Zooplankton - Knowledge

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excretion and egestion and gelatinous zooplankton can also release DOM through the production of mucus. Leaching of fecal pellets can extend from hours to days after initial egestion and its effects can vary depending on food concentration and quality. Various factors can affect how much DOM is released from zooplankton individuals or populations. Absorption efficiency (AE) is the proportion of food absorbed by plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands. Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in AE may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment. Low feeding rates typically lead to high AE and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low AE and larger pellets with more organic content. Another contributing factor to DOM release is respiration rate. Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO

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quantities of fecal pellets, resulting in greater measures of carbon export. Additionally, as fecal pellets sink, they are reworked by microbes in the water column, which can thus alter the carbon composition of the pellet. This affects how much carbon is recycled in the euphotic zone and how much reaches depth. Fecal pellet contribution to carbon export is likely underestimated; however, new advances in quantifying this production are currently being developed, including the use of isotopic signatures of amino acids to characterize how much carbon is being exported via zooplankton fecal pellet production. Carcasses are also gaining recognition as being important contributors to carbon export.

2592: 1767: 1737: 1959: 2252: 2637: 8846: 3107: 2126: 3087: 1990: 1975: 2762: 2006: 2109: 3343: 3305: 1574: 36: 1779: 2873: 1086: 2554: 7175: 3259: 2450: 1618: 3073: 2193: 1533: 797: 1819: 1807: 1650: 1638: 1037:, specific species of zooplankton are strictly restricted by salinity and temperature gradients, while other species can withstand wide temperature and salinity gradients. Zooplankton patchiness can also be influenced by biological factors, as well as other physical factors. Biological factors include breeding, predation, concentration of phytoplankton, and vertical migration. The physical factor that influences zooplankton distribution the most is mixing of the water column ( 1712: 2816: 1903: 2088: 1700: 1524: 8872: 519: 8860: 2076: 2417: 2235: 1915: 1867: 1085: 2831: 2613: 3291:. The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding. Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more “sloppily”, that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption. There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets. 3019:, are very diverse, fragile with no hard parts, difficult to see and monitor, subject to rapid population swings and often live inconveniently far from shore or deep in the ocean. It is difficult for scientists to detect and analyse jellyfish in the guts of predators, since they turn to mush when eaten and are rapidly digested. But jellyfish bloom in vast numbers, and it has been shown they form major components in the diets of 2936: 8478: 3167: 6947: 6620: 6260: 6207: 4558: 3916: 3629: 2859: 2845: 2393: 2921: 1749: 3047:. "Despite their low energy density, the contribution of jellyfish to the energy budgets of predators may be much greater than assumed because of rapid digestion, low capture costs, availability, and selective feeding on the more energy-rich components. Feeding on jellyfish may make marine predators susceptible to ingestion of plastics." According to a 2017 study, 2951: 1311:

biologists because classic theories of life-history evolution predict smaller adult sizes in environments delaying growth. This pattern of body size variation, known as the temperature-size rule (TSR), has been observed for a wide range of ectotherms, including single-celled and multicellular species, invertebrates and vertebrates.

1415:, much larger than mesozooplankton. That said, macrozooplankton can sometimes have greater consumption rates in eutrophic ecosystems because the larger phytoplankton can be dominant there. Microzooplankton are also pivotal regenerators of nutrients which fuel primary production and food sources for metazoans. 1315:

factors. For instance, oxygen supply plays a central role in determining the magnitude of ectothermic temperature-size responses, but it is hard to disentangle the relative effects of oxygen and temperature from field data because these two variables are often strongly inter-related in the surface ocean.

