873:
385:
254:
676:
845:
945:
888:
903:
857:
821:
931:
111:
917:
68:, salary inequalities were high: men earned twice as much as women, who were seen as competitors to men and employed at lower cost. In general, women worked from home in order to take care of their families, where alcohol problems were common. Industry and convents, which benefited from free labor, were strong competitors against freelancing women, lowering the value of their work. Sometimes working-class women became prostitutes to support their families.
833:
77:
786:
recognized but assimilated to psychiatric and nervous problems proper to the "weak sex". Their sexual morality is questioned and they are accused of being prostitutes, of being women prone to moral and sexual perversion who want to enjoy free union or even sexual communism. Any social and political dimension is denied to their action.
43:. Many women took active roles in the events, and are known as "communardes". They are important in the history of women's rights in France, particularly with regards to women's emancipation. Equal pay and the first forms of structured organization of women in France appear during this period, in particular the
781:
Jacques
Rougerie expressed the view that they "bravely held their place without having to exaggerate it in these brief days of 1871". Eugène Schulkind considers that "it is remarkable that this group of women realized better from the beginning, the importance of a revolutionary theory as a weapon and
741:
When the
Versaillais took over Paris, the fate of the women was no different from that of the men: execution on the spot or summary judgment. 4,000 women were killed, for a total of 20,000 victims. 1,051 women were imprisoned and judged by the 4th Council of War. No woman was sentenced to death, but
282:
ensured, in addition to the defense of Paris, the propagation of revolutionary ideas and the recruitment of women. Nathalie Lemel coordinated and sometimes intervened in its meetings held in the working class districts of Paris. The meetings were held in churches, and women were particularly active.
149:
in 1869 and associations such as the "Société pour la revendication des droits civils de la femme" by André Léo, also in 1869. The different movements for the improvement of the female condition did not always agree on what was essential. Some put forward the education of girls while others demanded
568:
Despite the numerous appeals of women, the government of the
Commune was slow to incorporate women into the defense of Paris. In fact, the Committee of Public Safety outlawed women on the battlefield on 1 May. André Léo attributed this to the "bourgeois and authoritarian mindset" of the army elite.
450:
This union aimed to involve women more in the
Commune through clubs and neighborhood meetings. The Union, well structured, was then able to organize support committees in each district allowing all ambulances to be provided by women. The Union took on a charitable role, taking over the place of the
244:
Two types of demands could be distinguished, according to the social origin of women without one excluding the other. For women from an educated background, political and civic equality (right to vote) were the objective in a context of class struggle. For those from a working-class background, the
122:
took advantage of the relative freedom promoted by the Second French Empire at the beginning to publish works dedicated to the equality of the sexes. In 1866, she created the "Association for the
Improvement of Women's Education" and in 1868, she published a text defending the equality of the sexes
785:
Paul Lidsky, a specialist in anti-Communard writings by artists and intellectuals from the French elite, indicated that the women of the
Commune were the target of particular violence. The contempt for the working classes is associated with a profound misogyny. The bravery of the women fighters is
186:
When the government decided to disarm the
Parisians, they felt directly threatened. Women began to participate in the various demonstrations of the Parisians, showing their anger and regrouping without a precise agenda. On 18 March the army came to fetch the cannons but the Parisian people opposed
563:
That the
Commune, representative of the great principle proclaiming the annihilation of all privilege, of all inequality, - by the same is committed, to take into account the just claims of the whole population, without distinction of sex, - distinction created and maintained by the need of the
170:
and a serious famine during the winter of 1870-1871, the French capitulation and the cease-fire on 26 January 1871, the situation seemed unbearable to the
Parisians, who had resisted the enemy for nearly four months. Popular clubs and societies emerged during this siege and gave many women the
552:
503:(Women's Committee of the Rue d'Arras) distinguished itself by organizing collective workshops "in order to prepare the organization of women's work by themselves", as well as the recruitment of women soldiers and the promotion of revolutionary ideas.
642:
was a term used to describe a woman accused of having used petroleum to start fires during the crushing of the Paris
Commune by the Versaillais. No evidence is available to support this role. The term was applied, especially after the burning of the
872:
714:
On 10 April 1871 a group of women seized a guillotine and symbolically burned it on the Place Voltaire, in order to signify the difference between the concept of revolution (a symbol of liberation) and scaffold (a symbol of oppression).
