.05|g/cm3|oz/cuin|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |last=Elert |first=Glenn |title=Density of Steel |url=

3906:* {{cite book |last=Reutter |first=Mark |title=Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might |publisher=University of Illinois Press |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-252-07233-8 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bdkUfDoY24QC}} 1247:

a temperature of 1130°C, hot enough to be considered a ]. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. As a liquid, iron can be ] into ]s, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom.

5261:

60: 5930:

to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.

2063:

iron produced using this method became a major metal in the English midlands' emerging ]. The combination of the blast furnace and the puddling furnace allowed iron to be produced at either end of the carbon spectrum, depending on the user's needs.

392:

Currently there are several classes of steels in which carbon is replaced with other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is undesired. A more recent definition is that steels are iron-based alloys that can be ]ally formed (pounded, rolled,

159: 5188:

5137:, but also more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys are nevertheless frequently used for components such as nuts, bolts, and washers in applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For the most part, however, 6132:, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength steel. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of 5063:

the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.

5658:

Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Since the technology was acquired from the

383:

the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ], or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of ]s.

593:

The noun ''steel'' originates from the ] adjective *{{lang|gem-x-proto|stahliją}} or *{{lang|gem-x-proto|stakhlijan}} 'made of steel', which is related to *{{lang|gem-x-proto|stahlaz}} or *{{lang|gem-x-proto|stahliją}} 'standing

3798:* {{Cite book |last1=Ashby |first1=Michael F. |author1-link=Michael F. Ashby |last2=Jones |first2=David Rayner Hunkin |title=An introduction to microstructures, processing and design |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |date=1992}} 5071:. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy ( 5216:

phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to

3864:* {{Cite book |last1=Fruehan |first1=R. J. |last2=Wakelin |first2=David H. |title=The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel |date=1998 |publisher=AISE Steel Foundation |isbn=0-930767-03-9 |edition=11th |location=Pittsburgh}} 6028:

were second, third, and fourth, respectively, according to the survey. The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route.

1994:

was initially of inferior quality compared to charcoal-fired iron. It was not until the ]s, when Darby's son refined the coking process to reduce the amout of sulfur in the coke that coke-fired furances became widespread.

5370:

from its ore, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. In the past, steel facilities would

8457: 5980:

in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have expanded to meet demand, such as

3820:* {{Cite book |last=Barraclough |first=K. C. |title=Steel Before Bessemer |volume=II, Crucible Steel: The Growth of Technology |date=1984 |publisher=Metals Society |location=London |ref={{sfnref|Barraclough|1984b}}}} 3853:* {{Cite book |last1=Degarmo |first1=E. Paul |last2=Black |first2=J. T. |last3=Kohser |first3=Ronald A. |title=Materials and Processes in Manufacturing |publisher=Wiley |date=2003 |edition=9th |isbn=0-471-65653-4}} 3809:* {{Cite book |last=Barraclough |first=K. C. |title=Steel before Bessemer |volume=I, Blister Steel: The Birth of an Industry |date=1984 |publisher=Metals Society |location=London |ref={{sfnref|Barraclough|1984a}}}} 7798: 1048:

and bronze production throughout the bronze age. In ], smelted iron was occasionally used for ornamental weapons: an iron-bladed dagger with a bronze hilt has been recovered from a ]c tomb dating from 2500 BC.

8778: 5225:, leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, cementite and ferrite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called 4949:

techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by

3842:* {{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=H. R. Ellis |title=The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature |date=1994 |publisher=Boydell Press |isbn=0-85115-355-0 |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk}} 5703:

managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil, a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.

5246:

2053:

Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the ], which complemented the Bessemer process.<ref name="britannicaironandsteel" /> It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron.

1949:

Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.<ref name="britannicaironandsteel" />{{sfnp|Barraclough|1984b}}{{page needed|date=April 2024}}

5845:, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of 628:

of ] on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, these internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools; at the very least, they cause internal ] and other microscopic imperfections.

5242:

will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel. The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.

5185:

of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m (484 and 503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).

8425: 7602: 3875:* {{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=William F. |last2=Hashemi |first2=Javad |title=Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering |edition=4th |date=2006 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-07-295358-6}} 3983:* {{cite book |last=Verhoeven |first=John D. |title=Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist |publisher=] |date=2007 |isbn=9781615030569 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA26}} 6219:

and improves the alloy's temperature resistance. Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include

2660:* ] or '''puddling''' - the original steel making technique, developed in ] as ], used in the ] as ] and independently redeveloped in ] by Benjamin Huntsman in 1740, and Pavel Anosov in ] in 1837. 8399: 5383:

into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots.

6054:

of over 60% globally; in the United States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%.

15: 2551:*], which was famous in ancient times for its flexibility, was created from a number of different materials (some only in traces), essentially a complicated alloy with iron as main component. 1167:

The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|p=249}}.</ref>

886:

in archaeological sites more than 1000 miles (1600 km) away. When the ] polar explorer ] shipped the largest piece of the meteorite to the ] in ] in ], it still weighed over 33 ]s.

5634:, produced in South India by about the sixth century BC and exported globally. The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of 5379:

which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is

7037:

Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. See:

4717:

furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the

8602: 2897:

Other common applications include ], ], ], ], ], ] (e.g. ]s), ] such as bulldozers, office furniture, ], ], and ] in the form of personal vests or ] (better known as ] in this role).

2146:{{See also|History of the steel industry (1850–1970)|History of the steel industry (1970–present)|Global steel industry trends|Steel production by country|List of steel producers}} 4425: 2631:

Carbon Steels are often ], through hot-dip or electroplating in ] for protection against rust.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Galvanic protection |title=] |date=2007}}</ref>

6140:

to martensite without the addition of heat. Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.

3422:

Steel manufactured after ] became ] with ]s by ]. Low-background steel, steel manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain radiation-sensitive applications such as ]s and ].

5039:

by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as

770:

that retains too much carbon to be called steel.<ref name="Smelting" /> The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step.{{Cn|date=January 2024}}

6249:, or manganese steel, contains 12–14% manganese which, when abraded, strain-hardens to form a very hard skin which resists wearing. Uses of this particular alloy include 5422:, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out. Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare. 8710: 7817: 6309:

and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing. It sees widespread use in

8279: 5561:(202 BC—AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, thus producing a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD. 5003: 4682:, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of 6057:

As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602

348:

Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. ]s, which are resistant to ] and ], typically need an additional 11% ].

8656: 8782: 4866:). Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called 6305:

Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as

8432: 6203:

Alloy steels are plain-carbon steels in which small amounts of alloying elements like chromium and vanadium have been added. Some more modern steels include

5274:

on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal

8045:

Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry".

7571:

Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W.; Ambler, C.; Achebe, N. (eds.).

9287: 8403: 6404:

and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of

6121:

has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.

4780:

intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a

1854:

In these processes, ] made from raw iron ore was refined (fined) in a ] to produce ], which was then used in steel-making.<ref name="Tylecote" />

5969:

The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall

5233:. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite 7245:

Akanuma, H. (2005). "The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey".

4710:, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility. 2449:

In a modern sense, alloy steels have been made since the advent of furnaces capable of melting iron, into which other metals may be thrown and mixed.

6713: 5944: 5278:

and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible.

8804: 4874:

is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include:

7106: 8626: 5646:, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the 5638:, Arabic, and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the Romans, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called 4962:

properties. Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make

8683: 8609: 8517: 5940: 5435: 9793: 8491: 8465: 5258:

for the transformation from austenite to martensite. There is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbours.

7739: 6883: 1959:

ore generated considerable trade income, and local development helped the country became the industrial powerhouse it remains to this day.

6854: 8846: 7664: 5576:

as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.

5149:, and lead are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are therefore removed from steel during the melting processing. 142: 8577: 6065:

10 short tons) of crude steel was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled.

5324:. The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents. 7624: 7264: 7217: 6227:

is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains little carbon (0.01%). This creates a very strong but still

6990: 2276:|first=Louis |author-link=Louis Uchitelle |date=1 January 2009 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=19 July 2009}}</ref> 10524: 8360: 5501:

employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale wootz steel production in

9280: 9113: 5710:, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in 5674:, famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. 5643: 8917:

Venables, John D.; Girifalco, Louis A.; Patel, C. Kumar N.; McCullough, R. L.; Marchant, Roger Eric; Kukich, Diane S. (2007).

6321:, steel is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, 9755: 9087: 8983: 8881:

Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. 1 pp. 1–5

8585: 7946: 7853: 7326: 6269:

Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the

5350: 4776:. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and 5826:

The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th century, it was realized that the best steel came from

5075:) that retains too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. 10132: 10102: 8714: 8542: 5505:

using crucibles occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy.

184: 9143: 8177:

King, P. W. (2003). "The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century".

6237:

uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel for use in

2562:*]s and ]s contain a minimum of 10.5% ], often combined with ], and resist ] (]). Some stainless steels are non-magnetic. 9826: 9098: 9128: 8328: 6136:

at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the austenite undergoes a

5718:

using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern

1514:

high-carbon steel, called '''''pulad''''' in ] and ''''']''''' by later Europeans, was exported throughout much of Asia.

9273: 6654:. Low-background steel, steel manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain radiation-sensitive applications such as 8684:"Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history" 8660: 5973:. In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000. 5849:

in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.

5391: 9210: 9185: 9166: 9059: 9040: 9021: 9002: 8859: 8757: 8239: 8149: 8094: 7973: 7811: 7442: 7403: 7225: 6946: 5896:

in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus

5395: 4662:

Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms):

9221: 6117:, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections. 5834:, Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used. 5663:

from South India, the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC.

4690:

dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the

69: 10479: 10200: 9773: 6289:

also defines a series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries.

5335:

and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel.

1773:

This practice improved the separation of slag from the cast iron and improved the quality of Continental cast iron.

4500: 10142: 8569: 7665:"An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus" 6429: 6270: 90: 10469: 10154: 6125: 5915:, which complemented the Bessemer process. It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron. 5317: 108: 28: 10474: 10464: 10366: 10147: 7514:

Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa".

6286: 5900:

came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or

5431: 4699: 4406: 6432:

is replacing steel in some cost-insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high-end automobiles.

10175: 10127: 9783: 9763: 9555: 6758: 5948: 5754:

Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into

177: 7343: 10529: 10486: 10061: 9716: 9202: 8711:"Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) and Dual-Phase (DP) Steels" 8047: 6913: 5952: 5816: 5714:

by the 9th to 10th century AD. In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in

5078:

Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with the desired properties.

7586:

Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.).

5406:

or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into

4678:

has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite

1444:"harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process. 10534: 10497: 10082: 9985: 9592: 8808: 6824: 5878: 4753:

were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centred in

8923: 8738: 8301: 8260: 7296: 7114: 6970: 97: 10046: 9788: 9640: 8634: 6643: 6381: 6223:

such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.

6009: 4636: 1923:

diffused into the iron, producing a product called '''''cement steel''''' or '''''blister steel'''''.

166: 9953: 9731: 9529: 9180:. Vol. 2: Applications. Berlin, Heidelberg / Düsseldorf: Springer-Verlag / Verlag Stahleisen. 9161:. Vol. 1: Fundamentals. Berlin, Heidelberg / Düsseldorf: Springer-Verlag / Verlag Stahleisen. 8687: 7835: 7455:

Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania".

5919: 5815:

in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir

5539: 4777: 4769: 115: 7928: 4505: 2748:*] a form of secondary steelmaking from scrap, though the process can also use direct-reduced iron 911:

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/KarenSutherland.shtml |access-date=23 April 2009}}</ref>

150: 10391: 9901: 9819: 9778: 9768: 9655: 9317: 9245: 7963: 6723: 6651: 6604: 6216: 6087: 6051: 6045: 6002: 5956: 5546: 5327:

Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or

5251: 5106: 4821: 4781: 4758: 6893: 86: 10431: 10275: 10230: 10087: 9995: 9670: 9602: 9587: 9579: 9545: 8355: 7749: 6743: 5912: 5694:, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel. A recent study has speculated that 5372: 5305: 5297: 5138: 4773: 4703: 4399: 7936: 7843: 10220: 10215: 10122: 10117: 9856: 9843: 9412: 9409: 9196: 7679: 6440: 6345: 5550: 5313: 4628: 154: 63: 8892: 8280:"How my great-grandfather's Dofasco steel empire rose and fell, and his descendants with it" 7772: 7231: 7017: 6815:

Allen, Robert C. (December 1979). "International Competition in Iron and Steel, 1850–1913".

4914:. Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: 4643:

Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added.

1177:

time. The oldest quench-hardened steel artifact is a knife found on ] at a site dated to ].

10426: 10416: 9968: 9940: 9741: 9705: 9660: 9550: 9524: 7885: 7638: 7464: 7355: 7274: 6633: 6589: 6518: 5970: 5923: 5681: 5480: 5263: 4663: 8918: 6105:

Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfil many purposes.

6032:

At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.

4480: 2473:] in ] was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its closure in 2003.]] 8: 10376: 10240: 10190: 10137: 10107: 10097: 10092: 10056: 9948: 9851: 9710: 9700: 9696: 9645: 9635: 9519: 9498: 9385: 9352: 8865: 8255: 7316: 6659: 6574: 6461: 6453: 6165: 6144: 5918:

These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of

5862: 5800: 5687: 5647: 5472: 5267: 4855:

The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (

4734: 4707: 7889: 7468: 7359: 4974:(now largely obsolete), which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of 1143:

There are many types of ] processes available to steel. The most common are ], ], and ].

