Groundwater pollution: Difference between revisions

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contamination events are derived from surface-level ] routes rather than the subsurface flow from underlying ] formations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drollette|first=Brian D.|last2=Hoelzer|first2=Kathrin|last3=Warner|first3=Nathaniel R.|last4=Darrah|first4=Thomas H.|last5=Karatum|first5=Osman|last6=O’Connor|first6=Megan P.|last7=Nelson|first7=Robert K.|last8=Fernandez|first8=Loretta A.|last9=Reddy|first9=Christopher M.|date=2015-10-27|title=Elevated levels of diesel range organic compounds in groundwater near Marcellus gas operations are derived from surface activities|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/112/43/13184|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=112|issue=43|pages=13184–13189|doi=10.1073/pnas.1511474112|issn=0027-8424|pmc=4629325|pmid=26460018}}</ref> Examples of such events include: a fracking fluid spillage in Acorn Fork Creek, Kentucky that caused a widespread death among aquatic species in 2007;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ewg.org/enviroblog/2013/09/fracking-fluids-spill-caused-kentucky-fish-kill-0|title=Fracking Fluids Spill Caused Kentucky Fish Kill|website=EWG|access-date=2016-05-07}}</ref> a 420,000 gallon spillage of hyper-saline produced water that turned a once very-fertile farmland in New Mexico into a dead-zone in 2010;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.claimsjournal.com/news/national/2015/09/09/265627.htm|title=Fracking Boom Linked to Increasing Wastewater Spills|date=2015-09-09|website=Claims Journal|language=en-US|access-date=2016-05-07}}</ref> and a 42,000 gallon fracking fluid spillage in Arlington, Texas that necessitated an evacuation of over a 100 homes in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rt.com/usa/267838-arlington-texas-fracking-accident/|title=Texas fracking site that spilled 42,000 gallons of fluid into residential area hopes to reopen|website=RT International|language=en-EN|access-date=2016-05-07}}</ref> While the damage can be obvious, and much more more effort is being done to prevent these accidents from occurring so frequently, the lack of data from fracking oil spills continue to leave researchers in the dark. In many of these events, the data acquired from the leakage or spillage is often very vague, and thus would lead researchers to lacking conclusions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2016/01/22/lack-of-data-on-fracking-spills-leaves-researchers-in-the-dark-on-water-contamination/|title=Lack of data on fracking spills leaves researchers in the dark on water contamination|website=StateImpact Pennsylvania|access-date=2016-05-09}}</ref>

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C.|last2=Jackson|first2=Robert B.|title=Impact to Underground Sources of Drinking Water and Domestic Wells from Production Well Stimulation and Completion Practices in the Pavillion, Wyoming, Field|url=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ipdf/10.1021/acs.est.5b04970|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|issue=8|pages=4524–4536|doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b04970}}</ref> (]) and ]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ellsworth|first=William|date=July 12, 2013|title=Injection-Induced Earthquakes|url=|journal=Science AAAS|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> (], ]). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of ], ], and ] concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher ] and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background" ] content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vengosh|first=Avner|date=7 March 2014|title=A Critical Review of the Risks to Water Resources from Unconventional Shale Gas Development and Hydraulic Fracturing in the United States|url=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es405118y|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|doi=|pmid=|access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> Furthermore, it is theorized that contamination could also result from the ] of deep residual hyper-saline water and hydraulic fracturing fluid, slowly flowing through faults and fractures until finally making contact with ];<ref name=":2" /> however, many researchers argue that the permeability of rocks overlying shale formations are too low to allow this to ever happen sufficiently.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Howarth|first=Robert|date=14 September 2011|title=Natural gas: Should fracking stop?|url=|journal=Nature|doi=|pmid=|access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> To ultimately prove this theory, there would have to be traces of of toxic ]s (THM) since they are often associated with the presence of stray gas contamination, and typically co-occur with high halogen concentrations in hyper-saline waters.<ref name=":3" />

454:|title=Review of the Potential Public Health Impacts of Exposures to Chemical and Radioactive Pollutants as a Result of the Shale Gas Extraction Process |authors=A. Kibble, T. Cabianca, Z. Daraktchieva, T. Gooding, J. Smithard, G. Kowalczyk, N. P. McColl, M. Singh, L. Mitchem, P. Lamb, S. Vardoulakis and R. Kamanyire |publisher=Public Health England |docket=PHE-CRCE-009 |date=January 2014}}</ref><ref name="Review of CDC hydraulic fracturing activities">{{cite web |last=Ikeda |first=Robin |url = http://www.cdc.gov/washington/testimony/2013/t20130426.htm |title=Review of Federal Hydraulic Fracturing Research Activities. Testimony before the Subcommittees on Energy and Environment Committee on Science, Space and Technology U.S. House of Representatives |date=April 26, 2013 |work=CDC web site|publisher=US Center for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=May 11, 2013 }}</ref> 1006: 582: 1303: 1373: 715: 1186:

and a 42,000 gallon fracking fluid spillage in Arlington, Texas that necessitated an evacuation of over a 100 homes in 2015. While the damage can be obvious, and much more more effort is being done to prevent these accidents from occurring so frequently, the lack of data from fracking oil spills continue to leave researchers in the dark. In many of these events, the data acquired from the leakage or spillage is often very vague, and thus would lead researchers to lacking conclusions.