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Despite their ecological importance, microzooplankton remain understudied. Routine oceanographic observations seldom monitor microzooplankton biomass or herbivory rate, although the dilution technique, an elegant method of measuring microzooplankton herbivory rate, has been developed for almost four

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Just as any species can be limited within a geographical region, so are zooplankton. However, species of zooplankton are not dispersed uniformly or randomly within a region of the ocean. As with phytoplankton, 'patches' of zooplankton species exist throughout the ocean. Though few physical barriers

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processes. Predicting central paradigms of ocean ecosystem function, including responses to environmental change requires accurate representation of grazing in global biogeochemical, ecosystem and cross-biome-comparison models. Several large-scale analyses have concluded that phytoplankton losses,

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The importance of the so-called "jelly web" is only beginning to be understood, but it seems medusae, ctenophores and siphonophores can be key predators in deep pelagic food webs with ecological impacts similar to predator fish and squid. Traditionally gelatinous predators were thought ineffectual

2910:). They are planktonic because they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with the ocean currents. Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic. Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into 1290:

characteristic shared by organisms across taxonomy that characterises the functions performed by organisms in ecosystems. It has a paramount effect on growth, reproduction, feeding strategies and mortality. One of the oldest manifestations of the biogeography of traits was proposed over 170 years

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The processes underlying the inverse relationship between body size and temperature remain to be identified. Despite temperature playing a major role in shaping latitudinal variations in organism size, these patterns may also rely on complex interactions between physical, chemical and biological

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structure and ecosystem characteristics, because empirical grazing measurements are sparse, resulting in poor parameterisation of grazing functions. To overcome this critical knowledge gap, it has been suggested that a focused effort be placed on the development of instrumentation that can link

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decades (Landry and Hassett 1982). The number of observations of microzooplankton herbivory rate is around 1600 globally, far less than that of primary productivity (> 50,000). This makes validating and optimizing the grazing function of microzooplankton difficult in ocean ecosystem models.

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Excretion and sloppy feeding (the physical breakdown of food source) make up 80% and 20% of crustacean zooplankton-mediated DOM release respectively. In the same study, fecal pellet leaching was found to be an insignificant contributor. For protozoan grazers, DOM is released primarily through

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which are organisms that do not generate sufficient metabolic heat to elevate their body temperature, so their metabolic processes depends on external temperature. Consequently, ectotherms grow more slowly and reach maturity at a larger body size in colder environments, which has long puzzled

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are estimated to be a large contributor to this export, with copepod size rather than abundance expected to determine how much carbon actually reaches the ocean floor. The importance of fecal pellets can vary both by time and location. For example, zooplankton bloom events can produce larger

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encased in elaborate globular shells usually made of silica and pierced with holes. Their name comes from the Latin for "radius". They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes. As with the silica frustules of diatoms, radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean floor when

3402:– the mass sinking of gelatinous zooplankton carcasses – occur across the world as a result of large blooms. Because of their large size, these gelatinous zooplankton are expected to hold a larger carbon content, making their sinking carcasses a potentially important source of food for 3327:

as a proxy for algae biomass at the surface. The diverse zooplankton community feeds on the sinking particle flux and acts as a gate-keeper to the deeper ocean by ingesting and fragmenting sinking particles and, consequently, significantly reducing the export flux out of the

3153:. In all ocean ecosystems, grazing by heterotrophic protists constitutes the single largest loss factor of marine primary production and alters particle size distributions. Grazing affects all pathways of export production, rendering grazing important both for surface and 6593:

Siegel, David A.; Buesseler, Ken O.; Behrenfeld, Michael J.; Benitez-Nelson, Claudia R.; Boss, Emmanuel; Brzezinski, Mark A.; Burd, Adrian; Carlson, Craig A.; d'Asaro, Eric A.; Doney, Scott C.; Perry, Mary J.; Stanley, Rachel H. R.; Steinberg, Deborah K. (2016).

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Andersen, K.H.; Berge, T.; Gonçalves, R.J.; Hartvig, M.; Heuschele, J.; Hylander, S.; Jacobsen, N.S.; Lindemann, C.; Martens, E.A.; Neuheimer, A.B.; Olsson, K.; Palacz, A.; Prowe, A.E.F.; Sainmont, J.; Traving, S.J.; Visser, A.W.; Wadhwa, N.; Kiørboe, T. (2016).