10459: 10449: 10320: 10299: 10265: 10210: 10112: 9975: 9861: 9812: 9415: 9312: 8284: 8064: 8008: 7901: 7496: 7480: 6836: 6337: 6322: 6278: 6212: 6189: 5471:

The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an

5380: 5202: 5198: 5194: 4667: 4632: 4442: 104: 10445: 10260: 10250: 10195: 10020: 10010: 9958: 9896: 9429: 9206: 9181: 9162: 9083: 9055: 9036: 9017: 8998: 8979: 8855: 8581: 8235: 8145: 8090: 8068: 8012: 7969: 7942: 7905: 7849: 7807: 7630: 7488: 7438: 7399: 7322: 7221: 6994: 6942: 5905: 5846: 5700: 5654:, Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the 5635: 5531: 5255: 4675: 4587: 7874:

Juleff, G. (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".

7500: 6306: 10421: 10411: 10295: 10270: 10170: 9990: 9963: 9911: 9886: 9876: 9871: 9514: 9493: 8942: 8832:

Sheffield Steel and America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence

8056: 7998: 7893: 7876: 7709: 7523: 7472: 7363: 6828: 6718: 6693: 6679: 6610: 6512: 6471: 6401: 6310: 6274: 6250: 6220: 6137: 6129: 5893: 5743: 5719: 5695: 5509: 5407: 5234: 5212:

When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the

5190: 5122: 4726: 4556: 4551: 173: 16: 8374: 7800:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1, Civil Engineering and Nautics

7476: 7421:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics

5961: 5904:) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a 5857: 4991: 10406: 10371: 10315: 10310: 10290: 10051: 10000: 9921: 9891: 9881: 9721: 9474: 9378: 9077: 8973: 8967:. Vol. II, Crucible Steel: The Growth of Technology. London: Metals Society. 8487: 6965: 6599: 6594: 6546: 6492: 6466: 6417: 6361: 6357: 6246: 6181: 6110: 6090:

was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its closure in 2003.

6083: 5873: 5827: 5723: 5691: 5355: 5230: 5110: 5105:

To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard

5020: 4738: 4644: 4546: 9119: 4069:** – online steel education resources, an initiative of World Steel Association 1376:{{Main|History of ferrous metallurgy|History of the steel industry (1850–1970)}} 10519: 10351: 10245: 10225: 10015: 9980: 9625: 9607: 9483: 9479: 9425: 9149: 9079:

Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might

8972:

Bugayev, K.; Konovalov, Y.; Bychkov, Y.; Tretyakov, E.; Savin, Ivan V. (2001).

8958:. Vol. I, Blister Steel: The Birth of an Industry. London: Metals Society. 7527: 6768: 6703: 6655: 6377: 6224: 5990: 5889: 5808: 5779: 5738: 5707: 5671: 5611: 5589: 5490: 5293: 5275: 5067:

All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the

4963: 4722: 4597: 4541: 4521: 4471: 4433: 9223:

Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001

9104: 8060: 7367: 6832: 5157: 10513: 10396: 10386: 10255: 10205: 10066: 10036: 10005: 9916: 9569: 9358: 9134: 8332: 6763: 6728: 6620: 6497: 6238: 6025: 5998: 5994: 5977: 5820: 5775: 5759: 5677: 5676:

It was originally created from several different materials including various

5655: 5502: 5419: 5287: 5238: 5099: 5008: 4996: 4955: 4941:

Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as

4750: 4718: 9265: 9254:– online steel education resources, an initiative of World Steel Association 7634: 6416:, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for 6109:, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. 44: 10356: 10325: 10185: 9683: 9678: 9444: 9405: 9401: 9260:

MATDAT Database of Properties of Unalloyed, Low-Alloy and High-Alloy Steels

7492: 7318:

An Inherited Place: Broxmouth Hillfort and the South-East Scottish Iron Age

6789: 6748: 6698: 6647: 6639: 6526: 6333: 6258: 6254: 6228: 6106: 6100: 6074: 5789: 5715: 5651: 5623: 5565: 5399: 5321: 5271: 4971: 4967: 4793: 4746: 4602: 4592: 4531: 4526: 8003: 7990: 7556:

Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion".

6184:

contains a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist

5803:

was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in

10330: 10280: 10180: 9866: 9726: 9630: 9487: 9453: 9227: 8089:(2nd ed.). London: Institute of Materials. pp. 95–99, 102–105. 7773:"Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population" 7698:"Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India" 6908: 6794: 6738: 6733: 6708: 6688: 6353: 6234: 5986: 5885: 5866: 5763: 5667: 5631: 5585: 5573: 5558: 5535: 5517: 5486: 5453: 5415: 5403: 5387: 5344: 5332: 5218: 4959: 4946: 4871: 4807: 4683: 4536: 7917: 7915: 7728:

Hobbies – Volume 68, Issue 5 – p. 45. Lightner Publishing Company (1963)

7626:

India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World

10381: 10335: 10235: 9615: 9458: 9368: 8518:"The Race to Remake the $ 2.5 Trillion Steel Industry With Green Steel" 8400:"Worldsteel | World crude steel output decreases by −2.8% in 2015" 8026:

Wayman, M. L.; Juleff, G. (1999). "Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka".

7484: 6840: 6778: 6773: 6616: 6556: 6365: 6314: 6204: 6200:, are nonmagnetic. Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES. 6118: 6114: 5982: 5897: 5727: 5603: 5595: 5247: 5213: 5146: 5118: 5068: 5012: 4915: 4887: 4754: 4742: 4561: 4495: 4457: 9100:

The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition

7560:. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276. 10305: 9835: 9736: 9650: 9421: 9373: 9330: 7912: 7897: 7744: 7269: 6753: 6534: 6531: 6392: 6349: 6318: 6282: 6242: 6197: 6185: 6133: 5831: 5804: 5747: 5660: 5627: 5615: 5599: 5513: 5498: 5494: 5301: 5222: 5114: 5087: 5083: 5028: 4942: 4875: 4810: 4803: 4762: 4695: 4679: 4671: 4652: 4648: 4582: 4577: 4452: 4447: 8356:

Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002

7344:"A Germanic ultrahigh carbon steel punch of the Late Roman-Iron Age" 7220:. Bangalore: Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science. 6285:, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States. The 6016:

was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share;

10041: 9931: 9620: 9362: 9348: 9340: 7714: 7697: 7543:

Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture

7301: 6193: 5838: 5793: 5785: 5755: 5607: 5569: 5476: 5465: 5461: 5449: 5367: 5359: 5226: 5142: 5095: 5091: 5072: 5056: 5040: 5036: 5032: 4931: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4883: 4867: 4714: 4691: 4656: 4485: 4462: 7218:"The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature" 6936: 6079: 4798: 10361: 9175: 9156: 6888: 6784: 6564: 5842: 5526: 5182: 5130: 5060: 5044: 4951: 4923: 4919: 4911: 4730: 4490: 8995:

The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature

8971: 8916: 7183: 5516:

from 490–375 BC, and ultrahigh-carbon steel was produced in the

3111:* The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships. 9251: 8309: 7381: 7265:"Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel" 6409: 6405: 6373: 6341: 6208: 6173: 6021: 5812: 5554: 5521: 5483:) which are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC. 5445: 5411: 5079: 5052: 4935: 4927: 4907: 4879: 4860: 4624: 7253:. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology: 147–158. 6502:

The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.

6448: 4670:

with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and

10401: 10285: 9906: 8158: 7215: 6579: 6569: 6551: 6428:

applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight.

6421: 6413: 6326: 6297: 6281:

has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as

6160: 6017: 6013: 5965:

Steel production (in million tons) by country as of 2007

5927: 5619: 5376: 5134: 4891: 4863: 4616: 723:] showing the conditions necessary to form different phases]] 226:{{Short description|Metal alloy of iron with other elements}} 9804: 8848:

Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards: Third Edition

7412: 6050:

Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a

5594:

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in

5121:

to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in

9296: 8600: 7790: 6477: 6369: 6148: 5711: 5418:. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one 5126: 4975: 4856: 4737:. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of 4620: 9259: 9241: 9012:

Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J. T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003).

8781:. American Institute of Steel Construction. Archived from 7211: 7209: 7207: 5877:

White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace in

8947:

An introduction to microstructures, processing and design

8198: 8196: 8194: 8192: 7575:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288. 7194: 7192: 6993:. Metallurgical Consultants. 28 June 2006. Archived from 6584: 5328: 5048: 5024: 4999:

showing the conditions necessary to form different phases

4080:* – obtained from published results of materials testing 1878:

at ] during the 1610s.{{sfnp|Barraclough|1984a|pp=48–52}}

9178:

Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering

9159:

Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering

8211: 5133:

decrease grain size, thereby making the steel easier to

2682:* ], the first commercial scale steel production process 7204: 6207:, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and 9262:– obtained from published results of materials testing 9145:

Mill & Mine: The CF&I in the Twentieth Century

9115:

The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain

8568:

Fenton, Michael D. (2008). "Iron and Steel Scrap". In

8189: 7189: 5811:

armour and files was described in a book published in

5098:

also increases hardness while making it less prone to

5051:, which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and 1398:] smelting during the ] in the 5th to 15th centuries]] 51: 8492:"Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus" 7740:"An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil" 7622: 7588:

The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production

7558:

The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production

7297:"East Lothian's Broxmouth fort reveals edge of steel" 6941:(with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. 6329:, and other household products and cooking utensils. 5497:

in the 1st millennium BCE. Metal production sites in

4635:

compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high

9035:(11th ed.). Pittsburgh: AISE Steel Foundation. 7923:

Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World

7623:

Srinivasan, Sharada; Ranganathan, Srinivasa (2004).

7603:"Ancient Smelter Used Wind To Make High-Grade Steel" 7590:. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press. 7089: 7087: 6669: 5762:. Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use 4846: 4839: 4832: 4825: 4787: 4674:

their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the

8753: 8264:. Vol. 2 (online ed.). 2005. p. 168. 6985: 6983: 6981: 6937:Ashby, Michael F. & Jones, David R.H. (1992) . 6877: 6875: 5852: 5769: 5161:

Fe-C phase diagram for carbon steels, showing the A

4405:"Steel worker" redirects here. For other uses, see 9011: 8713:. Tampere University of Technology. Archived from 8659:. Intota Expert Knowledge Services. Archived from 8127:Technological Change and the British Iron Industry 7398:(2nd ed.). Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 243. 7046: 5837:Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a 5296:processes available to steel. The most common are 5086:in steel add to its tensile strength and make the 1271:{{See also|List of countries by steel production}} 968:* {{harvnb|Degarmo|Black|Kohser|2003|p=75}}—2.11%. 8854:(3rd. ed.). ASTM International. p. 14. 7084: 5911:Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the 5460:Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in 5117:, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing 10511: 9226:. University of Pittsburgh Press. Archived from 9052:Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 8458:"Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand" 7965:The Story of Civilization, Our Oriental Heritage 7437:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 69. 6978: 6872: 5788:made from raw iron ore was refined (fined) in a 5520:from the 2nd-4th centuries AD. The Roman author 5386:The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and 5270:on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of 5094:increases hardness and melting temperature, and 558:immediately, due to a lower activation energy. 9176:Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, ed. (1993). 9157:Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, ed. (1992). 8375:"India's steel industry steps onto world stage" 9148:. University of Nebraska Press. Archived from 9030: 8897:Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Architecture 8315: 8232:History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages 5201:. At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a 5090:form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, 4391:Latest revision as of 05:42, 24 September 2024 151:Latest revision as of 05:42, 24 September 2024 9820: 9295: 9281: 8834:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–62. 5680:, apparently ultimately from the writings of 5109:forms on the metal surface; this is known as 2940:].<ref name="britannicaironandsteel" /> 594:firm'.<ref>{{OEtymD|steel}}</ref> 475:] pellets will be used in steel production.]] 292:{{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=l|date=April 2024}} 9103:. Cambridge University Press. Archived from 9049: 8962: 8953: 8601:The World Steel Association (1 March 2018). 8217: 8164: 8025: 7555: 7513: 7454: 7321:. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. 2013. 7171: 7159: 7147: 7135: 7093: 7078: 7066: 7040: 6714:History of the steel industry (1970–present) 5945:History of the steel industry (1970–present) 4768:Further refinements in the process, such as 957:* {{harvnb|Smith|Hashemi|2006|p=363}}—2.08%. 128: 8561: 8080: 8078: 6036:carbon capture and utilization technology. 5193:, the most stable form of pure iron is the 2007:] in the Museum of Industry in ], Germany]] 1282:] pellets used in the production of steel]] 134: 9827: 9813: 9288: 9274: 9133:. Harvard University Press. Archived from 9126: 9050:Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006). 9033:The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel 9031:Fruehan, R. J.; Wakelin, David H. (1998). 8941: 8578:United States Government Publishing Office 7869: 7867: 7865: 7737: 7731: 7695: 7629:. National Institute of Advanced Studies. 7618: 7616: 7052: 6960: 6958: 6279:American Society for Testing and Materials 5926:(EAF) are a common method of reprocessing 1830:=== Ironworking in early modern Europe === 9194: 9141: 8708: 8486: 8431:. World Steel Association. Archived from 8109: 8002: 7989:Sanderson, Katharine (15 November 2006). 7988: 7770: 7764: 7713: 7662: 7545:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 7448: 7427: 5941:History of the steel industry (1850–1970) 5644:200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama 5436:History of the steel industry (1850–1970) 5177:critical temperatures for heat treatments 5043:, was first applied to metals with lower 4986: 4733:in the mid-19th century, and then by the 4664:body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic 9111: 9014:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing 8992: 8890: 8829: 8361:United States Government Printing Office 8144:(3rd ed.). Chichester: Phillimore. 8084: 8075: 8044: 7702:Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 7273:. Chennai. 26 March 2009. Archived from 7216:Srinivasan, S.; Ranganathan, S. (1994). 7198: 6550: 6447: 6439: 6391: 6296: 6172: 6169:Forging a structural member out of steel 6164: 6113:is alloyed with other elements, usually 6078: 5960: 5872: 5856: 5737: 5444: 5354: 5156: 5002: 4990: 4797: 2415:cheaper ]; an early attempt at alloying. 1984:====Processes starting from pig iron==== 1821:====Processes starting from bar iron==== 9075: 8844: 8838: 8543:"Global Steel Industry's GHG Emissions" 8277: 8142:The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire 8139: 7862: 7796: 7613: 7601:Wilford, John Noble (6 February 1996). 7600: 7570: 7540: 7418: 7341: 7244: 6955: 6881: 6506: 6147:, through hot-dip or electroplating in 5796:, which was then used in steel-making. 5362:pellets used in the production of steel 4970:objects. Steel is distinguishable from 4395:Metal alloy of iron with other elements 303:{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2024}} 10512: 9219: 8997:. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. 8567: 8372: 7961: 7873: 7738:Mahathevan, Iravatham (24 June 2010). 7658: 7656: 7585: 7393: 7342:Godfrey, Evelyne; et al. (2004). 6364:such as bulldozers, office furniture, 5237:until the percentage of carbon in the 5019:Iron is commonly found in the Earth's 4981: 4838:'made of steel', which is related to * 1585:=== Ironworking in medieval Europe === 9808: 9269: 9130:History of the British Steel Industry 8945:; Jones, David Rayner Hunkin (1992). 8823: 8515: 8273: 8271: 8229: 7968:. Simon & Schuster. p. 529. 6932: 6930: 6928: 6926: 6924: 6855:"Decarbonization in steel | McKinsey" 6814: 6188:. Some stainless steels, such as the 5579: 5524:identifies steel weapons such as the 5351:List of countries by steel production 5254:(BCT) structure. There is no thermal 1843:{{Main|Blister steel|Crucible steel}} 815:== History of iron and steelmaking == 548:==Definitions and related materials== 10492: 9096: 8893:"Steel in 20th Century Architecture" 8576:. Vol. 1: Metals and Minerals. 8278:Sherman, Zander (4 September 2019). 8176: 8124: 7938:Ancient and Medieval India. Volume 2 7845:Ancient and Mediæval India. Volume 2 7806:. Taipei: Caves Books. p. 282. 5766:, which has proven more economical. 1667:iron casting, cast iron cannonballs. 77: 43: 9198:Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist 8891:Ochshorn, Jonathan (11 June 2002). 7934: 7841: 7653: 7423:. Taipei: Caves Books. p. 563. 4782:recycling rate of over 60% globally 4655:, typically need an additional 11% 3483:{{Div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}} 3036:* ] in modern buildings and bridges 3014:* As reinforcing bars and mesh in ] 1633:{{Main|Wootz steel|Damascus steel}} 196: 165: 148: 141: 127: 96: 87:Revision as of 14:56, 20 March 2005 84: 13: 9069: 8681: 8268: 7991:"Sharpest cut from nanotube sword" 7534: 7507: 6921: 6906: 6332:Other common applications include 6277:defining many types of steel. The 5690:was rewarded by the defeated King 5626:and Dehigaha Alakanda, regions of 5508:High-carbon steel was produced in 5266:on the crystals of martensite and 5113:. Tungsten slows the formation of 4393: 32: 10546: 9235: 8758:American Iron and Steel Institute 8709:Mirko, Centi; Saliceti, Stefano. 8516:Rossi, Marcello (4 August 2022). 8373:Chopra, Anuj (12 February 2007). 7921:Coghlan, Herbert Henery. (1977). 7435:A History of Chinese Civilization 7348:Journal of Archaeological Science 7015: 6627: 6376:in the form of personal vests or 6317:. Despite the growth in usage of 6257:edges, and cutting blades on the 5807:from 1601. A similar process for 5281: 5027:, usually an iron oxide, such as 4788:Definitions and related materials 3058:* Input to reforging applications 10491: 10455: 10454: 10444: 10201:Extended producer responsibility 9930: 9443: 9127:Carr, J. C.; Taplin, W. (1962). 9082:. University of Illinois Press. 8830:Tweedale, Geoffrey, ed. (1987). 8627:"High strength low alloy steels" 7247:Anatolian Archaeological Studies 7047:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 6672: 6460:As reinforcing bars and mesh in 5853:Processes starting from pig iron 5770:Processes starting from bar iron 4424: 2369:{{Main|Ferrous metal recycling}} 734:] steel workpiece in a ]'s art]] 10525:2nd-millennium BC introductions 8935: 8910: 8884: 8875: 8805:"Properties of Maraging Steels" 8797: 8771: 8746: 8729: 8702: 8675: 8649: 8619: 8594: 8570:United States Geological Survey 8535: 8509: 8480: 8450: 8418: 8392: 8366: 8347: 8321: 8292: 8248: 8223: 8170: 8133: 8118: 8103: 8038: 8019: 7982: 7955: 7722: 7689: 7678:: 27–43 (p. 29). Archived from 7594: 7579: 7564: 7549: 7396:Iron and Steel in Ancient China 7387: 7374: 7335: 7309: 7289: 7257: 7238: 7177: 7165: 7153: 7141: 7129: 7099: 7072: 7060: 6817:The Journal of Economic History 6482:Input to reforging applications 6474:in modern buildings and bridges 6400:Before the introduction of the 6271:Society of Automotive Engineers 6068: 5908:material to remove phosphorus. 5888:began with the introduction of 5799:The production of steel by the 5229:, named for its resemblance to 2595:* Advanced High Strength Steels 8993:Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1994). 8547:Global Efficiency Intelligence 8464:. 1 March 2008. Archived from 7771:Ragupathy, P. (28 June 2010). 7573:A Companion to African History 7031: 7009: 6900: 6847: 6808: 6486: 6215:. This also allows the use of 6211:or other elements to maximize 6126:corporate average fuel economy 2133:=== Industrial steelmaking === 205:Oxford favours the Z spelling. 1: 10367:Container-deposit legislation 9834: 9313:History of ferrous metallurgy 9054:(4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. 8179:Journal of Industrial History 8129:. Princeton University Press. 7477:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085 6801: 6387: 6151:for protection against rust. 6119:High strength low alloy steel 5865:in the Museum of Industry in 5726:via repeated forging under a 5432:History of ferrous metallurgy 5338: 5152: 4765:until the late 20th century. 4407:Steel worker (disambiguation) 4389: 4378: 4367: 4356: 4345: 4334: 4323: 4312: 4301: 4290: 4279: 4268: 4257: 4246: 4235: 4226: 4213: 4204: 4191: 4182: 4171: 4164: 4143: 4130: 4121: 4108: 4103:{{Iron and steel production}} 4099: 4076: 4065: 4054: 4043: 4032: 4021: 4010: 4001: 3990: 3979: 3968: 3957: 3946: 3935: 3924: 3913: 3902: 3891: 3882: 3871: 3860: 3849: 3838: 3827: 3816: 3805: 3794: 3783: 3774: 3763: 3752: 3743: 3732: 3721: 3710: 3699: 3688: 3677: 3666: 3655: 3644: 3633: 3622: 3611: 3600: 3589: 3578: 3567: 3556: 3545: 3534: 3523: 3512: 3501: 3490: 3479: 3466: 3457: 3418: 3409: 3402:{{Main|Low-background steel}} 3398: 3387: 3378: 3367: 3356: 3345: 3334: 3323: 3312: 3301: 3290: 3279: 3268: 3257: 3246: 3235: 3224: 3213: 3202: 3193: 3182: 3171: 3160: 3149: 3138: 3127: 3118: 3107: 3096: 3085: 3074: 3065: 3054: 3043: 3032: 3021: 3010: 2999: 2988: 2977: 2968: 2956: 2947: 2935: 2924: 2913: 2904: 2893: 2884: 2872: 2861: 2850: 2841: 2829: 2818: 2809: 2798: 2789: 2777: 2768: 2757: 2744: 2735: 2722: 2713: 2700: 2691: 2678: 2669: 2656: 2649: 2636: 2627: 2602: 2591: 2584:*] (High Strength, Low Alloy) 2580: 2569: 2558: 2547: 2536: 2526: 2502: 2491: 2480: 2469: 2458: 2445: 2436: 2410: 2400: 2376: 2365: 2352: 2343: 2317: 2307: 2281: 2271: 2245: 2235: 2209: 2199: 2175: 2164: 2151: 2142: 2129: 2120: 2094: 2084: 2058: 2049: 2025: 2014: 2003: 1989: 1980: 1954: 1944: 1918: 1908: 1883: 1873: 1850: 1839: 1826: 1817: 1793: 1782: 1768: 1759: 1733: 1724: 1698: 1688: 1662: 1652: 1629: 1615: 1606: 1581: 1571: 1545: 1535: 1509: 1499: 1474: 1465: 1439: 1429: 1405: 1394: 1383: 1372: 1358: 1349: 1323: 1313: 1289: 1278: 1267: 1256: 1242: 1233: 1212:=== Developments in China === 1208: 1198: 1172: 1162: 1139: 1128: 1114: 1105: 1079: 1069: 1043: 1033: 1008: 998: 975: 964: 953: 940: 930: 906: 895: 881: 872: 846: 836: 811: 801: 775: 765: 741: 730: 719: 708: 694: 685: 659: 649: 623: 613: 589: 578: 567: 553: 544: 518: 508: 482: 471: 461: 435: 424: 414: 388: 378: 353: 344: 321: 310: 299: 288: 277: 266: 255: 244: 231: 222: 200: 9556:Argon oxygen decarburization 8316:Fruehan & Wakelin (1998) 7696:Srinivasan, Sharada (1994). 