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While the EPA has not found significant evidence of a widespread, systematic impact on drinking water by hydraulic fracturing, this may be due to insufficient systematic pre- and post- hydraulic fracturing data on drinking water quality, and the presence of other agents of ] that preclude the link between ]/gas extraction and its impact.<ref>Hydraulic Fracturing Drinking Water Assessment</ref>

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are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

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of the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Potential Threats to Our Groundwater|url=http://www.groundwater.org/get-informed/groundwater/contamination.html|publisher=The Groundwater Foundation|accessdate=24 September 2015}}</ref> Over application of animal ] may also result in groundwater pollution with ].

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The stratigraphy of the area plays an important role in the transport of pollutants. An area can have layers of sandy soil, fractured bedrock, clay, or hardpan. Areas of karst topography on limestone bedrock are sometimes vulnerable to surface pollution from groundwater. Earthquake faults can also be

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Further causes of groundwater pollution are excessive application of ] or ], chemical spills from commercial or industrial operations, chemical spills occurring during transport (e.g. spillage of ] fuels), ], infiltration from ] or ] operations, ], ] from airports and even ] since groundwater is part

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For example, detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater were in the order of 50 ng/L in several locations in Germany.<ref>Winker, M. (2009). . PhD thesis, Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Hamburg, Germany, p. 45, ISBN 978-3-930400-41-6</ref> This is

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Wolf, Jennyfer; Prüss-Ustün, Annette; Cumming, Oliver; Bartram, Jamie; Bonjour, Sophie; Cairncross, Sandy; Clasen, Thomas; Colford, John M.; Curtis, Valerie; De France, Jennifer; Fewtrell, Lorna; Freeman, Matthew C.; Gordon, Bruce; Hunter, Paul R.; Jeandron, Aurelie; Johnston, Richard B.; Mäusezahl,

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formations. Examples of such events include: a fracking fluid spillage in Acorn Fork Creek, Kentucky that caused a widespread death among aquatic species in 2007; a 420,000 gallon spillage of hyper-saline produced water that turned a once very-fertile farmland in New Mexico into a dead-zone in 2010;

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Groundwater pollution can also occur from leaking sewers which has been observed for example in Germany.<ref>{{cite book|last1=John H. Tellam, Michael O. Rivett, Rauf G. Israfilov, Liam G. Herringshaw|title=Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability|date=2006|publisher=Springer Link, NATO

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Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from ground water by applying various techniques thereby making it safe for use. Ground water treatment (or remediation) techniques span biological, chemical, and physical treatment technologies. Most ground water treatment techniques utilize a combination

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While conclusions regarding groundwater pollution as the result to hydraulic fracturing fluid flow is restricted in both space and time, researchers have hypothesized that the potential for systematic stray gas contamination depends mainly on the integrity of the shale oil/gas well structure, along

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Though widespread, systematic contamination by hydraulic fracturing has been heavily disputed, one major source of contamination that has the most consensus among researchers of being the most problematic is site-specific accidental spillage of ] and ]. So far, a significant majority of groundwater

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The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For this reason, it is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance

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Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some time before regular testing of groundwater

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and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

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The recent growth of ] ("Fracking") wells in the United States has raised valid concerns regarding its potential risks of contaminating groundwater resources. The ] (EPA), along with many other researchers, has been delegated to study the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and ] resources.

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from an industrial landfill that the neighborhood had been built over and around, which had then infiltrated into the water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate the air. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media

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As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial contamination.However, no general

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Despite the EPA's lack of profound widespread evidence, other researchers have made significant observations of rising groundwater contamination in close proximity to major shale oil/gas drilling sites located in ]<ref name="DiGiulio 4524–4536">{{Cite journal|last=DiGiulio|first=Dominic

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Portable water purification devices or "point-of-use" (POU) water treatment systems and field water disinfection techniques can be used to remove some forms of groundwater pollution prior to drinking, namely any fecal pollution. Many commercial portable water purification systems or chemical

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published the Ground Water Rule in the United States Federal Register. The EPA was worried that the ground water system would be vulnerable to contamination from fecal matter. The point of the rule was to keep microbial pathogens out of public water sources. The 2006 Ground Water Rule was an