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can be used to study marine ecosystems' response to climate change. This is because they have life cycles that generally last less than a year, meaning they respond to climate changes between years. Sparse, monthly sampling will still indicate vacillations.

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Doherty, S.; Maas, A. E.; Steinberg, D. K.; Popp, B. N.; Close, H. G. (2019). "Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis of Zooplankton Fecal Pellets: Insights into Dietary and Trophic Processes and Characterization of Fecal Pellets as Organic Matter End-Member".

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Everett, J.D., Baird, M.E., Buchanan, P., Bulman, C., Davies, C., Downie, R., Griffiths, C., Heneghan, R., Kloser, R.J., Laiolo, L. and Lara-Lopez, A. (2017) "Modeling what we sample and sampling what we model: challenges for zooplankton model assessment".

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Many marine microzooplankton are mixotrophic, which means they could also be classified as phytoplankton. Recent studies of marine microzooplankton found 30–45% of the ciliate abundance was mixotrophic, and up to 65% of the amoeboid, foram and radiolarian

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waters in summer, iron levels are relatively low and support a more diverse phytoplankton community, but with lower biomass, which, in turn, affects zooplankton community composition and biomass. The grazing pressure during summer is focused mostly on

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are typically 1 to 2 mm long with teardrop-shaped bodies. Like all crustaceans, their bodies are divided into three sections: head, thorax, and abdomen, with two pairs of antennae; the first pair is often long and prominent. They have a tough

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Saba, Grace K.; Steinberg, Deborah K.; Bronk, Deborah A. (2011). "The relative importance of sloppy feeding, excretion, and fecal pellet leaching in the release of dissolved carbon and nitrogen by Acartia tonsa copepods".

1482:. Although the traditional practice of grouping protozoa with animals is no longer considered valid, the term continues to be used in a loose way to identify single-celled organisms that can move independently and feed by 2209: 3455: 605:'animal'), having to consume other organisms to thrive. Plankton are aquatic organisms that are unable to swim effectively against currents. Consequently, they drift or are carried along by currents in the 2527:

life cycle, ranging from free-living cells to large colonies. It has the ability to form floating colonies, where hundreds of cells are embedded in a gel matrix, which can increase massively in size during

5710:; Arrigo, K. R.; Lizotte, M. P.; Robinson, D. H.; Leventer, A.; Barry, J. P.; VanWoert, M. L.; Dunbar, R. B. (2000). "Rapid and early export of Phaeocystis antarctica blooms in the Ross Sea, Antarctica". 5635:

Schoemann, Véronique; Becquevort, Sylvie; Stefels, Jacqueline; Rousseau, Véronique; Lancelot, Christiane (2005-01-01). "Phaeocystis blooms in the global ocean and their controlling mechanisms: a review".

788:, which can obtain energy and carbon from a mix of internal plastids and external sources. Many marine microzooplankton are mixotrophic, which means they could also be classified as phytoplankton. 5806: 2380:

by Mitra et al., 2016. Zooplankton that are photosynthetic: microzooplankton or metazoan zooplankton that acquire phototrophy through chloroplast retention or maintenance of algal endosymbionts.

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Schematic of how common seawater constituents, including particulate and dissolved components, could both be generated and altered through the process of herbivorous zooplankton grazing

3180:. Links among the ocean's biological pump and pelagic food web and the ability to sample these components remotely from ships, satellites, and autonomous vehicles. Light blue waters are the 2784:

in the centre of their transparent head. About 13,000 species of copepods are known, of which about 10,200 are marine. They are usually among the more dominant members of the zooplankton.

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The distinction between autotrophy and heterotrophy often breaks down in very small organisms. Recent studies of marine microplankton have indicated over half of microscopic plankton are

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for the dinoflagellate, while the dinoflagellate provides the nassellarian with a mucous membrane useful for hunting and protection against harmful invaders. There is evidence from

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for short) are single-celled predatory protists, also protected with shells that have holes in them. Their name comes from the Latin for "hole bearers". Their shells, often called

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Chen, Bingzhang; Landry, Michael R.; Huang, Bangqin; Liu, Hongbin (2012). "Does warming enhance the effect of microzooplankton grazing on marine phytoplankton in the ocean?".