458:
for women and obtained equal salaries (it started to be applied for teachers), it participated in the census of the workshops abandoned by their owners who took refuge in Versailles and organized self-managed workshops.
512:, made up of women teachers, asked the government of the Commune to establish a secular, compulsory, free school for all. Similarly, Louise Michel asked for the creation of secular orphanages and professional schools.
777:
There are differing views on the importance of the role of women during the Commune, particularly because of the lack of testimony. It is certain that their participation gave moral authority to this insurrection.
475:
The executive commission of the Commune supported the views of this committee without following up. According to Jacques Rougerie, historian of the Commune, it was only "a few groups of revolutionary women "26.
623:
During the fights between the National Guard and Versailles troops, the women help by participating in the care of the wounded or their supply. The fighting was done in families with the presence of children.
218:(the movement paid a pension to the widows of federates, married or not, as well as to their legitimate or natural children), the prohibition of prostitution, the establishment of the beginnings of
701:, called on women to stay at home, but after an appeal on 3 April to women in Communard newspapers, several women's marches took place, including one on 5 April 1871 towards Versailles, where the
587:
Nathalie Lemel urged women to take up arms at the Club de la Délivrance. Two other clubs, the Daughters of Père Duchêne and the Club of Women Patriots, also armed women for the defence of Paris.
525:
Generally speaking, there was little support for a women's newspaper, especially during the Commune, due to the revolutionary activities of women and the Commune itself. However, the newspapers
166:. The following month, on 7 October 1870, about 150 women demanded the right to be able to care for the wounded of the 1870 war at the front and to replace the men in the ambulances. After the
413:
401:
44:
705:
had taken refuge, following the example of the one that had marched in October 1789. The marchers were turned back before they reached Versailles, but the marches presaged the creation of the
97:
1535:
1030:
316:
437:. In its first appeal, this association positioned the Commune within the framework of the struggle for the emancipation of the working class, its two founders being members of the
584:
Most often, women were confined to non-fighting roles and their involvement in military actions was instead the result of neighborhood clubs and committees and the Women's Union.
2182:
266:
187:
them. It was the women who were the first to wake up and prevent the soldiers from seizing the cannons. Louise Michel actively participates in this opposition on the
718:
During the semaine sanglante when the Versailles troops entered Paris, women, among them Elisabeth Dmitrieff, Nathalie Lemel, Blanche Lefebvre, BĂ©atrix Excoffon and
356:
2027:"« La Représentation des Communardes dans le roman français de 1871 à 1900 », Master 1, sous la direction de Isabelle Tournier, Université Paris 8, 2013"
599:
302:
2210:
573:. However, they were intended only to pursue deserters and were not supposed to leave the city. This group was linked to Club Eloi and was led by Colonel
485:
grew throughout the Commune, from organizing meetings and training in nursing to arming women and forcing the enlistment of men for the defense of Paris.
762:
or criminals. Generally speaking, it was their revolutionary and ideological activity more than their military activity that worried the Council of War.
578:
237:
one does not see women claiming then, as some had done in 1848, a right of suffrage that their revolutionary companions would have refused them for sure.
742:
many were imprisoned, deported or sentenced to forced labor. Very often, the military authorities always tried to prove either their sexual immorality (
594:, several thousand women took to the barricades to defend the Commune. Louise Michel is known to have dressed in the uniform of the National Guard and
844:
719:
2163:
1342:
2218:
1774:
1253:
2085:
684:
419:
559:
The appeal to the executive committee of the Commune showed that women want to be part of the defense of the Commune without distinction of sex:
2206:
241:
On 10 May 1871 the Commission of Work and Exchange recognized the necessity of creating women's unions for the organization of women's work.
2793:
726:
on a barricade on 23 May 1871. 120 women delayed General Clinchant's troops before retreating, exhausted and short of ammunition, to the
211:, were concerned with issues directly related to the fate of women. Women did not have access to positions of power during this period.
790:
wrote in particular "We will say nothing about their females, by respect for the women to whom they resemble - when they are dead".
1721:
1747:
321:
2803:
2702:
2542:
2228:
2139:
1731:
1635:
1326:
102:
1616:
Deluermoz, Quentin (2012). "Chapitre 4. Des communardes sur les barricades". In Cardi, Coline; Pruvost, Geneviève (eds.).