7516:Journal of Field Archaeology 6759:Second Industrial Revolution 6540: 6264: 6196:, while others, such as the 6039: 5949:Global steel industry trends 5650:. The Chinese and locals in 5557:steel, while Chinese of the 5553:(403–221 BC) had 5456:in the 5th to 15th centuries 4725:. This was followed by the 4058:* of the ] (WorldSteel.org) 3692:* ], used in Japanese swords 712:===Origins and production=== 18:Browse history interactively 7: 10062:Materials recovery facility 9717:Differential heat treatment 9195:Verhoeven, John D. (2007). 9118:. Routledge. Archived from 9112:Hasegawa, Harukiyu (1996). 8963:Barraclough, K. C. (1984). 8954:Barraclough, K. C. (1984). 8230:Swank, James Moore (1892). 8203:"Iron and steel industry". 8048:Journal of Economic History 7107:"Quench hardening of steel" 6914:Online Etymology Dictionary 6665: 5953:Steel production by country 5934: 5630:. This came to be known as 5375:the raw steel product into 10: 10551: 9142:Scamehorn, H. Lee (1992). 7935:Manning, Charlotte Speir. 7842:Manning, Charlotte Speir. 7528:10.1179/009346983791504228 7394:Wagner, Donald B. (1993). 6825:Cambridge University Press 6631: 6544: 6510: 6420:, including those used in 6158: 6098: 6072: 6043: 5938: 5879:Brackenridge, Pennsylvania 5773: 5583: 5440: 5429: 5425: 5348: 5342: 5285: 5141:elements such as sulphur, 4791: 4570:Other iron-based materials 4404: 4397: 3131:===Weathering (COR-TEN)=== 198: 132: 10440: 10344: 10163: 10075: 10029: 9939: 9928: 9842: 9754: 9692: 9669: 9641:Ferritic nitrocarburizing 9601: 9578: 9568: 9538: 9507: 9467: 9452: 9441: 9394: 9339: 9326: 9308: 8975:Iron and Steel Production 8845:Bringas, John E. (2004). 8603:"Steel and raw materials" 8426:"Top Steelmakers in 2017" 8112:A Dynasty of Ironfounders 8061:10.1017/S0022050700061842 7368:10.1016/j.jas.2004.02.002 6833:10.1017/S0022050700098673 6781:, used in Japanese swords 6638:Steel manufactured after 6452:A steel pylon suspending 6382:rolled homogeneous armour 6094: 6010:British Geological Survey 5733: 5035:. Iron is extracted from 4666:. The interaction of the 4647:, which are resistant to 4385: 4374: 4363: 4352: 4341: 4330: 4319: 4308: 4297: 4286: 4275: 4264: 4253: 4242: 4224: 4220: 4202: 4198: 4180: 4141: 4137: 4119: 4115: 4097: 4074: 4063: 4052: 4041: 4030: 4019: 4008: 3999: 3988: 3977: 3966: 3955: 3944: 3933: 3922: 3911: 3900: 3889: 3880: 3869: 3858: 3847: 3836: 3825: 3814: 3803: 3792: 3781: 3772: 3761: 3750: 3741: 3730: 3719: 3708: 3697: 3686: 3675: 3664: 3653: 3642: 3631: 3620: 3609: 3598: 3587: 3576: 3565: 3554: 3543: 3532: 3521: 3510: 3499: 3488: 3477: 3473: 3455: 3416: 3407: 3396: 3385: 3376: 3365: 3354: 3343: 3332: 3321: 3310: 3299: 3288: 3277: 3266: 3255: 3244: 3239:{{div col|colwidth=20em}} 3233: 3222: 3211: 3200: 3191: 3180: 3169: 3158: 3147: 3142:{{Main|Weathering steel}} 3136: 3125: 3116: 3105: 3094: 3083: 3072: 3063: 3052: 3041: 3030: 3019: 3008: 2997: 2986: 2975: 2966: 2954: 2945: 2933: 2922: 2911: 2902: 2891: 2882: 2870: 2859: 2848: 2839: 2827: 2816: 2807: 2796: 2787: 2775: 2766: 2755: 2751: 2733: 2729: 2711: 2707: 2689: 2685: 2667: 2663: 2647: 2643: 2625: 2609: 2598: 2587: 2576: 2565: 2554: 2543: 2524: 2500: 2489: 2478: 2467: 2462:{{See also|Steel grades}} 2456: 2452: 2434: 2418: 2398: 2374: 2363: 2359: 2341: 2325: 2305: 2289: 2269: 2253: 2233: 2217: 2197: 2173: 2162: 2158: 2140: 2136: 2118: 2102: 2082: 2066: 2047: 2023: 2012: 2001: 1997: 1978: 1962: 1942: 1926: 1906: 1890: 1871: 1848: 1837: 1833: 1815: 1791: 1780: 1776: 1757: 1741: 1722: 1706: 1686: 1670: 1650: 1627: 1623: 1604: 1588: 1569: 1553: 1533: 1517: 1497: 1481: 1463: 1447: 1427: 1403: 1392: 1381: 1370: 1366: 1347: 1331: 1311: 1287: 1276: 1265: 1254: 1250: 1231: 1215: 1196: 1180: 1160: 1137: 1126: 1122: 1103: 1087: 1067: 1051: 1031: 1015: 996: 973: 962: 951: 947: 928: 904: 893: 889: 870: 854: 834: 818: 799: 783: 763: 739: 728: 717: 706: 702: 683: 667: 647: 631: 611: 587: 576: 571:{{See also|Steel grades}} 565: 561: 542: 526: 506: 490: 478: 459: 443: 431: 412: 396: 376: 360: 342: 319: 308: 297: 286: 275: 264: 259:{{Redirect|Steel worker}} 253: 242: 238: 220: 215: 212: 147: 83: 9732:Post weld heat treatment 9220:Warren, Kenneth (2001). 8949:. Butterworth-Heinemann. 8379:Cristian Science Monitor 8299:"Basic oxygen process". 8085:Tylecote, R. F. (1992). 7797:Needham, Joseph (1986). 7433:Gernet, Jacques (1982). 7419:Needham, Joseph (1986). 7172:Smith & Hashemi 2006 7160:Smith & Hashemi 2006 7148:Smith & Hashemi 2006 7136:Smith & Hashemi 2006 7094:Smith & Hashemi 2006 7079:Smith & Hashemi 2006 7067:Smith & Hashemi 2006 7041:Smith & Hashemi 2006 6974:(online ed.). 2007. 6882:Hartman, Roy A. (2009). 6154: 6143:Carbon Steels are often 5920:basic oxygen steelmaking 5841:rather than having been 5572:by the ancestors of the 5292:There are many types of 4770:basic oxygen steelmaking 4506:Widmanstätten structures 3360:* Components of ] and ]s 3217:{{Main|Stainless steel}} 2640:== Production methods == 1610:===Wootz and Damascus=== 185:Extended confirmed users 135:→‎Industrial steelmaking 10392:Reverse vending machine 9318:List of steel producers 9246:World Steel Association 9016:(9th ed.). Wiley. 8924:Encyclopædia Britannica 8739:Encyclopædia Britannica 8736:"Galvanic protection". 8302:Encyclopædia Britannica 8261:Encyclopædia Britannica 8205:Encyclopædia Britannica 8087:A History of Metallurgy 7663:Feuerbach, Ann (2005). 7541:Schmidt, Peter (1978). 6971:Encyclopædia Britannica 6939:Engineering Materials 2 6724:List of blade materials 6652:nuclear weapons testing 6605:Body piercing jewellery 6590:Rail passenger vehicles 6435: 6292: 6217:precipitation hardening 6088:Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 6046:Ferrous metal recycling 5957:List of steel producers 5564:There is evidence that 5252:body-centred tetragonal 4848: 4841: 4834: 4827: 4778:greenhouse gas emission 4774:standards organizations 4759:Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 689:==Material properties== 82: 10432:Water recycling shower 10276:Reuse of human excreta 10246:Recycling (ecological) 10231:Material flow analysis 9546:Electro-slag remelting 9076:Reutter, Mark (2005). 8574:Minerals Yearbook 2008 8110:Raistrick, A. (1953). 7053:Ashby & Jones 1992 6559: 6456: 6445: 6397: 6302: 6178: 6170: 6091: 6003:largest steel producer 5997:. As of 2017, though, 5966: 5913:Siemens-Martin process 5902:basic Bessemer process 5881: 5870: 5751: 5457: 5363: 5178: 5016: 5000: 4987:Origins and production 4813: 4713:Steel was produced in 4400:Steel (disambiguation) 1132:{{Main|Heat treating}} 10221:Interchangeable parts 10216:Industrial metabolism 9756:Production by country 9097:Burn, Duncan (1961). 8965:Steel Before Bessemer 8956:Steel before Bessemer 8028:Historical Metallurgy 8004:10.1038/news061113-11 7962:Durant, Will (1942). 7925:. Oxprint. pp. 99–100 6554: 6519:Intermodal containers 6451: 6443: 6395: 6346:offshore construction 6300: 6192:stainless steels are 6176: 6168: 6082: 5964: 5924:electric arc furnaces 5876: 5860: 5830:of a region north of 5741: 5551:Warring States period 5448: 5358: 5160: 5011:steel workpiece in a 5006: 4994: 4801: 4147:{{Authority control}} 2495:{{Main|Carbon steel}} 281:{{pp-move|small=yes}} 10427:Water heat recycling 10417:Waste management law 9742:Superplastic forming 9661:Quench polish quench 9551:Vacuum arc remelting 9530:Basic oxygen process 9525:Electric arc furnace 8637:on 21 September 2020 8140:Trinder, B. (2000). 8125:Hyde, C. K. (1977). 7234:on 19 November 2018. 7043:, p. 363—2.08%. 6991:"Alloying of Steels" 6634:Low-background steel 6575:Surgical instruments 6507:Weathering (COR-TEN) 6454:overhead power lines 6396:A carbon steel knife 6301:A roll of steel wool 6177:Cor-Ten rust coating 5971:economic development 5784:In these processes, 5682:Zosimos of Panopolis 5568:was made in Western 5452:smelting during the 4958:than steel and good 4820:originates from the 4398:For other uses, see 4047:{{Wiktionary|steel}} 3461:{{Portal|Chemistry}} 3391:===Low-background=== 3164:* Outdoor sculptures 2356:== Types of steel == 1478:=== Indian steel === 1260:{{Main|Steelmaking}} 1109:===Heat treatment=== 944:=== The iron age === 10377:Ethical consumerism 10311:Urban lumberjacking 10241:Product stewardship 10191:Eco-industrial park 9697:Cryogenic treatment 9520:Open hearth furnace 9508:Primary (Post-1850) 9499:Cementation process 9386:Direct reduced iron 9252:SteelUniversity.org 8919:"Materials science" 8871:on 27 January 2007. 8811:on 25 February 2009 8785:on 22 December 2007 8779:"Steel Interchange" 8690:on 23 December 2007 8631:SchoolScience.co.uk 8218:Barraclough (1984b) 8165:Barraclough (1984a) 7890:1996Natur.379...60J 7641:on 11 February 2019 7469:1978Sci...201.1085S 7463:(4361): 1085–1089. 7360:2004JArSc..31.1117G 7184:Bugayev et al. 2001 7174:, pp. 361–362. 7117:on 17 February 2009 7096:, pp. 373–378. 7081:, pp. 365–372. 7049:, p. 75—2.11%. 6997:on 21 February 2007 6660:radiation shielding 6462:reinforced concrete 6061:10 long tons; 1.795 5863:open hearth furnace 5801:cementation process 5688:Alexander the Great 5666:The manufacture of 5473:archaeological site 5398:. Slabs are hot or 5221:out of solution as 4982:Material properties 4735:open-hearth furnace 4704:tempering behaviour 4696:quenching behaviour 4633:fracture resistance 4501:Tempered martensite 3895:==Further reading== 10530:Building materials 10450:Environment portal 10321:Waste minimisation 10266:Reusable packaging 10211:Industrial ecology 9468:Primary (Pre-1850) 8927:(online ed.). 8657:"Dual-phase steel" 8496:The New York Times 8490:(1 January 2009). 8406:on 2 February 2017 8285:The Globe and Mail 8256:"Bessemer process" 7607:The New York Times 7305:. 15 January 2014. 7018:"Density of Steel" 6560: 6555:A stainless steel 6523:Outdoor sculptures 6457: 6446: 6422:clocks and watches 6398: 6303: 6213:solution hardening 6179: 6171: 6092: 5967: 5884:The modern era in 5882: 5871: 5823:during the 1610s. 5752: 5744:Bessemer converter 5722:that used partial 5580:Wootz and Damascus 5514:Broxmouth Hillfort 5458: 5364: 5203:face-centred cubic 5195:body-centred cubic 5179: 5125:. The addition of 5023:in the form of an 5017: 5001: 4954:as it has a lower 4814: 4721:and production of 4668:allotropes of iron 4014:==External links== 3787:===Bibliography=== 428:==Iron and steel== 163: 94: 10535:Roofing materials 10507: 10506: 10261:Resource recovery 10251:Refill (campaign) 10196:Ecological design 10176:Dematerialization 9986:Fluorescent lamps 9802: 9801: 9750: 9749: 9564: 9563: 9439: 9438: 9430:Induction furnace 9248:(WorldSteel.org) 9203:ASM International 9122:on 18 April 2012. 9089:978-0-252-07233-8 8985:978-0-89499-109-7 8978:. Minerva Group. 8943:Ashby, Michael F. 8615:on 9 August 2018. 8587:978-1-4113-3015-3 8438:on 23 August 2018 8318:, pp. 48–52. 8234:. Burt Franklin. 8167:, pp. 48–52. 7948:978-0-543-92943-3 7855:978-0-543-92943-3 7685:on 30 April 2011. 7380:"Noricus ensis", 7328:978-1-908332-05-9 6907:Harper, Douglas. 6896:on 14 April 2008. 6380:(better known as 6221:weathering steels 5847:Benjamin Huntsman 5701:ancient Sinhalese 5532:Iberian Peninsula 5489:was developed in 5381:continuously cast 5318:recrystallization 5256:activation energy 4852:'standing firm'. 4751:The German states 4676:crystal structure 4610: 4609: 4388: 4025:{{Commons|Steel}} 3078:===Flat carbon=== 2822:=== Standards === 1786:] in ], England]] 149: 85: 65: 10542: 10495: 10494: 10458: 10457: 10448: 10422:Waste management 10412:Waste collection 10271:Reuse of bottles 10171:Circular economy 10148:Northern Ireland 9934: 9829: 9822: 9815: 9806: 9805: 9576: 9575: 9515:Bessemer process 9465: 9464: 9447: 9337: 9336: 9290: 9283: 9276: 9267: 9266: 9242:Official website 9231: 9216: 9191: 9172: 9153: 9152:on 26 July 2012. 9138: 9137:on 29 July 2012. 9123: 9108: 9107:on 26 July 2012. 9093: 9065: 9046: 9027: 9008: 8989: 8968: 8959: 8950: 8929: 8928: 8914: 8908: 8907: 8905: 8903: 8888: 8882: 8879: 8873: 8872: 8870: 8864:. Archived from 8853: 8842: 8836: 8835: 8827: 8821: 8820: 8818: 8816: 8807:. Archived from 8801: 8795: 8794: 8792: 8790: 8775: 8769: 8768: 8766: 8764: 8754:"Steel Glossary" 8750: 8744: 8743: 8733: 8727: 8726: 8724: 8722: 8706: 8700: 8699: 8697: 8695: 8686:. Archived from 8679: 8673: 8672: 8670: 8668: 8653: 8647: 8646: 8644: 8642: 8633:. Archived from 8623: 8617: 8616: 8614: 8608:. Archived from 8607: 8598: 8592: 8591: 8565: 8559: 8558: 8556: 8554: 8549:. 