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While there is large concern about the potential risk of groundwater pollution from ], there are relatively few cases where a contamination could be confirmed.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/332837/PHE-CRCE-009_3-7-14.pdf

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The ways to deal with groundwater pollution that has already occurred can be grouped into the following categories: containing the pollutants to prevent them from migrating further; removing the pollutants from the aquifer; remediating the aquifer by either immobilizing or detoxifying the

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The peri-urban areas of Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, have ground conditions which are strongly karstified and for this reason – together with the increasing population density in these peri-urban areas – pollution of ]s from pit latrines is a major public health threat there.<ref

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resources. While the EPA has not found significant evidence of a widespread, systematic impact on drinking water by hydraulic fracturing, this may be due to insufficient systematic pre- and post- hydraulic fracturing data on drinking water quality, and the presence of other agents of

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into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater pollution. The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.

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because in conventional sewage treatment plants, micro-pollutants such as ], ] residues and other micro-pollutants contained in ] and ] are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, from where it may also reach the groundwater.

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Daniel; Mathers, Colin; Neira, Maria; Higgins, Julian P. T. (August 2014). "Systematic review: Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression".

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Liquids leach from the pit and pass the unsaturated soil zone (which is not completely filled with water). Subsequently, these liquids from the pit enter the groundwater where they may lead to groundwater pollution. This is a problem if a nearby

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purposes. During the passage in the soil, pathogens can die off or be adsorbed significantly, mostly depending on the travel time between the pit and the well. Most, but not all pathogens die within 50 days of travel through the subsurface.

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entry routes for downward contaminant entry. Water table conditions are of great importance for drinking water supplies, agricultural irrigation, waste disposal (including nuclear waste), wildlife habitat, and other ecological issues.

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statement should be made regarding the minimum lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit latrine. For example, even 50 m lateral separation distance might not be sufficient in a strongly

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For example, detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater were in the order of 50 ng/L in several locations in Germany. This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, micro-pollutants such as

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may also reach the aquifer if the effluent is infiltrated or discharged to local surface water bodies. Therefore, those substances that are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants may reach the groundwater as well.

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If treatment or remediation of the polluted groundwater is deemed to be too difficult or expensive then abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water is the only other option.

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system with a downgradient supply well or spring, while 10 m lateral separation distance is completely sufficient if there is a well developed clay cover layer and the annular space of the groundwater well is well sealed.

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On-site sanitation systems can be designed in such a way that groundwater pollution from these sanitation systems is prevented from occurring. Detailed guidelines have been developed to estimate safe distances to protect

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Contaminants found in groundwater cover a broad range of physical, inorganic chemical, organic chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive parameters. Principally, many of the same pollutants that play a role in surface

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partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity; however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to

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Techniques include boiling, filtration, activated charcoal absorption, chemical disinfection, ultraviolet purification, ozone water disinfection, solar water disinfection, solar distillation, homemade water filters.

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are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release of chemical or

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A traditional housing compound near Herat, Afghanistan, where a shallow water supply well (foreground) is in close proximity to the pit latrine (behind the white greenhouse) leading to contamination of the

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M. Nasir Khan and F. Mohammad "Eutrophication: Challenges and Solutions" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

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contaminants while they are still in the aquifer (in-situ); treating the groundwater at its point of use; or abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water.

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The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.

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Guideline values for horizontal separation distances between on-site sanitation systems and water sources vary widely (e.g. 15 to 100 m horizontal distance between pit latrine and groundwater wells)

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If the local hydrogeological conditions (which can vary within a space of a few square kilometres) are ignored, pit latrines can cause significant public health risks via contaminated groundwater.

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content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings. Furthermore, it is theorized that contamination could also result from the

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Drollette, Brian D.; Hoelzer, Kathrin; Warner, Nathaniel R.; Darrah, Thomas H.; Karatum, Osman; O’Connor, Megan P.; Nelson, Robert K.; Fernandez, Loretta A.; Reddy, Christopher M. (2015-10-27).

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or daylight into surface water such as seeps and spring, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a

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within an aquifer. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area. Its advancing boundary, often called a plume edge, can intersect with

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and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background"

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with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

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contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic

785:" in children, notably in rural countries such as Romania and Bulgaria. Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause "blue baby syndrome" (acquired 755:

or helminth eggs), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater, whereas the relatively large helminth eggs are usually filtered out by the soil matrix.

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and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface

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affects 25% of water wells in the shallower of two regional aquifers. The pollution occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates

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In addition to the issue of pathogens, there is also the issue of nitrate pollution in groundwater from pit latrines, which has led to numerous cases of "

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The passage of water through the subsurface can provide a reliable natural barrier to contamination but it only works under favorable conditions.