1402:
Johann Fleuri, « Emploi ou enfant, le dilemme nippon », article paru initialement en octobre 2015 sous le titre
832:
287:
123:
which was the origin of the first French feminist group. Other women also defended the idea of women's liberation such as
48:
447:
added to that of the International since the domination of men over women was one of the elements of the class struggle.
856:
257:
Club de Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs where women, after an initial refusal of their right to speak, contributed strongly.
174:
It is important to note that the women who were active during this siege were also active during the Commune, such as
2523:
2500:
2354:
1575:
1459:
1003:
539:
served as platforms for the ideas of André Léo, sometimes in the company of Benoît Malon. Paule Minck also wrote in
1704:
1617:
1308:
214:
Many of the Commune's measures, however, concerned the rights of families and workers, such as the recognition of
23:
was an insurrectionary period in the history of Paris that lasted just over two months, from 18 March 1871 to the
2773:
944:
418:(Union of Women for the Defense of Paris and the Care of the Wounded) was created on 11 April 1871, in a café on
329:
271:
2763:
887:
222:, access to education and the facilitation of divorce. Women are the indirect beneficiaries of these measures.
167:
2778:
2060:
1307:
Quentin Deluermoz, Coline Cardi, Geneviève Pruvost (2012). "Chapitre 4. Des communardes sur les barricades".
1261:
1098:
2338:
1559:
349:
342:
309:
230:
2783:
384:
2788:
2214:
361:
119:
1067:(in French). Presses universitaires de France, coll. « Que sais-je ? ». pp. 94–95.
245:
concerns were more concrete and focused, for example, on equal pay and access to education for girls.
2535:
The Paradise of Association: Political Culture and Popular Organizations in the Paris Commune of 1871
570:
85:
902:
782:
of a strong organization as a means of realization, than most of the members, even of the Commune".
253:
2515:
2492:
702:
219:
107:). The fight for women's rights continued in an intellectual way, leaving aside the working class.
36:
2346:
1567:
1451:
769:
Some managed to escape, with their families if necessary. A general amnesty was declared in 1880.
664:
644:
298:
124:
2798:
2768:
2667:
820:
40:
2609:
2059:
Blois 2018, RĂ©mi Burlot | 7 Nov 2018 |; Blois | 0 |, Rendez-Vous de l'Histoire de (2018-11-07).
162:, took place in front of the Paris City Hall and demanded arms to defend themselves against the
2758:
2740:
2725:
2102:
Dictionnaire des comédiens français, ceux d'hier : biographie, bibliographie, iconographie
893:
604:
574:
2582:
930:
908:
595:
569:
Only the 12th legion managed to organize a company of "volunteer women citizens", called the
2730:
916:
1099:"Rendez-Vous de l'Histoire de (2018-11-07). "Les femmes durant la Commune de Paris (1871)""
787:
675:
65:
2552:
Johnson, Martin P. (1997). "Memory and the Cult of Revolution in the 1871 Paris Commune".
936:
8:
1403:
434:
389:
388:
Appeal to women workers from the Union des femmes on 18 May 1871, signed among others by
226:
141:
2205:
1748:"Le rôle des femmes pendant la Commune Entretien avec Michèle Audin - la voie du jaguar"
688:
451:
Church following the decree of separation of Church and State in schools and hospitals.
367:
2654:
2569:
2273:
2157:
1685:
1385:
1336:
2708:
2698:
2625:
2573:
2538:
2519:
2496:
2350:
2265:
2224:
2145:
2135:
2079:
2034:
2026:
1727:
1677:
1660:
Krakovitch, Odile (1997). "Violence des communardes : une mémoire à revisiter".
1631:
1571:
1455:
1377:
1322:
1009:
999:
863:
731:
591:
336:
26:
1420:
136:
132:
2679:
2646:
2617:
2596:
2561:
1669:
1627:
1623:
1369:
1318:
1314:
922:
424:
2744:. Translated by Atkinson, James; Atkinson, Starr. New York: George Braziller, Inc.
2621:
2134:. Étienne, ... Dobenesque, Impr. Floch). Paris: La Fabrique éditions. p. 31.
1673:
1373:
1306:
647:(24 May 1871), to women who had taken part in the armed struggle, making them the
200:
2100:
763:
759:
2720:
655:
that occurred during the semaine sanglante. This ideology persists to this day.