6 January 2021 8539: 8533: 8532: 8530: 8528: 8513: 8507: 8506: 8504: 8502: 8488:Uchitelle, Louis 8484: 8478: 8477: 8475: 8473: 8454: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8443: 8437: 8430: 8422: 8416: 8415: 8413: 8411: 8402:. Archived from 8396: 8390: 8389: 8387: 8385: 8370: 8364: 8351: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8340: 8331:. Archived from 8329:"Steel Industry" 8325: 8319: 8313: 8307: 8306: 8296: 8290: 8289: 8275: 8266: 8265: 8252: 8246: 8245: 8227: 8221: 8215: 8209: 8208: 8200: 8187: 8186: 8174: 8168: 8162: 8156: 8155: 8137: 8131: 8130: 8122: 8116: 8115: 8107: 8101: 8100: 8082: 8073: 8072: 8042: 8036: 8035: 8023: 8017: 8016: 8006: 7986: 7980: 7979: 7959: 7953: 7952: 7932: 7926: 7919: 7910: 7909: 7898:10.1038/379060a0 7871: 7860: 7859: 7839: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7828: 7822: 7816:. Archived from 7805: 7794: 7788: 7787: 7785: 7783: 7768: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7757: 7748:. Archived from 7735: 7729: 7726: 7720: 7719: 7717: 7693: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7669: 7660: 7651: 7650: 7648: 7646: 7637:. Archived from 7620: 7611: 7610: 7598: 7592: 7591: 7583: 7577: 7576: 7568: 7562: 7561: 7553: 7547: 7546: 7538: 7532: 7531: 7511: 7505: 7504: 7452: 7446: 7431: 7425: 7424: 7416: 7410: 7409: 7391: 7385: 7378: 7372: 7371: 7354:(8): 1117–1125. 7339: 7333: 7332: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7293: 7287: 7286: 7284: 7282: 7277:on 29 March 2009 7261: 7255: 7254: 7242: 7236: 7235: 7230:. Archived from 7213: 7202: 7196: 7187: 7181: 7175: 7169: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7145: 7139: 7133: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7122: 7113:. Archived from 7103: 7097: 7091: 7082: 7076: 7070: 7064: 7058: 7035: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7024: 7013: 7007: 7006: 7004: 7002: 6987: 6976: 6975: 6962: 6953: 6952: 6934: 6919: 6918: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6892:. Archived from 6879: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6865: 6851: 6845: 6844: 6812: 6719:Iron in folklore 6694:Direct reduction 6682: 6680:Chemistry portal 6677: 6676: 6675: 6513:Weathering steel 6493:Major appliances 6472:Structural steel 6402:Bessemer process 6358:washing machines 6311:major appliances 6273:has a series of 6138:phase transition 6130:dual-phase steel 6064: 6060: 5720:Bessemer process 5696:carbon nanotubes 5686:In 327 BC, 5685: 5648:classical period 5622:, as well as in 5538:was used by the 5408:structural steel 5235:grain boundaries 5191:room temperature 5123:high-speed steel 5047:points, such as 4926:, and traces of 4851: 4844: 4837: 4830: 4727:Bessemer process 4645:Stainless steels 4637:tensile strength 4557:Weathering steel 4552:High-speed steel 4428: 4414: 4413: 2917:===Historical=== 2440:==Contemporary== 876:===Properties=== 270:{{Good article}} 207: 206: 204: 191: 181: 162: 157: 139: 138: 137: 130: 122: 112: 93: 66: 57: 56: 54: 49: 47: 39: 36: 21: 19: 10550: 10549: 10545: 10544: 10543: 10541: 10540: 10539: 10510: 10509: 10508: 10503: 10436: 10407:Waste-to-energy 10372:Dumpster diving 10340: 10316:Waste hierarchy 10291:Right to repair 10159: 10128:The Netherlands 10083:Rate by country 10071: 10025: 9935: 9926: 9838: 9833: 9803: 9798: 9746: 9722:Decarburization 9688: 9665: 9606: 9597: 9560: 9534: 9503: 9475:Pattern welding 9456: 9448: 9435: 9390: 9379:Anthracite iron 9328: 9327:Iron production 9322: 9304: 9294: 9238: 9213: 9188: 9169: 9090: 9072: 9070:Further reading 9062: 9043: 9024: 9005: 8986: 8938: 8933: 8932: 8915: 8911: 8901: 8899: 8889: 8885: 8880: 8876: 8868: 8862: 8851: 8843: 8839: 8828: 8824: 8814: 8812: 8803: 8802: 8798: 8788: 8786: 8777: 8776: 8772: 8762: 8760: 8752: 8751: 8747: 8735: 8734: 8730: 8720: 8718: 8717:on 7 March 2008 8707: 8703: 8693: 8691: 8682:Werner, Ewald. 8680: 8676: 8666: 8664: 8655: 8654: 8650: 8640: 8638: 8625: 8624: 8620: 8612: 8605: 8599: 8595: 8588: 8566: 8562: 8552: 8550: 8541: 8540: 8536: 8526: 8524: 8522:Singularity Hub 8514: 8510: 8500: 8498: 8485: 8481: 8471: 8469: 8456: 8455: 8451: 8441: 8439: 8435: 8428: 8424: 8423: 8419: 8409: 8407: 8398: 8397: 8393: 8383: 8381: 8371: 8367: 8352: 8348: 8338: 8336: 8335:on 18 June 2009 8327: 8326: 8322: 8314: 8310: 8298: 8297: 8293: 8276: 8269: 8254: 8253: 8249: 8242: 8228: 8224: 8216: 8212: 8202: 8201: 8190: 8175: 8171: 8163: 8159: 8152: 8138: 8134: 8123: 8119: 8108: 8104: 8097: 8083: 8076: 8043: 8039: 8024: 8020: 7987: 7983: 7976: 7960: 7956: 7949: 7933: 7929: 7920: 7913: 7872: 7863: 7856: 7840: 7836: 7826: 7824: 7820: 7814: 7803: 7795: 7791: 7781: 7779: 7769: 7765: 7755: 7753: 7736: 7732: 7727: 7723: 7694: 7690: 7682: 7667: 7661: 7654: 7644: 7642: 7621: 7614: 7599: 7595: 7584: 7580: 7569: 7565: 7554: 7550: 7539: 7535: 7512: 7508: 7453: 7449: 7432: 7428: 7417: 7413: 7406: 7392: 7388: 7384:, Odes, i. 16.9 7379: 7375: 7340: 7336: 7329: 7315: 7314: 7310: 7295: 7294: 7290: 7280: 7278: 7263: 7262: 7258: 7243: 7239: 7228: 7214: 7205: 7199:Davidson (1994) 7197: 7190: 7182: 7178: 7170: 7166: 7158: 7154: 7146: 7142: 7134: 7130: 7120: 7118: 7111:keytometals.com 7105: 7104: 7100: 7092: 7085: 7077: 7073: 7065: 7061: 7036: 7032: 7022: 7020: 7014: 7010: 7000: 6998: 6989: 6988: 6979: 6964: 6963: 6956: 6949: 6935: 6922: 6905: 6901: 6880: 6873: 6863: 6861: 6853: 6852: 6848: 6813: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6678: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6656:Geiger counters 6636: 6630: 6625: 6549: 6547:Stainless steel 6543: 6515: 6509: 6489: 6467:Railroad tracks 6438: 6390: 6384:in this role). 6362:heavy equipment 6295: 6267: 6255:bulldozer blade 6247:Robert Hadfield 6182:Stainless steel 6163: 6157: 6111:Low alloy steel 6103: 6097: 6084:Bethlehem Steel 6077: 6071: 6062: 6058: 6048: 6042: 6001:is the world's 5959: 5937: 5855: 5828:oregrounds iron 5782: 5774:Main articles: 5772: 5736: 5724:decarburization 5675: 5592: 5584:Main articles: 5582: 5555:quench-hardened 5481:Kaman-Kalehöyük 5443: 5438: 5430:Main articles: 5428: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5290: 5284: 5231:mother of pearl 5208: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5155: 5111:stainless steel 4995:An iron-carbon 4989: 4984: 4796: 4790: 4547:Stainless steel 4472:Microstructures 4410: 4403: 4396: 4383: 4372: 4361: 4350: 4339: 4328: 4317: 4306: 4295: 4284: 4273: 4262: 4251: 4240: 4231: 4218: 4209: 4196: 4187: 4176: 4169: 4160: 4155: 4148: 4135: 4126: 4113: 4104: 4093: 4088: 4081: 4070: 4059: 4048: 4037: 4026: 4015: 4004: 3995: 3984: 3973: 3962: 3951: 3940: 3929: 3918: 3907: 3896: 3885: 3876: 3865: 3854: 3843: 3832: 3821: 3810: 3799: 3788: 3777: 3768: 3757: 3746: 3737: 3736:{{div col end}} 3726: 3715: 3704: 3693: 3682: 3671: 3660: 3649: 3638: 3627: 3616: 3605: 3594: 3583: 3572: 3561: 3550: 3539: 3528: 3517: 3506: 3495: 3484: 3471: 3462: 3451: 3444: 3435: 3430: 3423: 3412: 3403: 3392: 3381: 3372: 3371:{{div col end}} 3361: 3350: 3349:* Inexpensive ] 3339: 3328: 3317: 3306: 3295: 3284: 3273: 3262: 3251: 3240: 3229: 3218: 3207: 3206:===Stainless=== 3196: 3187: 3176: 3165: 3154: 3143: 3132: 3121: 3112: 3101: 3090: 3079: 3068: 3059: 3048: 3037: 3026: 3015: 3004: 2993: 2982: 2971: 2962: 2950: 2941: 2929: 2918: 2907: 2898: 2887: 2878: 2866: 2855: 2844: 2835: 2823: 2812: 2803: 2792: 2783: 2771: 2762: 2749: 2740: 2727: 2718: 2705: 2696: 2683: 2674: 2661: 2652: 2641: 2632: 2621: 2616: 2607: 2596: 2585: 2574: 2563: 2552: 2541: 2532: 2520: 2515: 2508: 2496: 2485: 2474: 2463: 2450: 2441: 2430: 2425: 2416: 2406: 2394: 2389: 2382: 2370: 2357: 2348: 2337: 2332: 2323: 2313: 2301: 2296: 2287: 2277: 2265: 2260: 2251: 2241: 2229: 2224: 2215: 2205: 2193: 2188: 2181: 2169: 2156: 2147: 2134: 2125: 2114: 2109: 2100: 2090: 2078: 2073: 2064: 2054: 2043: 2038: 2031: 2019: 2008: 1995: 1985: 1974: 1969: 1960: 1950: 1938: 1933: 1924: 1914: 1902: 1897: 1888: 1879: 1867: 1862: 1855: 1844: 1831: 1822: 1811: 1806: 1799: 1787: 1774: 1764: 1753: 1748: 1739: 1729: 1718: 1713: 1704: 1694: 1682: 1677: 1668: 1658: 1646: 1641: 1634: 1621: 1611: 1600: 1595: 1586: 1577: 1565: 1560: 1551: 1541: 1529: 1524: 1515: 1505: 1493: 1488: 1479: 1470: 1459: 1454: 1445: 1435: 1423: 1418: 1411: 1399: 1388: 1377: 1364: 1354: 1343: 1338: 1329: 1319: 1307: 1302: 1295: 1283: 1272: 1261: 1248: 1238: 1227: 1222: 1213: 1204: 1192: 1187: 1178: 1168: 1156: 1151: 1144: 1133: 1120: 1110: 1099: 1094: 1085: 1075: 1063: 1058: 1049: 1039: 1027: 1022: 1013: 1004: 992: 987: 980: 969: 958: 945: 936: 924: 919: 912: 900: 887: 877: 866: 861: 852: 842: 830: 825: 816: 807: 795: 790: 781: 771: 759: 754: 747: 735: 724: 713: 700: 690: 679: 674: 665: 655: 643: 638: 629: 619: 607: 602: 595: 583: 572: 559: 549: 538: 533: 524: 514: 502: 497: 488: 476: 467: 455: 450: 441: 429: 420: 408: 403: 394: 384: 372: 367: 358: 349: 338: 333: 326: 315: 304: 293: 282: 271: 260: 249: 236: 227: 208: 199: 197: 195: 194: 193: 189: 187: 171: 169: 164: 158: 153: 145: 143:← Previous edit 140: 133: 131: 126: 125: 124: 120: 118: 102: 100: 95: 89: 81: 80: 79: 78: 76: 75: 74: 73: 72: 71: 62: 58: 52: 50: 45: 42: 40: 37: 35:Content deleted 34: 31: 29:← Previous edit 26: 25: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10548: 10538: 10537: 10532: 10527: 10522: 10505: 10504: 10502: 10501: 10489: 10484: 10483: 10482: 10477: 10472: 10467: 10452: 10441: 10438: 10437: 10435: 10434: 10429: 10424: 10419: 10414: 10409: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10369: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10352:Bottle cutting 10348: 10346: 10342: 10341: 10339: 10338: 10333: 10328: 10323: 10318: 10313: 10308: 10303: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10226:Land recycling 10223: 10218: 10213: 10208: 10203: 10198: 10193: 10188: 10183: 10178: 10173: 10167: 10165: 10161: 10160: 10158: 10157: 10152: 10151: 10150: 10143:United Kingdom 10140: 10135: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10115: 10110: 10105: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10079: 10077: 10073: 10072: 10070: 10069: 10064: 10059: 10054: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10033: 10031: 10027: 10026: 10024: 10023: 10018: 10013: 10008: 10003: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9972: 9971: 9961: 9956: 9954:Automotive oil 9951: 9945: 9943: 9937: 9936: 9929: 9927: 9925: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9889: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9848: 9846: 9840: 9839: 9832: 9831: 9824: 9817: 9809: 9800: 9799: 9797: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9781: 9776: 9771: 9766: 9760: 9758: 9752: 9751: 9748: 9747: 9745: 9744: 9739: 9734: 9729: 9724: 9719: 9714: 9708: 9703: 9693: 9690: 9689: 9687: 9686: 9681: 9675: 9673: 9667: 9666: 9664: 9663: 9658: 9653: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9628: 9626:Carbonitriding 9623: 9618: 9612: 9610: 9608:Case-hardening 9599: 9598: 9596: 9595: 9590: 9584: 9582: 9573: 9570:Heat treatment 9566: 9565: 9562: 9561: 9559: 9558: 9553: 9548: 9542: 9540: 9536: 9535: 9533: 9532: 9527: 9522: 9517: 9511: 9509: 9505: 9504: 9502: 9501: 9496: 9494:Tatara furnace 9491: 9484:Damascus steel 9480:Crucible steel 9477: 9471: 9469: 9462: 9450: 9449: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9436: 9434: 9433: 9426:Cupola furnace 9419: 9398: 9396: 9392: 9391: 9389: 9388: 9383: 9382: 9381: 9376: 9371: 9356: 9345: 9343: 9334: 9324: 9323: 9321: 9320: 9315: 9309: 9306: 9305: 9293: 9292: 9285: 9278: 9270: 9264: 9263: 9257: 9256: 9255: 9237: 9236:External links 9234: 9233: 9232: 9230:on 1 May 2010. 9217: 9211: 9192: 9186: 9173: 9167: 9154: 9139: 9124: 9109: 9094: 9088: 9071: 9068: 9067: 9066: 9060: 9047: 9041: 9028: 9022: 9009: 9003: 8990: 8984: 8969: 8960: 8951: 8937: 8934: 8931: 8930: 8909: 8883: 8874: 8860: 8837: 8822: 8796: 8770: 8745: 8728: 8701: 8674: 8663:on 25 May 2011 8648: 8618: 8593: 8586: 8560: 8534: 8508: 8479: 8468:on 25 May 2024 8449: 8417: 8391: 8365: 8346: 8320: 8308: 8291: 8267: 8247: 8240: 8222: 8210: 8188: 8169: 8157: 8150: 8132: 8117: 8102: 8095: 8074: 8037: 8018: 7981: 7974: 7954: 7947: 7927: 7911: 7861: 7854: 7834: 7823:on 3 July 2017 7812: 7789: 7763: 7752:on 1 July 2010 7730: 7721: 7715:10.5334/pia.60 7688: 7652: 7612: 7593: 7578: 7563: 7548: 7533: 7522:(4): 421–434. 7506: 7447: 7426: 7411: 7404: 7386: 7373: 7334: 7327: 7308: 7288: 7256: 7237: 7226: 7203: 7188: 7176: 7164: 7152: 7150:, p. 388. 7140: 7138:, p. 249. 7128: 7098: 7083: 7071: 7069:, p. 363. 7059: 7057: 7056: 7050: 7044: 7030: 7016:Elert, Glenn. 