3086: 2914:. Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply. Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals. 6027: 2125: 2591: 2295:

at the other. It is estimated that mixotrophs comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton. There are two types of eukaryotic mixotrophs: those with their own

7773: 1936: 1352: 6915:"The Role of Zooplankton in Establishing Carbon Export Regimes in the Southern Ocean – A Comparison of Two Representative Case Studies in the Subantarctic Region" 7793: 4250:

Audzijonyte, Asta; Barneche, Diego R.; Baudron, Alan R.; Belmaker, Jonathan; Clark, Timothy D.; Marshall, C. Tara; Morrongiello, John R.; Van Rijn, Itai (2019).

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Zooplankton can be broken down into size classes which are diverse in their morphology, diet, feeding strategies, etc. both within classes and between classes:

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Leles, S.G.; Mitra, A.; Flynn, K.J.; Stoecker, D.K.; Hansen, P.J.; Calbet, A.; McManus, G.B.; Sanders, R.W.; Caron, D.A.; Not, F.; Hallegraeff, G.M. (2017).

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Decelle, Johan; Simó, Rafel; Galí, Martí; Vargas, Colomban de; Colin, Sébastien; Desdevises, Yves; Bittner, Lucie; Probert, Ian; Not, Fabrice (2012-10-30).

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Gardner, Janet L.; Peters, Anne; Kearney, Michael R.; Joseph, Leo; Heinsohn, Robert (2011). "Declining body size: A third universal response to warming?".

2058:. This refers to the two whip-like attachments (flagella) used for forward movement. Most dinoflagellates are protected with red-brown, cellulose armour. 502: 1278:

relationship enhances the bacterium's ability to survive in an aquatic environment, as the exoskeleton provides the bacterium with carbon and nitrogen.

2108: 1736: 5100: 5762: 5460:"Defining planktonic protist functional groups on mechanisms for energy and nutrient acquisition; incorporation of diverse mixotrophic strategies" 3158:

which are dominated by grazing are the putative explanation for annual cycles in phytoplankton biomass, accumulation rates and export production.

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Chloroplast (or plastid) retention = sequestration = enslavement. Some plastid-retaining species also retain other organelles and prey cytoplasm.

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Cardona, L., De Quevedo, I.Á., Borrell, A. and Aguilar, A. (2012) "Massive consumption of gelatinous plankton by Mediterranean apex predators".

1306:. Body size is sensitive to changes in temperature due to the thermal dependence of physiological processes. The plankton is mainly composed of 7783: 6099:"The secret lives of jellyfish: long regarded as minor players in ocean ecology, jellyfish are actually important parts of the marine food web" 3000:

largely based on water that offers little nutritional value or interest for other organisms apart from a few specialised predators such as the

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Atkinson, David; Sibly, Richard M. (1997). "Why are organisms usually bigger in colder environments? Making sense of a life history puzzle".

1617: 6039: 7826: 3240:. Absorption efficiency, respiration, and prey size all further complicate how zooplankton are able to transform and deliver carbon to the 2747:

acquire chloroplasts from its prey. "It cannot catch the cryptophytes by itself, and instead relies on ingesting ciliates such as the red

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Brown, James H.; Gillooly, James F.; Allen, Andrew P.; Savage, Van M.; West, Geoffrey B. (2004). "Toward a Metabolic Theory of Ecology".

1902: 1250:. As a result, zooplankton are primarily found in surface waters where food resources (phytoplankton or other zooplankton) are abundant. 5832:

Bernhard, J. M.; Bowser, S.M. (1999). "Benthic Foraminifera of dysoxic sediments: chloroplast sequestration and functional morphology".

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Gast, R. J.; Caron, D. A. (1996-11-01). "Molecular phylogeny of symbiotic dinoflagellates from planktonic foraminifera and radiolaria".