208:
2587:
430:
393:
291:
175:
93:
2583:"Citizenship and gender: the légion des Fédérées in the Paris Commune of 1871"
754:
according to the terms and the gradation in place) or the fact that they were
639:
627:
Of the 1,050 women judged by the councils of war, most were ambulance nurses,
204:
146:
2752:
2712:
2650:
2629:
2269:
2149:
2038:
1681:
1381:
950:
727:
723:
455:
163:
159:
89:
20:
2683:
2407:
2396:
1013:
628:
2565:
2452:
2440:
2429:
2418:
2177:
1972:
747:
648:
2692:
2129:
2600:
993:
743:
735:
438:
110:
2277:
1689:
1389:
1357:
139:
etc. All this reflection resulted in the creation of newspapers such as
2460:
879:
499:, other women's organizations were also active during the Commune. The
441:(IWA), but the demands were broadened. In their minds, the work of the
215:
188:
128:
2658:
2638:
2453:"Ménand, Anne-Marie, Josèphe (ou Menans, Menan Marie, Louise ?)"
697:
652:
531:
32:
76:
564:
antagonism on which rest the privileges of the governmental classes
407:
178:
and her uniform workshop or Louise Michel who set up an ambulance.
96:
who were however quickly forgotten, for the role they took for the
2349:/ Histoire (in French). Vol. 263. Gallimard. pp. 81–83.
414:
Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés
402:
Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés
45:
Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés
850:
Portrait of Boulanger Eugénie, taken in the prison of Versailles.
755:
751:
609:
and Elizabeth Dmitrieff also took part, leading 140 women of the
463:
2616:(in French) (2). Presses Universitaires de France (PUF): 23–48.
2058:
1775:"ANNA JACLARD (1844- 1887) L'aristocrate russe pétroleuse (16)"
551:
118:
The first French feminists appeared in France after the 1860s.
1254:"" Chronologie de la vie de Louise Michel " sur ac-creteil.fr"
199:
Few of the male leaders of the Commune, with the exception of
878:
Hortense David, Machu's wife, at the prison des Chantiers in
1973:"PRÉVOST Marguerite, née Guinder, dite Lachaise - Maitron"
1929:
158:
On 8 September 1870 a demonstration, led by André Léo and
1809:
1807:
1358:"Violence des communardes : une mémoire à revisiter"
2109:
1941:
1919:
1917:
1410:
No. 150, décembre 2016-janvier 2017, p. 64-64.
406:
One of the first movements openly claiming to be a mass
730:. Many communardes were present for the defense of the
127:, the first woman to obtain the baccalaureate in 1861,
2512:
Surmounting the Barricades: Women in the Paris Commune
2323:
Deraismes, Maria (September 1871). "Les pétroleuses".
1851:
Histoires des clubs de femme et des légions d'amazones
1804:
1584:
171:
opportunity to speak out on issues important to them.
1914:
1848:
1199:
La vie parisienne pendant le siège et sous la Commune
1404:« Les Japonaises indésirables au travail »
812:
462:
Certain district committees demanded the closing of
328:
Club Saint Nicolas at the Club Saint Nicolas at the
71:
1879:"Adresse Ă la commission executive de la Commune".
1570:/ Histoire (in French). Gallimard. pp. 81–83.
838:Portrait of Marie Leroy (took part in the Commune)
618:
2256:Thomas, Edith (1971). "The Women of the Commune".
88:gave birth to some famous female figures such as
2750:
2337:
1558:
2639:"Socialist Women during the 1871 Paris Commune"
2441:Rose Rétif aka Élisabeth Rétiffe sur maitron.fr
1201:(in French). Éditions Albin Miche. p. 312.
16:Women's actions in the 1871 French insurrection
2061:"Les femmes durant la Commune de Paris (1871)"
1723:Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women
1622:(in French). La Découverte. pp. 106–111.
1025:
1023:
971:This right will be obtained during the Commune
734:or on the barricades of the Pigalle place, in
472:voted for the complete emancipation of women.
181:
2178:"Excoffon Béatrix [née Euvrie Julia]"
2668:"Le rĂ´le des femmes dans la Commune de 1871"
2162:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1864:"demande de la société Éducation Nouvelle".
1341:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
706:
610:
507:
494:
480:
467:
442:
411:
376:
277:
24:
2697:(Nouv. Ă©d ed.). Paris: La DĂ©couverte.