7008: 6977: 6954: 6947: 6920: 6899: 6871: 6846: 6806: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6776: 6771: 6769:Steel abrasive 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6704:Damascus steel 6701: 6696: 6691: 6685: 6684: 6683: 6667: 6664: 6632:Main article: 6629: 6628:Low-background 6626: 6624: 6623: 6621:space stations 6615:Components of 6613: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6561: 6545:Main article: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6529: 6524: 6521: 6511:Main article: 6508: 6505: 6504: 6503: 6500: 6498:Magnetic cores 6495: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6483: 6480: 6475: 6469: 6464: 6444:A steel bridge 6437: 6434: 6389: 6386: 6378:vehicle armour 6294: 6291: 6266: 6263: 6245:, named after 6243:Hadfield steel 6225:Maraging steel 6159:Main article: 6156: 6153: 6099:Main article: 6096: 6093: 6070: 6067: 6052:recycling rate 6044:Main article: 6041: 6038: 5991:Baosteel Group 5985:(which bought 5936: 5933: 5890:Henry Bessemer 5854: 5851: 5809:case hardening 5780:Crucible steel 5771: 5768: 5735: 5732: 5708:Crucible steel 5678:trace elements 5672:Damascus steel 5612:Andhra Pradesh 5590:Damascus steel 5581: 5578: 5540:Roman military 5491:Southern India 5442: 5439: 5427: 5424: 5343:Main article: 5340: 5337: 5286:Main article: 5283: 5282:Heat treatment 5280: 5276:work hardening 5206: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5151: 5059:fire and then 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4964:malleable iron 4945:. With modern 4822:Proto-Germanic 4789: 4786: 4723:crucible steel 4708:yield strength 4627:with improved 4608: 4607: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4598:Malleable iron 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4542:Maraging steel 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4522:Crucible steel 4516: 4515: 4511: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4475: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4466: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4437: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4421: 4420: 4394: 4392: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4083: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3758: 3756:==References== 3755: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3618: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3425: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3374: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3363: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3275: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3264: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3253: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3231: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3219: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3208: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3091: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3006: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2879: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2868: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2846: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2836: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2825: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2790: 2788: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2697: 2695:{{Main|Alloy}} 2694: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2664: 2662: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2533: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2518: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2448: 2446: 2443: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2431: 2428: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2419: 2417: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2349: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2314: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2218: 2216: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2206: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2182: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2115: 2112: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2095: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2032: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2009: 2006: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1951: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1927: 1925: 1921: 1919: 1916: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1891: 1889: 1886: 1884: 1881: 1880: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1834: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1695: 1691: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1669: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1578: 1574: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1506: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1412: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1296: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1237:==Production== 1236: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1201: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1165: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1072: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1005: 1001: 999: 997: 994: 993: 990: 988: 985: 982: 981: 978: 976: 974: 971: 970: 967: 965: 963: 960: 959: 956: 954: 952: 949: 948: 946: 943: 941: 938: 937: 933: 931: 929: 926: 925: 922: 920: 917: 914: 913: 909: 907: 905: 902: 901: 898: 896: 894: 891: 890: 888: 884: 882: 879: 878: 875: 873: 871: 868: 867: 864: 862: 859: 856: 855: 853: 849: 847: 844: 843: 839: 837: 835: 832: 831: 828: 826: 823: 820: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 808: 804: 802: 800: 797: 796: 793: 791: 788: 785: 784: 782: 778: 776: 773: 772: 768: 766: 764: 761: 760: 757: 755: 752: 749: 748: 744: 742: 740: 737: 736: 733: 731: 729: 726: 725: 722: 720: 718: 715: 714: 711: 709: 707: 704: 703: 701: 697: 695: 692: 691: 688: 686: 684: 681: 680: 677: 675: 672: 669: 668: 666: 662: 660: 657: 656: 652: 650: 648: 645: 644: 641: 639: 636: 633: 632: 630: 626: 624: 621: 620: 616: 614: 612: 609: 608: 605: 603: 600: 597: 596: 592: 590: 588: 585: 584: 581: 579: 577: 574: 573: 570: 568: 566: 563: 562: 560: 556: 554: 551: 550: 547: 545: 543: 540: 539: 536: 534: 531: 528: 527: 525: 521: 519: 516: 515: 511: 509: 507: 504: 503: 500: 498: 495: 492: 491: 489: 485: 483: 480: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 468: 464: 462: 460: 457: 456: 453: 451: 448: 445: 444: 442: 438: 436: 433: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 421: 417: 415: 413: 410: 409: 406: 404: 401: 398: 397: 395: 391: 389: 386: 385: 381: 379: 377: 374: 373: 370: 368: 365: 362: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 350: 347: 345: 343: 340: 339: 336: 334: 331: 328: 327: 324: 322: 320: 317: 316: 313: 311: 309: 306: 305: 302: 300: 298: 295: 294: 291: 289: 287: 284: 283: 280: 278: 276: 273: 272: 269: 267: 265: 262: 261: 258: 256: 254: 251: 250: 248:{{Other uses}} 247: 245: 243: 240: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 228: 225: 223: 221: 218: 217: 214: 210: 209: 188: 183: 182: 167: 146: 119: 116:Administrators 114: 113: 98: 67: 61: 59: 41: 33: 27: 23: 22: 14: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10547: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10517: 10515: 10500: 10499: 10490: 10488: 10485: 10481: 10480:organizations 10478: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10462: 10461: 10453: 10451: 10447: 10443: 10442: 10439: 10433: 10430: 10428: 10425: 10423: 10420: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10397:Simple living 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10387:Pallet crafts 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10350: 10349: 10347: 10343: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10326:Waste picking 10324: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10314: 10312: 10309: 10307: 10304: 10301: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10256:Repairability 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10219: 10217: 10214: 10212: 10209: 10207: 10206:Green economy 10204: 10202: 10199: 10197: 10194: 10192: 10189: 10187: 10184: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10174: 10172: 10169: 10168: 10166: 10162: 10156: 10155:United States 10153: 10149: 10146: 10145: 10144: 10141: 10139: 10136: 10134: 10131: 10129: 10126: 10124: 10121: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10080: 10078: 10074: 10068: 10067:Waste sorting 10065: 10063: 10060: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10034: 10032: 10028: 10022: 10019: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10007: 10004: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9996:Mobile phones 9994: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9970: 9967: 9966: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9950: 9947: 9946: 9944: 9942: 9938: 9933: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9849: 9847: 9845: 9841: 9837: 9830: 9825: 9823: 9818: 9816: 9811: 9810: 9807: 9795: 9794:United States 9792: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9765: 9762: 9761: 9759: 9757: 9753: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9735: 9733: 9730: 9728: 9725: 9723: 9720: 9718: 9715: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9698: 9695: 9694: 9691: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9676: 9674: 9672: 9668: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9656:Precipitation 9654: 9652: 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9613: 9611: 9609: 9604: 9600: 9594: 9593:Short circuit 9591: 9589: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9581: 9577: 9574: 9571: 9567: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9549: 9547: 9544: 9543: 9541: 9537: 9531: 9528: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9516: 9513: 9512: 9510: 9506: 9500: 9497: 9495: 9492: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9473: 9472: 9470: 9466: 9463: 9460: 9455: 9451: 9446: 9431: 9427: 9423: 9420: 9417: 9414: 9411: 9410:Reverberatory 9407: 9403: 9400: 9399: 9397: 9393: 9387: 9384: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9366: 9364: 9360: 9359:Blast furnace 9357: 9354: 9350: 9347: 9346: 9344: 9342: 9338: 9335: 9332: 9325: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9310: 9307: 9302: 9298: 9291: 9286: 9284: 9279: 9277: 9272: 9271: 9268: 9261: 9258: 9253: 9250: 9249: 9247: 9243: 9240: 9239: 9229: 9225: 9224: 9218: 9214: 9212:9781615030569 9208: 9204: 9200: 9199: 9193: 9189: 9187:3-540-54075-X 9183: 9179: 9174: 9170: 9168:3-540-52968-3 9164: 9160: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9146: 9140: 9136: 9132: 9131: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9116: 9110: 9106: 9102: 9101: 9095: 9091: 9085: 9081: 9080: 9074: 9073: 9063: 9061:0-07-295358-6 9057: 9053: 9048: 9044: 9042:0-930767-03-9 9038: 9034: 9029: 9025: 9023:0-471-65653-4 9019: 9015: 9010: 9006: 9004:0-85115-355-0 9000: 8996: 8991: 8987: 8981: 8977: 8976: 8970: 8966: 8961: 8957: 8952: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8939: 8926: 8925: 8920: 8913: 8898: 8894: 8887: 8878: 8867: 8863: 8861:0-8031-3362-6 8857: 8850: 8849: 8841: 8833: 8826: 8810: 8806: 8800: 8784: 8780: 8774: 8759: 8755: 8749: 8741: 8740: 8732: 8716: 8712: 8705: 8689: 8685: 8678: 8662: 8658: 8652: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8622: 8611: 8604: 8597: 8589: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8564: 8548: 8544: 8538: 8523: 8519: 8512: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8483: 8467: 8463: 8459: 8453: 8434: 8427: 8421: 8405: 8401: 8395: 8380: 8376: 8369: 8362: 8358: 8357: 8350: 8334: 8330: 8324: 8317: 8312: 8304: 8303: 8295: 8287: 8286: 8281: 8274: 8272: 8263: 8262: 8257: 8251: 8243: 8241:0-8337-3463-6 8237: 8233: 8226: 8219: 8214: 8206: 8199: 8197: 8195: 8193: 8184: 8180: 8173: 8166: 8161: 8153: 8151:9781860771330 8147: 8143: 8136: 8128: 8121: 8113: 8106: 8098: 8096:0-901462-88-8 8092: 8088: 8081: 8079: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8049: 8041: 8033: 8029: 8022: 8014: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7996: 7992: 7985: 7977: 7975:0-671-54800-X 7971: 7967: 7966: 7958: 7950: 7944: 7940: 7939: 7931: 7924: 7918: 7916: 7907: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7879: 7878: 7870: 7868: 7866: 7857: 7851: 7847: 7846: 7838: 7819: 7815: 7813:0-521-05802-3 7809: 7802: 7801: 7793: 7778: 7774: 7767: 7751: 7747: 7746: 7741: 7734: 7725: 7716: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7692: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7666: 7659: 7657: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7627: 7619: 7617: 7608: 7604: 7597: 7589: 7582: 7574: 7567: 7559: 7552: 7544: 7537: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7510: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7451: 7444: 7443:0-521-49781-7 7440: 7436: 7430: 7422: 7415: 7407: 7405:90-04-09632-9 7401: 7397: 7390: 7383: 7377: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7338: 7330: 7324: 7320: 7319: 7312: 7304: 7303: 7298: 7292: 7276: 7272: 7271: 7266: 7260: 7252: 7248: 7241: 7233: 7229: 7227:0-85115-355-0 7223: 7219: 7212: 7210: 7208: 7201:, p. 20. 