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in coastal waters. Jellyfish are slow swimmers, and most species form part of the plankton. Traditionally jellyfish have been viewed as

7919: 6776:"Fate of organic carbon released from decomposing copepod fecal pellets in relation to bacterial production and ectoenzymatic activity" 6002: 4766:

Bertrand, Jean-Claude; Caumette, Pierre; Lebaron, Philippe; Matheron, Robert; Normand, Philippe; Sime-Ngando, Télesphore (2015-01-26).

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Stock, Charles; Dunne, John (2010). "Controls on the ratio of mesozooplankton production to primary production in marine ecosystems".

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Jude, B.A.; Kirn, T.J.; Taylor R.K. (2005). "A colonization factor links Vibrio cholerae environmental survival and human infection".

6869:"Production of dissolved organic carbon by sloppy feeding in the copepods Acartia tonsa, Centropages typicus, and Temora longicornis" 8149: 1573: 1100: 1060:. Since they are typically small, zooplankton can respond rapidly to increases in phytoplankton abundance, for instance, during the 4416:

Calbet, Albert; Landry, Michael R. (2004). "Phytoplankton growth, microzooplankton grazing, and carbon cycling in marine systems".

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1. Protists that retain chloroplasts and sometimes other organelles from one algal species or very closely related algal species

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analysis that dinoflagellate symbiosis with radiolarians evolved independently from other dinoflagellate symbioses, such as with

2192: 694:— in other words, zooplankton cannot manufacture their own food, while phytoplankton can. As a result, zooplankton must acquire 7713: 7104: 3353: 5915: 5816: 4895: 4369:"Pelagic ecosystem structure: Heterotrophic compartments of the plankton and their relationship to plankton size fractions 1" 3569: 3539: 3465: 4794: 1958: 1462:

or organic tissues and debris. Historically, the protozoa were regarded as "one-celled animals", because they often possess

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of the plankton community. As the primary consumers of marine phytoplankton, microzooplankton consume ~ 59–75% daily of the

8911: 8339: 3734:"Shifts in Mass Scaling of Respiration, Feeding, and Growth Rates across Life-Form Transitions in Marine Pelagic Organisms" 3481: 1678:, are chambered (forams add more chambers as they grow). The shells are usually made of calcite, but are sometimes made of 8437: 8299: 7068: 4191: 1989: 1096: 8329: 6818: 6079: 5026: 4831: 4804: 4777: 4750: 4131: 3193: 1048:

Through their consumption and processing of phytoplankton and other food sources, zooplankton play a role in aquatic

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2. Protists or zooplankton with algal endosymbionts of only one algal species or very closely related algal species

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along the coast and in the open ocean) that affects nutrient availability and, in turn, phytoplankton production.

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may invade and suppress specialist phago- and phototroph plankton communities depending on nutrient conditions".

4252:"Is oxygen limitation in warming waters a valid mechanism to explain decreased body sizes in aquatic ectotherms?" 3216:, zooplankton also play an important role as “recyclers” of carbon and other nutrients that significantly impact 5441: 5343:"Oceanic protists with different forms of acquired phototrophy display contrasting biogeographies and abundance" 2310:

The distinction between plants and animals often breaks down in very small organisms. Possible combinations are

2251: 8791: 5763:"DMSP-lyase activity in a spring phytoplankton bloom off the Dutch coast, related to Phaeocystis sp. abundance" 3141:. However, zooplankton grazing remains one of the key unknowns in global predictive models of carbon flux, the 2612: 543: 6236:"Promoting Instrument Development for New Research Avenues in Ocean Science: Opening the Black Box of Grazing" 5960:

Geoff A. Boxhall; Danielle Defaye (2008). "Global diversity of copepods (Crustacea: Copepoda) in freshwater".

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Liu, Kailin; Chen, Bingzhang; Zheng, Liping; Su, Suhong; Huang, Bangqin; Chen, Mianrun; Liu, Hongbin (2021).