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of deep residual hyper-saline water and hydraulic fracturing fluid, slowly flowing through faults and fractures until finally making contact with

158: 93: 2388: 31: 28: 1089: 2049:"A Critical Review of the Risks to Water Resources from Unconventional Shale Gas Development and Hydraulic Fracturing in the United States" 1088:("Fracking") wells in the United States has raised valid concerns regarding its potential risks of contaminating groundwater resources. The 735:

can lead to groundwater pollution when they are given the opportunity to reach the groundwater, making it unsafe for drinking. Of the four

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Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen

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Guidelines for separation distances based on virus transport between on-site domestic wastewater systems and wells, Porirua, New Zealand

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In the year 2000, groundwater pollution occurred in the small town of Walkerton, Canada leading to seven deaths in what is known as the

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is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural

2440: 1129:). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of 1165:

with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration.

1497:, carbon absorption, aqueous chemical oxidation, and surfactant enhanced recovery. Some chemical techniques may be implemented using 2119:"Elevated levels of diesel range organic compounds in groundwater near Marcellus gas operations are derived from surface activities" 435:

Science Series Volume 74 2006|isbn=978-1-4020-5175-3|pages=490|url=http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/1-4020-5175-1}}</ref>

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Science Series Volume 74 2006|isbn=978-1-4020-5175-3|pages=490|url=http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/1-4020-5175-1}}</ref>

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was one of the most widely known examples of groundwater pollution. In 1978, residents of the Love Canal neighborhood in upstate

154: 89: 2555: 2304: 1757:"Journal of Contaminant Hydrology – Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries" 1076:

are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, from where it may also reach the groundwater.

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Groundwater pollution with pathogens and nitrate can also occur from the liquids infiltrating into the ground from on-site

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additives are available which can remove pathogens, chlorine, bad taste, odors, and heavy metals like lead and mercury.

1092:(EPA), along with many other researchers, has been delegated to study the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and 3633: 1814: 3628: 3437: 1895:

Graham, J.P., Polizzotto, M.L. (2013). "Pit Latrines and Their Impacts on Groundwater Quality: A Systematic Review".

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or fluoride. Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease.

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Schematic showing that there is a lower risk of groundwater pollution with greater depth of the water well

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Groundwater pollution can also occur from leaking sewers which has been observed for example in Germany.

1110: 659: 2103: 3587: 3471: 3415: 2507: 2416: 1559: 1005: 581: 170: 1974:. PhD thesis, Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Hamburg, Germany, p. 45, ISBN 978-3-930400-41-6 3002: 1794:"NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck" 1734: 1541: 1114: 1946:"2012. Combined Sewer Overflows: An Environmental Source of Hormones and Wastewater Micropollutants" 1852: 1177:. So far, a significant majority of groundwater contamination events are derived from surface-level 2987: 2223: 2198: 1571: 1544:(PG&E) and a multimillion-dollar settlement in 1996. The legal case was dramatized in the film 797: 100: 1972:

Pharmaceutical residues in urine and potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture

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Europe's sanitation problem – 20 million Europeans need access to safe and affordable sanitation

3565: 3408: 3280: 1546: 1486: 1052: 805: 213: 1869:. Bonn, Deutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfaches e.V. Technical rule number W101:2006-06 3608: 3362: 3357: 3093: 2403: 2087: 1924: 1839: 1291: 670:. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as 620: 66: 1866: 706:

may also be found in polluted groundwater, although their respective importance may differ.

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Sign near Mannheim, Germany indicating a zone as a dedicated "groundwater protection zone"

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Nick, A., Foppen, J. W., Kulabako, R., Lo, D., Samwel, M., Wagner, F., Wolf, L. (2012).

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Nick, A., Foppen, J. W., Kulabako, R., Lo, D., Samwel, M., Wagner, F., Wolf, L. (2012).

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Lynda Knobeloch, Barbara Salna, Adam Hogan, Jeffrey Postle, and Henry Anderson (2000).

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Moore, C., Nokes, C., Loe, B., Close, M., Pang, L., Smith, V., Osbaldiston, S. (2010)

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can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from

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Guidelines on drinking water protection areas – Part 1: Groundwater protection areas

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Philips, P.J.; Chalmers, A.T.; Gray, J.L.; Kolpin, D.W.; Foreman, W.T.; Wall, G.R.

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conditions in the aquifer. These conditions result in the microbial dissolution of

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Nitrate can also enter the groundwater via excessive use of fertilizers, including

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John H. Tellam, Michael O. Rivett, Rauf G. Israfilov, Liam G. Herringshaw (2006).

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Sustainable sanitation and groundwater protection – Factsheet of Working Group 11

1501:. Physical treatment techniques include, but are not limited to, pump and treat, 1498: 1466: 1278: 1219: 1207: 1154: 703: 604:) occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and make their way down into 2048: 1721: 1328:

Horizontal distance between the drinking water source and the sanitation system

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Howarth, Robert (14 September 2011). "Natural gas: Should fracking stop?".