7200: 7195: 7193: 7186:, p. 225 7185: 7180: 7173: 7168: 7162:, p. 361 7161: 7156: 7149: 7144: 7137: 7132: 7116: 7112: 7108: 7102: 7095: 7090: 7088: 7080: 7075: 7068: 7063: 7054: 7051: 7048: 7045: 7042: 7039: 7038: 7034: 7019: 7012: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6984: 6982: 6973: 6972: 6967: 6961: 6959: 6950: 6948:0-08-032532-7 6944: 6940: 6933: 6931: 6929: 6927: 6925: 6916: 6915: 6910: 6903: 6895: 6891: 6890: 6885: 6878: 6876: 6860: 6856: 6850: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6811: 6807: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6764:Silicon steel 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6729:Machinability 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6686: 6681: 6670: 6663: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6648:radionuclides 6645: 6641: 6635: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6612: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6536: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6516: 6514: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6490: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6459: 6458: 6455: 6450: 6442: 6433: 6431: 6425: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6394: 6385: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6330: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6299: 6290: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6262: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6239:bunker buster 6236: 6232: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6201: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6175: 6167: 6162: 6152: 6150: 6146: 6141: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6102: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6076: 6066: 6055: 6053: 6047: 6037: 6033: 6030: 6027: 6026:United States 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6008:In 2005, the 6006: 6004: 6000: 5999:ArcelorMittal 5996: 5995:Shagang Group 5992: 5988: 5984: 5979: 5978:economic boom 5974: 5972: 5963: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5932: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5916: 5914: 5909: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5880: 5875: 5868: 5864: 5859: 5850: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5835: 5833: 5829: 5824: 5822: 5821:Coalbrookdale 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5797: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5777: 5776:Blister steel 5767: 5765: 5761: 5760:blast furnace 5757: 5749: 5745: 5740: 5731: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5702: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5683: 5679: 5673: 5669: 5664: 5662: 5657: 5656:Chera Dynasty 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5618:, regions of 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5591: 5587: 5577: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5562: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5543: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5528: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5506: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5467: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5437: 5433: 5423: 5421: 5420:assembly line 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5384: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5369: 5366:When iron is 5361: 5357: 5352: 5346: 5336: 5334: 5330: 5325: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5294:heat treating 5289: 5288:Heat treating 5279: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5186: 5184: 5159: 5150: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5103: 5101: 5100:metal fatigue 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5076: 5074: 5070: 5065: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5014: 5010: 5005: 4998: 4997:phase diagram 4993: 4979: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4956:melting point 4953: 4948: 4944: 4939: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4862: 4858: 4853: 4850: 4843: 4836: 4829: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4811:winding tower 4809: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4785: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4766: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4741:steel began. 4740: 4739:mass-produced 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4719:blast furnace 4716: 4711: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4641: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4573: 4569: 4568: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4517: 4513: 4512: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4478: 4477: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4469: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4440: 4439: 4438: 4435: 4432: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4419: 4416: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4390: 4380: 4377: 4369: 4366: 4358: 4355: 4347: 4344: 4336: 4333: 4325: 4322: 4314: 4311: 4303: 4300: 4292: 4289: 4281: 4278: 4270: 4267: 4259: 4256: 4248: 4245: 4237: 4234: 4228: 4223: 4215: 4212: 4206: 4201: 4193: 4190: 4184: 4179: 4173: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4151: 4145: 4140: 4132: 4129: 4125:{{Recycling}} 4123: 4118: 4110: 4107: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4084: 4078: 4073: 4067: 4062: 4056: 4051: 4045: 4040: 4036:{{Wikiquote}} 4034: 4029: 4023: 4018: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3992: 3987: 3981: 3976: 3970: 3965: 3959: 3954: 3948: 3943: 3937: 3932: 3926: 3921: 3915: 3910: 3904: 3899: 3893: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3873: 3868: 3862: 3857: 3851: 3846: 3840: 3835: 3829: 3824: 3818: 3813: 3807: 3802: 3796: 3791: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3765: 3760: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3729: 3723: 3718: 3712: 3707: 3701: 3696: 3690: 3685: 3679: 3674: 3668: 3663: 3657: 3652: 3646: 3641: 3635: 3630: 3624: 3619: 3613: 3608: 3602: 3597: 3591: 3586: 3580: 3575: 3569: 3564: 3558: 3553: 3547: 3542: 3536: 3531: 3525: 3520: 3514: 3509: 3503: 3498: 3492: 3487: 3481: 3476: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3454: 3448: 3446: 3441: 3439: 3438: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3426: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3406: 3400: 3395: 3389: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3369: 3364: 3358: 3353: 3347: 3342: 3336: 3331: 3325: 3320: 3314: 3309: 3303: 3298: 3292: 3287: 3281: 3276: 3270: 3265: 3259: 3254: 3248: 3243: 3237: 3232: 3226: 3221: 3215: 3210: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3184: 3179: 3173: 3168: 3162: 3157: 3151: 3146: 3140: 3135: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3109: 3104: 3098: 3093: 3087: 3082: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3056: 3051: 3045: 3040: 3034: 3029: 3023: 3018: 3012: 3007: 3001: 2996: 2990: 2985: 2979: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2926: 2921: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2874: 2869: 2863: 2858: 2852: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2831: 2826: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2759: 2754: 2746: 2743: 2737: 2732: 2724: 2721: 2715: 2710: 2702: 2699: 2693: 2688: 2680: 2677: 2671: 2666: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2638: 2635: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2612: 2604: 2601: 2593: 2590: 2582: 2579: 2571: 2568: 2560: 2557: 2549: 2546: 2538: 2535: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2511: 2504: 2499: 2493: 2488: 2482: 2477: 2471: 2466: 2460: 2455: 2447: 2444: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2421: 2412: 2409: 2402: 2397: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2385: 2378: 2373: 2367: 2362: 2354: 2351: 2347:==Recycling== 2345: 2340: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2329: 2328: 2319: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2292: 2283: 2280: 2273: 2268: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2247: 2244: 2237: 2232: 2228: 2226: 2223: 2221: 2220: 2211: 2208: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2184: 2177: 2172: 2166: 2161: 2153: 2150: 2144: 2139: 2131: 2128: 2122: 2117: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2105: 2096: 2093: 2086: 2081: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2070: 2069: 2060: 2057: 2051: 2046: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2034: 2027: 2022: 2016: 2011: 2005: 2000: 1991: 1988: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1965: 1956: 1953: 1946: 1941: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1929: 1920: 1917: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1893: 1885: 1882: 1875: 1870: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1858: 1852: 1847: 1841: 1836: 1828: 1825: 1819: 1814: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1802: 1795: 1790: 1784: 1779: 1770: 1767: 1761: 1756: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1744: 1735: 1732: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1709: 1700: 1697: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1673: 1664: 1661: 1654: 1649: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1637: 1631: 1626: 1617: 1614: 1608: 1603: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1583: 1580: 1573: 1568: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1556: 1547: 1544: 1537: 1532: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1520: 1511: 1508: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1484: 1476: 1473: 1467: 1462: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1450: 1441: 1438: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1414: 1407: 1402: 1396: 1391: 1387:===Ancient=== 1385: 1380: 1374: 1369: 1360: 1357: 1351: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1334: 1325: 1322: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1298: 1291: 1286: 1280: 1275: 1269: 1264: 1258: 1253: 1244: 1241: 1235: 1230: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1218: 1210: 1207: 1200: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1183: 1174: 1171: 1164: 1159: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1147: 1141: 1136: 1130: 1125: 1116: 1113: 1107: 1102: 1098: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1090: 1081: 1078: 1071: 1066: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1054: 1045: 1042: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1018: 1010: 1007: 1000: 995: 991: 989: 986: 984: 983: 977: 972: 966: 961: 955: 950: 942: 939: 932: 927: 923: 921: 918: 916: 915: 908: 903: 897: 892: 883: 880: 874: 869: 865: 863: 860: 858: 857: 848: 845: 838: 833: 829: 827: 824: 822: 821: 813: 810: 803: 798: 794: 792: 789: 787: 786: 777: 774: 767: 762: 758: 756: 753: 751: 750: 743: 738: 732: 727: 721: 716: 710: 705: 696: 693: 687: 682: 678: 676: 673: 671: 670: 661: 658: 651: 646: 642: 640: 637: 635: 634: 625: 622: 615: 610: 606: 604: 601: 599: 598: 591: 586: 580: 575: 569: 564: 555: 552: 546: 541: 537: 535: 532: 530: 529: 520: 517: 510: 505: 501: 499: 496: 494: 493: 484: 481: 473: 470: 463: 458: 454: 452: 449: 447: 446: 437: 434: 426: 423: 416: 411: 407: 405: 402: 400: 399: 390: 387: 380: 375: 371: 369: 366: 364: 363: 355: 352: 346: 341: 337: 335: 332: 330: 329: 323: 318: 312: 307: 301: 296: 290: 285: 279: 274: 268: 263: 257: 252: 246: 241: 233: 230: 224: 219: 211: 202: 186: 179: 175: 170: 161: 156: 152: 144: 136: 117: 110: 106: 101: 92: 88: 70: 55: 48: 38:Content added 30: 20: 10496: 10357:Cogeneration 10186:Durable good 9684:Martempering 9679:Austempering 9588:Low hydrogen 9406:Finery forge 9402:Wrought iron 9300: 9228:the original 9222: 9197: 9177: 9158: 9150:the original 9144: 9135:the original 9129: 9120:the original 9114: 9105:the original 9099: 9078: 9051: 9032: 9013: 8994: 8974: 8964: 8955: 8946: 8936:Bibliography 8922: 8912: 8900:. Retrieved 8896: 8886: 8877: 8866:the original 8847: 8840: 8831: 8825: 8813:. Retrieved 8809:the original 8799: 8787:. Retrieved 8783:the original 8773: 8761:. Retrieved 8748: 8737: 8731: 8719:. Retrieved 8715:the original 8704: 8692:. Retrieved 8688:the original 8677: 8665:. Retrieved 8661:the original 8651: 8639:. Retrieved 8635:the original 8630: 8621: 8610:the original 8596: 8573: 8563: 8551:. Retrieved 8546: 8537: 8525:. Retrieved 8521: 8511: 8499:. Retrieved 8495: 8482: 8470:. Retrieved 8466:the original 8461: 8452: 8440:. Retrieved 8433:the original 8420: 8408:. Retrieved 8404:the original 8394: 8382:. Retrieved 8378: 8368: 8354: 8349: 8337:. Retrieved 8333:the original 8323: 8311: 8300: 8294: 8283: 8259: 8250: 8231: 8225: 8213: 8204: 8182: 8178: 8172: 8160: 8141: 8135: 8126: 8120: 8111: 8105: 8086: 8052: 8046: 8040: 8031: 8027: 8021: 7994: 7984: 7964: 7957: 7937: 7930: 7922: 7884:(3): 60–63. 