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That view has recently been challenged. Jellyfish, and more gelatinous zooplankton in general, which include

2753:, which sequester their chloroplasts from a specific cryptophyte clade (Geminigera/Plagioselmis/Teleaulax)". 953: 588: 406: 7032: 1974: 8811: 8796: 7778: 3415: 3373:

Grazing and fragmentation of particles at both sites increases nutrient recycling in the upper water column

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Behrenfeld, Michael J. (2010). "Abandoning Sverdrup's Critical Depth Hypothesis on phytoplankton blooms".

8806: 7812: 7703: 7214: 5681: 5108: 5104: 4612:"Microzooplankton grazing in the oceans: Impacts, data variability, knowledge gaps and future directions" 4310: 2357:

Mixotrophic zooplankton that combine phototrophy and heterotrophy – table based on Stoecker et al., 2017

135: 5578:"Intra-host Symbiont Diversity and Extended Symbiont Maintenance in Photosymbiotic Acantharea (Clade F)" 35: 8114: 7693: 7194: 7159: 6351:

Worden, A. Z.; Follows, M. J.; Giovannoni, S. J.; Wilken, S.; Zimmerman, A. E.; Keeling, P. J. (2015).

5907: 3435: 3273: 2872: 2284: 2274: 1390: 1295:, in which field observations showed that larger species tend to be found at higher, colder latitudes. 497: 229: 104: 5192: 4693: 245: 8422: 8316: 7748: 5231:"Evidence for the Ubiquity of Mixotrophic Bacteria in the Upper Ocean: Implications and Consequences" 4914: 3394: 3138: 3121:

providers of marine trophic pathways, but they appear to have substantial and integral roles in deep

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By trophic orientation, dinoflagellates are all over the place. Some dinoflagellates are known to be

1412: 536: 461: 234: 6596:"Prediction of the Export and Fate of Global Ocean Net Primary Production: The EXPORTS Science Plan" 5658: 4962:"Alternative cytoskeletal landscapes: cytoskeletal novelty and evolution in basal excavate protists" 2950: 2702:. Mixotrophic foraminifers are particularly common in nutrient-poor oceanic waters. Some forams are 8896: 8875: 8668: 8663: 7959: 7410: 7282: 7269: 6184:

Choy, C.A., Haddock, S.H. and Robison, B.H. (2017) "Deep pelagic food web structure as revealed by

6133:, Doyle, T.K. and Houghton, J.D. (2018) "A paradigm shift in the trophic importance of jellyfish?" 3268: 3233: 2636: 2043: 2030: 1152: 6452:

Mariani, Patrizio; Andersen, Ken H.; Visser, André W.; Barton, Andrew D.; Kiørboe, Thomas (2013).

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Halfter, Svenja; Cavan, Emma L.; Swadling, Kerrie M.; Eriksen, Ruth S.; Boyd, Philip W. (2020).

4075:"Temperature, Growth Rate, and Body Size in Ectotherms: Fitting Pieces of a Life-History Puzzle" 3781: 2815: 2462: 2046:, and thus belong to the zooplankton community. Their name comes from the Greek "dinos" meaning 8402: 8392: 8094: 8079: 7698: 7550: 7061: 6836:"Sloppy feeding in marine copepods: Prey-size-dependent production of dissolved organic carbon" 5653: 4910: 3005: 2969: 2524: 1303: 1021:

existence. Although zooplankton are primarily transported by ambient water currents, many have

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Steinberg, Deborah K.; Landry, Michael R. (2017). "Zooplankton and the Ocean Carbon Cycle".