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How to keep your groundwater drinkable: Safer siting of sanitation systems

1026:, depending on the population density and the hydrogeological conditions. 3403: 3347: 3169: 3147: 3142: 3009: 2886: 2852: 2840: 2728: 2651: 2365:– Factsheet of Working Group 11. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) 1567: 1478: 1474: 1317: 1274: 1203: 1146: 1023: 1019: 722: 677:

Different mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g.

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Guidelines for assessing the risk to groundwater from on-site sanitation

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hydrocarbons, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and

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Ellsworth, William (July 12, 2013). "Injection-Induced Earthquakes".

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bacteria. This contamination was due to farm runoff into an adjacent

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of technologies. Some of the biological treatment techniques include

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Further causes of groundwater pollution are excessive application of

1102: 868: 852: 848: 767: 728: 678: 644: 613: 2499: 2378:. NERC, British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/01/142, UK 3520: 3088: 3014: 2955: 2950: 2898: 2808: 2779: 2772: 2762: 2693: 2667: 2663: 2655: 1454: 1336:

Vertical distance between drinking water well and sanitation system

1061: 977: 967: 963: 935: 752: 748: 740: 736: 655: 2299:. Springer Link, NATO Science Series Volume 74 2006. p. 490. 758:

Groundwater that is contaminated with pathogens can lead to fatal

3388: 3184: 3179: 3125: 3031: 2960: 2803: 2604: 1450: 1433: 1282: 1138: 1130: 923: 864: 860: 763: 744: 2464: 1735:"Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers" 3237: 3202: 3026: 2982: 2830: 2628: 1629:– Working Group 11 Publication. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 1354:

Superposition, i.e. the need to consider a larger planning area

1235: 1223: 1215: 1142: 1134: 1126: 981: 793: 2459: 1894: 662:, leaking sewers, petrol stations or from over application of 3270: 3110: 3036: 2823: 1670:. Women in Europe for a Common Future (WECF), The Netherlands 1638: 1360: 1182: 1073: 1069: 835:

Organic pollutants can also be found in groundwater, such as

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IGRAC, International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre

2116: 1732: 3215: 3071: 3066: 3046: 2920: 2871: 2715: 2495:

UPGro – Unlocking the Potential of Groundwater for the Poor

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United States Geological Survey (USGS), Denver, CO (1998).

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contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic

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Groundwater pollution example in Lusaka, Zambia where the

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from pit latrines is a major public health threat there.

859:

and their metabolites. Inorganic pollutans might include

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Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Ecosystem Services

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routes rather than the subsurface flow from underlying

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identified these substances in drinking water sources.

2474: 2199:"Fracking Boom Linked to Increasing Wastewater Spills" 1310: 934:

In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of

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Ground Water Rule (GWR) | Ground Water Rule | US EPA

2350:"Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource." 1540:

starting in 1952, resulting in a legal case against

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concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher

1986: 1260: 2475:IAH, International Association of Hydrogeologists 2363:Sustainable sanitation and groundwater protection 2175:"Fracking Fluids Spill Caused Kentucky Fish Kill" 1682:"Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water" 1068:residues and other micro-pollutants contained in 635:. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on 3600: 2399: 2397: 228:(11 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown) 2296:Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability 2123:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1817:Annual Review of Plant Biology Vol. 59: 341–363 1733:C. J. Rosen and B. P. Horgan (9 January 2009). 1390:amendment of the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act. 1983:Hydraulic Fracturing Drinking Water Assessment 1666:Buitenkamp, M., Richert Stintzing, A. (2008). 1584:that was vulnerable to groundwater pollution. 1570:became contaminated with the highly dangerous 1238:may also result in groundwater pollution with 922:in the sediment and, thus, the release of the 2515: 2394: 1950:National Center for Biotechnology Information 1000: 815: 593:in the foreground with pathogens and nitrate. 2319:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1929:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1702:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1642:Tropical Medicine & International Health 2480:Argoss Project of British Geological Survey 2344: 2342: 1995: 1532:The town of Hinkley, California (USA), had 2522: 2508: 2441:"Walkerton E. coli outbreak declared over" 1882:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) 1421: 1046: 2406:. Water.epa.gov. Retrieved on 2011-06-09. 2150: 2026: 1996:DiGiulio, Dominic C.; Jackson, Robert B. 1402: 199: 2339: 1621: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1609: 1566:. The water supply which was drawn from 1371: 1301: 1004: 713: 580: 2077: 2046: 1625:Wolf, L., Nick, A., Cronin, A. (2015). 1079: 3601: 2421:Water Encyclopedia, Science and Issues 2272:"Potential Threats to Our Groundwater" 2053:Environmental Science & Technology 2002:Environmental Science & Technology 1952:. Environmental Science and Technology 1517: 1445:. Groundwater that moves through open 882: 647:, and the nature of the contaminants. 540:<ref name="DiGiulio 4524–4536"/> 138: 2529: 2503: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2042: 2040: 2038: 1890: 1888: 1606: 2485:Groundwater pollution and sanitation 1710: 1553: 1320:sources from pollution from on-site 958: 894:Arsenic contamination of groundwater 619:The pollutant creates a contaminant 80: 46: 2335:http://www.groundwatersampling.org/ 1311:Locating on-site sanitation systems 970:can lead to groundwater pollution. 855:products, drug pollution involving 589:in the background is polluting the 227: 219: 206: 195: 169: 152: 145: 134: 99: 90:Revision as of 22:47, 18 April 2016 87: 13: 2066: 2035: 1885: 1827:World Health Organization (2004). 1281:. By its very nature, groundwater 1034:is used to supply groundwater for 696: 639:characteristics and site geology, 579: 35: 3650: 2453: 1632: 1587: 1230:since groundwater is part of the 938:in groundwater which is used for 739:types that are present in feces ( 650:Pollution can occur from on-site 3583: 3582: 1761:Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 1380: 1105:/gas extraction and its impact. 988:. This was eventually traced to 822:VOC contamination of groundwater 577:Revision as of 23:39, 9 May 2016 155:Revision as of 23:39, 9 May 2016 2489:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 2434: 2409: 2381: 2368: 2355: 2327: 2286: 2264: 2240: 2216: 2191: 2167: 2110: 2047:Vengosh, Avner (7 March 2014). 2020: 1977: 1964: 1937: 1872: 1859: 1820: 1527: 1387:Environmental Protection Agency 1261:Interactions with surface water 1101:that preclude the link between 1090:Environmental Protection Agency 1808: 1786: 1749: 1726: 1673: 1660: 1508: 1436:. Non-porous aquifers such as 1367: 847:and other chemical compounds, 1: 2487:(documents in library of the 1600: 1505:, and dual phase extraction. 1397: 1297: 1248: 1234:. Over application of animal 950:can be prevalent and severe. 