7881: 7875: 7844: 7837: 7825:. Retrieved 7818:the original 7799: 7792: 7780:. Retrieved 7776: 7766: 7754:. Retrieved 7750:the original 7743: 7733: 7724: 7705: 7701: 7691: 7680:the original 7675: 7671: 7643:. Retrieved 7639:the original 7625: 7606: 7596: 7587: 7581: 7572: 7566: 7557: 7551: 7542: 7536: 7519: 7515: 7509: 7460: 7456: 7450: 7434: 7429: 7420: 7414: 7395: 7389: 7376: 7351: 7347: 7337: 7317: 7311: 7300: 7291: 7279:. Retrieved 7275:the original 7268: 7259: 7250: 7246: 7240: 7232:the original 7179: 7167: 7155: 7143: 7131: 7119:. Retrieved 7115:the original 7110: 7101: 7074: 7062: 7033: 7021:. Retrieved 7011: 6999:. Retrieved 6995:the original 6969: 6938: 6912: 6902: 6894:the original 6887: 6862:. Retrieved 6859:McKinsey.com 6858: 6849: 6820: 6816: 6810: 6790:Toledo steel 6749:Rolling mill 6699:Carbon steel 6644:contaminated 6640:World War II 6637: 6609:Inexpensive 6527:Architecture 6430:Carbon fibre 6426: 6399: 6334:shipbuilding 6331: 6304: 6268: 6259:jaws of life 6233: 6202: 6180: 6142: 6123: 6107:Carbon steel 6104: 6101:Carbon steel 6075:Steel grades 6069:Contemporary 6056: 6049: 6034: 6031: 6007: 5975: 5968: 5917: 5910: 5901: 5883: 5836: 5825: 5817:Basil Brooke 5798: 5790:finery forge 5783: 5753: 5706: 5665: 5652:Anuradhapura 5639: 5636:Sangam Tamil 5624:Samanalawewa 5598:is found in 5593: 5566:carbon steel 5563: 5544: 5525: 5507: 5485: 5470: 5459: 5390:into slabs, 5385: 5365: 5326: 5322:grain growth 5310: 5291: 5260: 5244: 5211: 5187: 5180: 5104: 5077: 5066: 5018: 5009:incandescent 4972:wrought iron 4968:ductile iron 4940: 4854: 4817: 4815: 4794:Steel grades 4767: 4747:wrought iron 4712: 4688: 4684:dislocations 4661: 4642: 4612: 4611: 4603:Wrought iron 4593:Ductile iron 4532:Spring steel 4527:Carbon steel 4417: 4411: 3450:==See also== 3443:==See also== 2484:===Carbon=== 2124:==Industry== 1763:===Modern=== 582:] of a ] ]]] 10470:by material 10331:Wishcycling 10281:Repurposing 10181:Downcycling 10133:Switzerland 9969:PET bottles 9917:Cooking oil 9902:Refrigerant 9727:Forming gas 9631:Carburizing 9488:Wootz steel 9454:Steelmaking 9353:sponge iron 8789:28 February 8410:26 December 8185:(1): 25–49. 7995:Nature News 7001:28 February 6884:"Recycling" 6827:: 911–937. 6795:Wootz steel 6739:Pelletizing 6734:Noric steel 6709:Galvanizing 6689:Bulat steel 6487:Flat carbon 6354:white goods 6251:tank tracks 6235:Eglin steel 6205:tool steels 5987:Corus Group 5928:scrap metal 5886:steelmaking 5867:Brandenburg 5792:to produce 5668:wootz steel 5632:wootz steel 5586:Wootz steel 5574:Haya people 5559:Han dynasty 5536:Noric steel 5518:Netherlands 5487:Wootz steel 5454:Middle Ages 5404:sheet metal 5400:cold rolled 5345:Steelmaking 5333:spheroidite 5264:compression 5219:precipitate 4960:castability 4947:steelmaking 4872:Alloy steel 4824:adjective * 4804:steel cable 4698:, need for 4537:Alloy steel 4481:Spheroidite 3767:{{Reflist}} 2673:===Alloy=== 2606:*Ferrous ]s 1550:properties. 1353:==History== 10514:Categories 10475:by product 10465:by country 10382:Freeganism 10362:Composting 10336:Zero waste 10236:Precycling 10057:Collection 10047:Blue boxes 9949:Appliances 9784:Luxembourg 9764:Bangladesh 9706:Deflashing 9616:Ausforming 9459:Steel mill 9369:Cold blast 9361:(produces 9351:(produces 9303:production 8472:2 November 7782:31 October 7756:31 October 7645:5 December 6966:"Smelting" 6802:References 6779:Tamahagane 6774:Steel mill 6617:spacecraft 6600:Trash Cans 6557:gravy boat 6535:train cars 6388:Historical 6366:steel wool 6198:austenitic 6145:galvanized 6115:molybdenum 6073:See also: 6024:, and the 5989:in 2007), 5983:Tata Steel 5939:See also: 5898:mild steel 5728:cold blast 5716:Song China 5640:Seric Iron 5604:Tamil Nadu 5596:South Asia 5462:bloomeries 5410:, such as 5388:hot rolled 5349:See also: 5339:Production 5248:martensite 5214:austenitic 5153:Properties 5147:phosphorus 5119:martensite 5069:Bronze Age 5013:blacksmith 4916:phosphorus 4888:molybdenum 4835:stakhlijan 4792:See also: 4755:Pittsburgh 4743:Mild steel 4588:White iron 4562:Tool steel 4496:Ledeburite 4458:Martensite 2981:===Long=== 314:{{Steels}} 201:→‎See also 10306:Upcycling 10300:Green Dot 10088:Australia 10076:Countries 10042:Blue bags 10030:Apparatus 9976:Computers 9959:Batteries 9852:Aluminium 9844:Materials 9836:Recycling 9737:Quenching 9711:Hardening 9701:Deburring 9671:Tempering 9651:Nitriding 9646:Induction 9636:Cryogenic 9603:Hardening 9580:Annealing 9539:Secondary 9422:Cast iron 9395:Secondary 9374:Hot blast 9331:Ironworks 8641:14 August 8442:22 August 8069:154556274 8055:: 53–54. 8013:136774602 7906:205026185 7745:The Hindu 7708:: 49–59. 7281:13 August 7270:The Hindu 6754:Rust Belt 6541:Stainless 6532:Highliner 6350:aerospace 6338:pipelines 6319:aluminium 6283:A36 steel 6265:Standards 6241:weapons. 6229:malleable 6186:corrosion 6134:austenite 6040:Recycling 5869:, Germany 5832:Stockholm 5805:Nuremberg 5750:, England 5748:Sheffield 5661:Tamilians 5628:Sri Lanka 5616:Karnataka 5600:Kodumanal 5499:Sri Lanka 5495:Sri Lanka 5466:crucibles 5306:tempering 5302:quenching 5298:annealing 5223:cementite 5115:cementite 5088:austenite 5084:manganese 5029:magnetite 4943:cast iron 4876:manganese 4816:The noun 4763:Cleveland 4745:replaced 4700:annealing 4672:cast iron 4653:oxidation 4649:corrosion 4583:Gray iron 4578:Cast iron 4453:Cementite 4448:Austenite 10460:Category 10345:See also 10164:Concepts 10123:Mongolia 10118:Malaysia 10021:Vehicles 10011:Textiles 9941:Products 9862:Concrete 9621:Boriding 9413:Puddling 9363:pig iron 9349:Bloomery 9341:Smelting 8902:26 April 8553:6 August 8527:6 August 8462:The News 8034:(1): 26. 7827:4 August 7777:Tamilnet 7635:82439861 7501:37926350 7493:17830304 7302:BBC News 7023:23 April 6785:Tinplate 6666:See also 6307:stadiums 6194:magnetic 6190:ferritic 5935:Industry 5839:crucible 5794:bar iron 5786:pig iron 5756:pig iron 5610:area in 5608:Golconda 5570:Tanzania 5534:, while 5477:Anatolia 5450:Bloomery 5360:Iron ore 5314:recovery 5227:pearlite 5143:nitrogen 5096:vanadium 5092:chromium 5073:pig iron 5057:charcoal 5041:smelting 5037:iron ore 5033:hematite 4932:nitrogen 4904:tungsten 4900:vanadium 4896:titanium 4884:chromium 4868:pig iron 4849:stahliją 4828:stahliją 4808:colliery 4715:bloomery 4692:hardness 4657:chromium 4629:strength 4486:Pearlite 4463:Graphite 2854:==Uses== 178:contribs 109:contribs 99:Fawcett5 53:Wikitext 10498:Commons 10103:Ireland 9964:Bottles 9897:Plastic 9857:Asphalt 9789:Nigeria 9572:methods 9416:Furnace 9244:of the 8815:19 July 8763:30 July 8742:. 2007. 8721:1 March 8694:1 March 8667:1 March 8572:(ed.). 8501:19 July 8384:12 July 8339:12 July 8305:. 2007. 8207:. 2007. 7886:Bibcode 7485:1746308 7465:Bibcode 7457:Science 7356:Bibcode 7121:19 July 7055:—2.14%. 6909:"steel" 6889:Encarta 6841:2120336 6744:Rolling 6642:became 6595:Tablets 6580:Watches 6565:Cutlery 6418:springs 6231:steel. 6124:Recent 6012:stated 5894:process 5549:of the 5547:Chinese 5530:in the 5527:falcata 5510:Britain 5441:Ancient 5426:History 5412:I-beams 5392:billets 5368:smelted 5268:tension 5199:ferrite 5183:density 5139:p-block 5131:sulphur 5061:welding 5045:melting 4952:casting 4924:silicon 4920:sulphur 4912:niobium 4842:stahlaz 4731:England 4680:ductile 4514:Classes 4491:Bainite 4443:Ferrite 216:Line 1: 213:Line 1: 10296:Symbol 10138:Taiwan 10108:Israel 10098:Canada 10093:Brazil 9991:Lumber 9912:Timber 9887:Gypsum 9877:Energy 9872:Cotton 9867:Copper 9209: 9184: 9165: 9086: 9058: 9039: 9020: 9001: 8982: 8858: 8584: 8238: 8148: 8093: 8067: 8011: 7972: 7945: 7904: 7877:Nature 7852: 7810: 7633: 7499: 7491: 7483: 7441: 7402: 7382:Horace 7325: 7224: 6945: 6864:20 May 6839: 6570:Rulers 6414:swords 6410:razors 6406:knives 6374:armour 6372:, and 6356:(e.g. 6342:mining 6327:screws 6275:grades 6209:cobalt 6095:Carbon 6022:Russia 5955:, and 5843:forged 5813:Naples 5734:Modern 5606:, the 5522:Horace 5396:blooms 5377:ingots 5320:, and 5304:, and 5239:grains 5080:Nickel 5053:copper 5015:'s art 4936:copper 4934:, and 4928:oxygen 4910:, and 4908:cobalt 4880:nickel 4864:alloys 4861:carbon 4761:, and 4625:carbon 4615:is an 4434:Phases 4418:Steels 3186:* ] ]s 393:etc.). 190:56,441 168:Kelisi 121:19,539 64:Inline 46:Visual 10520:Steel 10487:Index 10402:Waste 10286:Reuse 10113:Japan 10052:Codes 10016:Tires 10006:Ships 10001:Paint 9981:Drugs 9922:Water 9907:Scrap 9892:Paper 9882:Glass 9779:Italy 9774:India 9769:China 9424:(via 9404:(via 9301:steel 8869:(PDF) 8852:(PDF) 8613:(PDF) 8606:(PDF) 8436:(PDF) 8429:(PDF) 8065:S2CID 8009:S2CID 7902:S2CID 7821:(PDF) 7804:(PDF) 7683:(PDF) 7668:(PDF) 7497:S2CID 7481:JSTOR 6837:JSTOR 6823:(4). 6646:with 6611:rings 6478:Wires 6323:nails 6161:Alloy 6155:Alloy 6018:Japan 6014:China 5906:basic 5758:in a 5692:Porus 5620:India 5503:India 5416:rails 5402:into 5394:, or 5272:shear 5173:and A 5107:oxide 5021:crust 4892:boron 4847:* 4840:* 4833:* 4826:* 4818:steel 4806:of a 4617:alloy 4613:Steel 3283:* ]es 523:form. 192:edits 123:edits 10037:Bins 9408:or 9299:and 9297:Iron 9207:ISBN 9182:ISBN 9163:ISBN 9084:ISBN 9056:ISBN 9037:ISBN 9018:ISBN 8999:ISBN 8980:ISBN 8904:2010 8856:ISBN 8817:2009 8791:2007 8765:2006 8723:2007 8696:2007 8669:2007 8643:2007 8582:ISBN 8555:2022 8529:2022 8503:2009 8474:2010 8444:2018 8412:2016 8386:2009 8341:2009 8236:ISBN 8146:ISBN 8091:ISBN 7970:ISBN 7943:ISBN 7850:ISBN 7829:2017 7808:ISBN 7784:2010 7758:2010 7672:IAMS 7647:2014 7631:OCLC 7489:PMID 7439:ISBN 7400:ISBN 7323:ISBN 7283:2022 7222:ISBN 7123:2009 7025:2009 7003:2007 6943:ISBN 6866:2022 6658:and 6619:and 6585:Guns 6436:Long 6370:tool 6325:and 6315:cars 6313:and 6293:Uses 6149:zinc 5993:and 5976:The 5778:and 5764:coke 5712:Merv 5670:and 5642:. A 5614:and 5588:and 5545:The 5493:and 5464:and 5434:and 5414:and 5373:cast 5209:C). 5181:The 5135:turn 5129:and 5127:lead 5082:and 4976:slag 4857:iron 4845:or * 4831:or * 4802:The 4651:and 4631:and 4623:and 4621:iron 3294:* ]s 3272:* ]s 3261:* ]s 3153:* ]s 3100:* ]s 3089:* ]s 3047:* ]s 3003:]s]] 174:talk 160:undo 155:edit 105:talk 91:edit 9428:or 8359:". 8057:doi 7999:doi 7894:doi 7882:379 7710:doi 7524:doi 7473:doi 7461:201 7364:doi 6829:doi 6650:by 6360:), 6287:JIS 6086:in 6005:. 5892:'s 5861:An 5819:at 5746:in 5602:in 5512:at 5475:in 5329:oil 5169:, A 5165:, A 5049:tin 5031:or 5025:ore 5007:An 4966:or 4729:in 4619:of 3725:* ] 3714:* ] 3703:* ] 3681:* ] 3670:* ] 3659:* ] 3648:* ] 3637:* ] 3626:* ] 3615:* ] 3604:* ] 3593:* ] 3582:* ] 3571:* ] 3560:* ] 3549:* ] 3538:* ] 3527:* ] 3516:* ] 3505:* ] 3494:* ] 3338:* ] 3327:* ] 3316:* ] 3305:* ] 3250:* ] 3228:]]] 3175:* ] 3025:* ] 2573:*]s 2018:]]] 10516:: 9605:/ 9486:, 9365:) 9205:. 9201:. 8921:. 8895:. 8756:. 8629:. 8580:. 8545:. 8520:. 8494:. 8460:. 8377:. 8282:. 8270:^ 8258:. 8191:^ 8181:. 8077:^ 8063:. 8053:26 8051:. 8032:33 8030:. 8007:. 7997:. 7993:. 7941:. 7914:^ 7900:. 7892:. 7880:. 7864:^ 7848:. 7775:. 7742:. 7704:. 7700:. 7676:25 7674:. 7670:. 7655:^ 7615:^ 7605:. 7520:10 7518:. 7495:. 7487:. 7479:. 7471:. 7459:. 7362:. 7352:31 7350:. 7346:. 7299:. 7267:. 7251:14 7249:. 7206:^ 7191:^ 7109:. 7086:^ 6980:^ 6968:. 6957:^ 6923:^ 6911:. 6886:. 6874:^ 6857:. 6835:. 6821:39 6819:. 6662:. 6424:. 6412:, 6408:, 6368:, 6352:, 6348:, 6344:, 6340:, 6336:, 6261:. 6253:, 6020:, 5951:, 5947:, 5943:, 5742:A 5730:. 5542:. 5468:. 5316:, 5308:. 5300:, 5145:, 5102:. 4978:. 4938:. 4930:, 4922:, 4918:, 4906:, 4902:, 4898:, 4894:, 4890:, 4886:, 4882:, 4878:, 4870:. 4784:. 4757:, 4749:. 4706:, 4702:, 4694:, 4686:. 4659:. 3470:*] 2726:*] 2717:] 2704:*] 2540:*] 1703:]. 203:: 176:| 107:| 10302:) 10298:( 9828:e 9821:t 9814:v 9713:) 9699:( 9490:) 9482:( 9461:) 9457:( 9432:) 9418:) 9355:) 9333:) 9329:( 9289:e 9282:t 9275:v 9215:. 9190:. 9171:. 9092:. 9064:. 9045:. 9026:. 9007:. 8988:. 8906:. 8819:. 8793:. 8767:. 8725:. 8698:. 8671:. 8645:. 8590:. 8557:. 8531:. 8505:. 8476:. 8446:. 8414:. 8388:. 8363:. 8353:" 8343:. 8288:. 8244:. 8220:. 8183:6 8154:. 8114:. 8099:. 8071:. 8059:: 8015:. 8001:: 7978:. 7951:. 7908:. 7896:: 7888:: 7858:. 7831:. 7786:. 7760:. 7718:. 7712:: 7706:5 7649:. 7609:. 7530:. 7526:: 7503:. 7475:: 7467:: 7445:. 7408:. 7370:. 7366:: 7358:: 7331:. 7285:. 7125:. 7027:. 7005:. 6951:. 6917:. 6868:. 6843:. 6831:: 6063:× 6059:× 5684:. 5479:( 5207:3 5175:3 5171:2 5167:1 5163:0 4859:- 4409:. 4402:. 4382:] 4371:] 4360:] 4349:] 4338:] 4327:] 4316:] 4305:] 4294:] 4283:] 4272:] 4261:] 4250:] 4239:] 4230:] 4217:] 4208:] 4195:] 4186:] 4175:] 4168:] 4134:] 4112:] 2992:] 2928:] 2865:] 2739:] 2168:] 2155:] 1887:] 1012:] 899:] 235:] 180:) 172:( 129:m 111:) 103:(

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.