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in planktonic ecosystems and is thus a critical factor in regulating the efficiency of the

1287: 386: 150: 6353:"Rethinking the marine carbon cycle: Factoring in the multifarious lifestyles of microbes" 5640:. Iron Resources and Oceanic Nutrients – Advancement of Global Environmental Simulations. 5070: 4562: 4510:"What controls microzooplankton biomass and herbivory rate across marginal seas of China?" 1337: 706:

such as phytoplankton, which are generally smaller than zooplankton. Most zooplankton are

8: 8778: 8432: 8241: 8199: 7969: 7929: 7738: 7673: 7440: 7429: 7306: 7289: 6430: 5421: 4334: 3808: 3510: 3425: 3253: 2761: 2737:. Others predate other protozoa, and a few forms are parasitic. Many dinoflagellates are 1428: 1408: 1014: 1009:

organisms that spend part of their lives in the plankton before graduating to either the

965: 758: 600: 470: 391: 309: 6974: 6884: 6749: 6711: 6692:"Effects of diet on release of dissolved organic and inorganic nutrients by the copepod 6666: 6553: 6538:"Floats with bio-optical sensors reveal what processes trigger the North Atlantic bloom" 6506: 6469: 6422: 6293: 5845: 5781: 5723: 5649: 5526: 5413: 5303: 5246: 5151: 4709: 4660: 4588: 4525: 4429: 4384: 4326: 4267: 4160: 4038: 4003: 3950: 3883: 3800: 3661: 3393:, including the production of fecal pellets, mucous feeding webs, molts, and carcasses. 2830: 8698: 8693: 8561: 8503: 8397: 8246: 8164: 8049: 8029: 7939: 7882: 6936: 6570: 6537: 6382: 5979: 5884: 5880: 5743: 5612: 5577: 5553: 5510: 5433: 5367: 5342: 5323: 5263: 5230: 5168: 5131: 4986: 4961: 4674: 4645:"Combined constraints on global ocean primary production using observations and models" 4547: 4451: 4398: 4291: 4232: 3967: 3934: 3900: 3867: 3761: 3681: 3430: 3315: 3228:

waters of the open ocean. Through sloppy feeding, excretion, egestion, and leaching of

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Because plankton are rarely fished, it has been argued that mesoplankton abundance and

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Mars Brisbin, Margaret; Grossmann, Mary M.; Mesrop, Lisa Y.; Mitarai, Satoshi (2018).

4929:"A checklist and classification of living dinoflagellates (Dinoflagellata, Alveolata)" 4168: 4123: 3733: 3342: 3304: 8708: 8586: 8533: 8452: 8119: 8084: 8024: 7984: 7954: 7924: 7835: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7445: 7364: 7209: 7129: 7054: 6940: 6814: 6575: 6518: 6434: 6386: 6374: 6075: 5911: 5812: 5735: 5617: 5599: 5558: 5540: 5491: 5425: 5372: 5315: 5268: 5173: 5082: 5074: 5022: 4991: 4891: 4837: 4827: 4800: 4773: 4746: 4721: 4678: 4551: 4539: 4346: 4338: 4286: 4236: 4224: 4172: 4127: 4096: 4050: 3972: 3905: 3820: 3753: 3673: 3565: 3535: 3461: 3336:

resting spores, which bypass the intense grazing pressure, followed by fecal pellets.

3320: 3154: 3122: 2347: 1608: 1257: 1073: 1022: 715: 707: 676: 523: 416: 197: 123: 5983: 5888: 5437: 5327: 4455: 4402: 4295: 3765: 1942: 8816: 8508: 8412: 8364: 8276: 8169: 7867: 7575: 7555: 7479: 7353: 7300: 7239: 6926: 6888: 6847: 6787: 6753: 6715: 6670: 6607: 6565: 6557: 6510: 6473: 6426: 6364: 6331: 6297: 6247: 6197: 6166: 6142: 6110: 5971: 5876: 5849: 5785: 5747: 5727: 5663: 5607: 5589: 5548: 5530: 5481: 5471: 5417: 5362: 5354: 5307: 5258: 5250: 5193:"Beware the mixotrophs – they can destroy entire ecosystems 'in a matter of hours'" 5163: 5155: 5066: 5014: 4981: 4973: 4940: 4713: 4664: 4623: 4592: 4529: 4485: 4441: 4433: 4388: 4330: 4281: 4271: 4214: 4206: 4164: 4119: 4086: 4042: 4007: 3962: 3954: 3895: 3887: 3812: 3804: 3745: 3712: 3685: 3665: 3648: 3619: 3185: 3173: 2749: 2743: 2733:

of marine animals and other protists, and play an important part in the biology of