575: 534: 527: 449: 440: 383: 374: 362: 353: 341: 332: 320: 296: 281: 270: 2548:Pollution / quality 2274:. The Groundwater Foundation 1829:"Fluoride in drinking-water" 1796:. Nofa.org. 25 February 2004 1773:10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4 1534:its groundwater contaminated 1351:Volume of leaking wastewater 709: 629:hydrological transport model 18:Browse history interactively 7: 1722:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5 1522: 1409:Portable water purification 929: 660:wastewater treatment plants 10: 3655: 2460:USGS Office of Groundwater 2417:"Pollution of groundwater" 1542:Pacific Gas & Electric 1425: 1406: 1348:Slope and surface drainage 1342:Groundwater flow direction 1171:hydraulic fracturing fluid 1051:The treated effluent from 1001:On-site sanitation systems 984:and an alarming number of 891: 887: 819: 816:Volatile organic compounds 776: 197: 136: 3634:Water and the environment 3578: 3519: 3384: 3377: 3258: 3119:Types / location 3118: 3109: 2919: 2714: 2627: 2597: 2546: 2537: 1115:Northeastern Pennsylvania 953: 830: 602:groundwater contamination 510:name="water.epa.gov"/> 502:name="water.epa.gov"/> 492: 489: 457: 445: 381: 372: 360: 351: 339: 330: 318: 294: 235: 232: 151: 86: 3629:Geotechnical engineering 2252:StateImpact Pennsylvania 1228:atmospheric contaminants 1189: 123:Extended confirmed users 2135:10.1073/pnas.1511474112 2014:10.1021/acs.est.5b04970 1897:Environ Health Perspect 1428:Groundwater remediation 1422:Groundwater remediation 1265:Although interrelated, 1240:pharmaceutical residues 1226:from airports and even 1053:sewage treatment plants 1047:Sewage treatment plants 760:fecal-oral transmission 85: 2333:Groundwater Sampling; 1847:Cite journal requires 1487:chemical precipitation 1403:Point-of-use treatment 1385:In November 2006, the 1377: 1307: 1011: 980:noticed high rates of 725: 594: 200:→‎Hydraulic Fracturing 3624:Hydraulic engineering 2443:. Tracy McLaughlin , 1457:as dumps in areas of 1375: 1305: 1273:Interactions between 1208:illegal waste dumping 1155:groundwater resources 1084:The recent growth of 1008: 717: 598:Groundwater pollution 584: 287:Hydraulic Fracturing 3494:remnant natural area 3131:storage and recovery 2797:habitat conservation 2615:Deforestation (REDD) 2465:UK Groundwater Forum 1550:, released in 2000. 1210:, infiltration from 1086:Hydraulic Fracturing 1080:Hydraulic Fracturing 857:pharmaceutical drugs 3448:Earth Overshoot Day 3022:Marine conservation 3003:non-timber products 2129:(43): 13184–13189. 1970:Winker, M. (2009). 1909:10.1289/ehp.1206028 1737:. Extension.umn.edu 1538:hexavalent chromium 1518:Society and culture 1491:membrane separation 1151:capillary migration 883:Naturally occurring 719:Waterborne diseases 139:→‎Landfill leachate 3433:Ecosystem services 2556:Ambient standards 2445:The Globe and Mail 2096:|access-date= 1378: 1345:Impermeable layers 1308: 1224:de-icing chemicals 1012: 948:skeletal fluorosis 783:blue baby syndrome 762:of diseases (e.g. 726: 595: 167: 97: 3596: 3595: 3574: 3573: 3373: 3372: 3052:genetic resources 2988:genetic resources 2623: 2622: 2531:Natural resources 2306:978-1-4020-5175-3 1654:10.1111/tmi.12331 1554:Walkerton, Canada 1443:soil contaminants 1119:Horn River Basins 959:Landfill leachate 787:methemoglobinemia 633:groundwater model 625:groundwater wells 574: 153: 88: 68: 3646: 3586: 3585: 3537: 3484:Natural heritage 3443:overexploitation 3382: 3381: 3116: 3115: 3062:herbal medicines 3042:FAO Plant Treaty 2582: 2559: 2544: 2543: 2524: 2517: 2510: 2501: 2500: 2448: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2392: 2385: 2379: 2372: 2366: 2359: 2353: 2346: 2337: 2331: 2325: 2324: 2318: 2310: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2268: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2258: 2244: 2238: 2237: 2235: 2234: 2228:RT International 2220: 2214: 2213: 2211: 2210: 2195: 2189: 2188: 2186: 2185: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2154: 2114: 2108: 2107: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2091: 2083: 2075: 2064: 2063: 2061: 2059: 2044: 2033: 2032: 2024: 2018: 2017: 2008:(8): 4524–4536. 1993: 1984: 1981: 1975: 1968: 1962: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1928: 1920: 1892: 1883: 1876: 1870: 1863: 1857: 1856: 1850: 1845: 1843: 1835: 1833: 1824: 1818: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1790: 1784: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1753: 1747: 1746: 1744: 1742: 1730: 1724: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1701: 1693: 1691: 1689: 1677: 1671: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1636: 1630: 1623: 1483:phytoremediation 1459:karst topography 1232:hydrologic cycle 1123:British Columbia 1018:systems such as 990:organic solvents 658:, effluent from 484:== Mechanisms == 477:== Mechanisms == 217: 216: 204: 203: 202: 190: 185: 166: 161: 143: 142: 141: 129: 115: 96: 69: 60: 59: 57: 52: 50: 42: 39: 21: 19: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3644: 3643: 3599: 3598: 3597: 3592: 3570: 3535: 3515: 3501:Systems ecology 3467:Natural capital 3369: 3254: 3243:reclaimed water 3105: 3067:UPOV Convention 2915: 2710: 2619: 2593: 2589:Ozone depletion 2580: 2557: 2533: 2528: 2456: 2451: 2439: 2435: 2425: 2423: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2402: 2395: 2386: 2382: 2374:ARGOSS (2001). 