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Protists that retain chloroplasts and rarely other organelles from many algal taxa

1785: 1404: 1231: 1065: 880: 833: 118: 77: 7002: 6320:"Diagnosing Mechanisms of Ocean Carbon Export in a Satellite-Based Food Web Model" 4717: 45: 8786: 8753: 8614: 8566: 8442: 8417: 8226: 8179: 8104: 7949: 7934: 7683: 7560: 7386: 7370: 7358: 7174: 7099: 7036: 6170: 5667: 5476: 5459: 5018: 4945: 4928: 4885: 3515: 3386: 3221: 3213: 3177: 3142: 2993: 2895: 1401: 1262: 1103: 1057: 730: 687: 441: 339: 298: 288: 181: 6757: 3258: 8650: 8604: 8599: 8571: 8538: 8407: 8266: 8194: 8184: 8034: 7979: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7753: 7484: 7399: 7275: 6951: 6624: 6561: 6264: 6211: 6146: 4046: 3958: 3920: 3891: 3633: 3496: 3358: 3237: 3149:

Grazing is a central, rate-setting process in ocean ecosystems and a driver of

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Short film narrated by David Attenborough about the varied roles of plankton

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Environmental Microbiology: Fundamentals and Applications: Microbial Ecology

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Traditionally dinoflagellates have been presented as armoured or unarmoured

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Mitra, A; Flynn, KJ; Tillmann, U; Raven, J; Caron, D; et al. (2016).

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and could also be classified as phytoplankton. The toxic dinoflagellate

637: 8743: 8678: 8467: 8447: 8231: 8204: 7989: 7902: 7608: 7545: 7474: 7466: 7264: 7259: 7204: 7017:. A global coverage database of zooplankton biomass and abundance data. 7008: 6675: 6638: 6592: 5790: 3816: 3399: 3329: 3241: 3063: 3059: 3016: 2973: 2734: 2722: 2583: 2510: 2475: 2430: 2416: 2401: 2339: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2288: 2087: 2039: 1856: 1699: 1523: 1286:

Body size has been defined as a "master trait" for plankton as it is a

1156: 1132: 778: 633: 202: 113: 8859: 6792: 6775: 6720: 6691: 6514: 4669: 4644: 4534: 4509: 4276: 4251: 2075: 636:), which are the plant-like component of the plankton community (the " 16:

Heterotrophic protistan or metazoan members of the plankton ecosystem

8768: 8673: 8457: 8221: 8214: 8189: 8099: 7804: 7678: 7663: 7603: 7585: 7565: 7540: 7501: 7489: 7329: 5731: 3782:"Characteristic Sizes of Life in the Oceans, from Bacteria to Whales" 3146:

changes in phytoplankton biomass or optical properties with grazing.

3078: 3052: 3028: 2997: 2977: 2899: 2687: 2559: 2335: 2327: 2280: 2270: 2221: 2167: 2156: 1789: 1475: 1471: 1451: 1307: 1275: 1220: 1216: 1208: 1160: 1148: 1140: 1069: 1038: 812: 805: 785: 766: 754: 719: 711: 6114: 4011: 3840:"Über die Verhältnisse der Wärmeökonomie der Thiere zu ihrer Grösse" 1866: 575: 8718: 8528: 8074: 8069: 7994: 7728: 7434: 7393: 7375: 7149: 7086: 7077: 5009:

Boltovskoy, Demetrio; Anderson, O. Roger; Correa, Nancy M. (2017).

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Schmoker, Claire; Hernández-León, Santiago; Calbet, Albert (2013).

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Grazing by single-celled zooplankton accounts for the majority of

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Also like diatoms, radiolarian shells are usually made of silicate

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