2373: 2369: 2360: 2356: 2347: 2340: 2332: 2328: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2291: 2287: 2277: 2275: 2270: 2269: 2265: 2256: 2254: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2232: 2230: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2208: 2206: 2197: 2196: 2192: 2183: 2181: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2115: 2111: 2099: 2095: 2094: 2085: 2084: 2076: 2067: 2057: 2055: 2045: 2036: 2025: 2021: 1994: 1987: 1982: 1978: 1969: 1965: 1955: 1953: 1942: 1938: 1922: 1921: 1893: 1886: 1877: 1873: 1864: 1860: 1848: 1846: 1837: 1836: 1831: 1825: 1821: 1813: 1809: 1799: 1797: 1792: 1791: 1787: 1777: 1775: 1755: 1754: 1750: 1740: 1738: 1731: 1727: 1715: 1711: 1695: 1694: 1687: 1685: 1684:. 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905: 901: 895: 880: 878: 877:radionuclides 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 845:organohalides 843:, a range of 842: 838: 828: 823: 813: 810: 807: 803: 802:surface water 799: 795: 790: 788: 784: 774: 771: 769: 765: 761: 756: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 731:contained in 730: 724: 720: 716: 707: 705: 694: 692: 688: 687:precipitation 684: 680: 675: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 648: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 610:contamination 607: 603: 600:(also called 599: 592: 588: 583: 576: 570: 568: 565: 563: 562: 558:{{Reflist|2}} 556: 554: 551:{{Reflist|2}} 549: 547: 546: 536: 529: 526: 522: 520: 517: 515: 514: 507: 505: 499: 497: 496: 488: 482: 480: 475: 473: 472: 468: 466: 463: 461: 460: 451: 448: 442: 439: 432: 430: 424: 422: 421: 417: 415: 412: 410: 409: 402: 400: 394: 392: 391: 387:=== Other === 385: 380: 376: 371: 364: 359: 355: 350: 343: 338: 334: 329: 322: 317: 313: 311: 308: 306: 305: 298: 293: 283: 272: 269: 265: 263: 260: 258: 257: 250: 248: 242: 240: 239: 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Coli 1451:caverns 1139:propane 1131:methane 994:dioxins 942:, both 924:arsenic 910:severe 898:In the 888:Arsenic 865:nitrate 861:ammonia 777:Nitrate 764:cholera 745:viruses 672:arsenic 128:149,430 3399:global 3363:policy 3308:Supply 3271:Floods 3238:Sewage 3211:Marine 3203:huerta 3037:Plants 3027:Meadow 2887:health 2865:rights 2853:copper 2831:mining 2729:arable 2629:Energy 2569:Indoor 2303: 2159: 2149: 2141: 2080:Nature 1915: 1481:, and 1236:manure 1216:mining 1204:diesel 1143:Helium 1137:, and 1135:ethane 1127:Canada 1117:) and 982:cancer 954:Causes 944:dental 831:Others 798:runoff 794:manure 276:Others 102:Jarble 67:Inline 49:Visual 3639:Water 3542:Curse 3348:Right 3190:polar 3180:bergs 3143:Fresh 3111:Water 2824:metal 2748:Field 2699:shade 2689:Solar 2679:Hydro 2564:Index 2058:5 May 1832:(PDF) 1536:with 1438:clays 1292:plume 1190:Other 1183:shale 1074:feces 1070:urine 800:into 733:feces 691:decay 621:plume 191:edits 130:edits 3477:good 3426:land 3404:land 3216:Rain 3072:wood 3047:food 3010:Game 2921:Life 2872:Soil 2848:peak 2841:sand 2716:Land 2706:Wind 2581:(US) 2558:(US) 2428:2015 2321:link 2301:ISBN 2280:2015 2157:PMID 2139:ISSN 2104:help 2060:2016 1958:2015 1931:link 1913:PMID 1853:help 1802:2010 1780:2012 1743:2010 1704:link 1690:2015 1449:and 1173:and 1072:and 1022:and 992:and 946:and 906:and 839:and 751:and 637:soil 178:talk 164:undo 159:edit 108:talk 94:edit 3276:Law 3175:Ice 3015:law 2993:law 2971:law 2899:Use 2836:law 2819:ore 2780:Law 2656:gas 2642:Law 2637:Bio 2574:Law 2539:Air 2179:EWG 2147:PMC 2131:doi 2127:112 2010:doi 1905:doi 1901:121 1769:doi 1718:doi 1650:doi 1214:or 1198:or 902:of 875:or 789:). 770:). 666:in 631:or 289:=== 285:=== 278:=== 274:=== 209:Tag 3605:: 2666:, 2662:, 2658:, 2419:. 2396:^ 2341:^ 2317:}} 2313:{{ 2250:. 2226:. 2201:. 2177:. 2155:. 2145:. 2137:. 2125:. 2121:. 2092:: 2090:}} 2086:{{ 2068:^ 2051:. 2037:^ 2006:50 2004:. 2000:. 1988:^ 1948:. 1927:}} 1923:{{ 1911:. 1899:. 1887:^ 1844:: 1842:}} 1838:{{ 1765:20 1763:. 1759:. 1700:}} 1696:{{ 1646:19 1644:. 1608:^ 1493:, 1489:, 1477:, 1473:, 1469:, 1461:. 1294:. 1242:. 1222:, 1133:, 1125:, 1064:, 879:. 871:, 867:, 863:, 766:, 747:, 743:, 689:, 685:, 681:, 643:, 616:. 542:== 211:: 189:33 180:| 121:, 110:| 2670:) 2523:e 2516:t 2509:v 2491:) 2447:. 2430:. 2323:) 2309:. 2282:. 2260:. 2236:. 2212:. 2187:. 2163:. 2133:: 2106:) 2102:( 2082:. 2062:. 2031:. 2016:. 2012:: 1960:. 1933:) 1919:. 1907:: 1855:) 1851:( 1834:. 1804:. 1782:. 1771:: 1745:. 1720:: 1706:) 1692:. 1656:. 1652:: 1121:( 1113:( 184:) 176:( 114:) 106:(

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