2690:
2610:"Les femmes et la Commune de Paris de 1871"
2381:
2084:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1246:
1184:
1172:
1160:
1020:
341:Club Éloi, at the church Saint-Éloi in the
283:The following have left traces in history:
225:There was not enough time to establish the
35:refused to recognize the government of the
1659:
1355:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
634:
59:
2665:
2636:
2369:
2322:
2293:
1908:
1836:
1615:
1522:
1474:
1228:
1145:
766:was one of the only ones to defend them.
667:gave a support concert at the Tuileries.
2489:The Paris Commune : a brief history
1702:
1445:
1156:
1154:
1062:
991:
674:
550:
383:
252:
109:
75:
2580:
2551:
2532:
2509:
2486:
2115:
2024:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1947:
1935:
1923:
1853:(in French). Plon-Nourrit. p. 409.
1813:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1590:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1196:
1049:
995:Paris insurgé : la Commune de 1871
374:
2751:
2737:
2719:
2672:Revue d'Histoire du XIXe siècle - 1848
2607:
2310:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2289:
2287:
2255:
2243:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2013:
2001:
1959:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1798:
1769:
1767:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1497:
1294:
1240:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1124:
1096:
1077:
355:Club des femmes de la Boule noire, on
1719:
1703:Remy, Tristan; RĂ©my, Tristan (1970).
1536:"Les Femmes dans la Commune de Paris"
1151:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1031:"Les Femmes dans la Commune de Paris"
488:
466:with varying degrees of success. The
2170:
2127:
2105:(in French). Vol. 1. p. 9.
1990:
1706:La Commune Ă Montmartre, 23 mai 1871
1644:
1596:
1480:
1277:
1234:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
308:Club of Free-thinkers at the church
98:Condition of women in France in 1848
2331:
2299:
2284:
2220:Ne nous libérez pas, on s'en charge
2098:
2045:
1887:
1819:
1764:
1552:
1528:
1503:
1313:. La Découverte. pp. 106–111.
1300:
1205:
679:Barricade defended by women during
501:Comité des femmes de la rue d'Arras
13:
2729:. La suite des temps (in French).
2343:Paris insurgé - La Commune de 1871
1713:
1564:Paris insurgé - La Commune de 1871
1448:Paris insurgé - La Commune de 1871
1439:
1396:
1130:
1109:
808:, Glénat, Vents d'Ouest, 2015-2016
695:Some Parisian newspapers, such as
555:Louise Michel in military uniform.
439:International Workers' Association
335:Club of Notre-Dame-de-la-Croix in
248:
194:
14:
2815:
2397:Marie Thérèse Leroy on maitron.fr
1083:
813:Photo gallery of women communards
366:, chaired by Sophie Poirier with
317:Saint-Lambert de Vaugirard Church
288:Comité de vigilance de Montmartre
72:Emergence of the women's movement
49:Comité de vigilance de Montmartre
39:, which had just been elected by
2537:. University of Michigan Press.
2533:Johnson, Martin Phillip (1996).
2487:Eichner, Carolyn Jeanne (2022).
1881:Journal Officiel (De la Commune)
1065:La Commune de 1871 (chapter 581)
943:
929:
915:
901:
886:
871:
855:
843:
831:
819:
619:Ambulance nurses and cantinières
31:that ended on 28 May 1871. This
2794:19th century in women's history
2581:Johnson, Martin Philip (1994).
2480:
2445:
2434:
2423:
2419:Eulalie Papavoine on maitron.fr
2412:
2408:Eugénie Boulanger on maitron.fr
2401:
2390:
2384:Les Ă©crivains contre la Commune
2375:
2363:
2316:
2249:
2237:
2199:
2121:
2092:
2018:
2007:
1965:
1953:
1872:
1857:
1842:
1792:
1740:
1720:Fauré, Christine (2004-06-02).
1709:(in French). Éditions sociales.
1696:
1468:
1413:
1349:
1190:
1178:
965:
330:Saint-Nicolas-des-Champs Church
1849:Villiers boimare (de) (1910).
1628:10.3917/dec.cardi.2012.01.0106
1319:10.3917/dec.cardi.2012.01.0106
1166:
1071:
985:
658:
615:to the rue Blanche barricade.
520:
1:
2804:First-wave feminism in France
2691:Riot-Sarcey, Michèle (2008).
2666:Schulkind, Eugene W. (1950).
2622:10.3917/rhis.g1997.603n2.0023
2430:Hortense Aurore on maitron.fr
2025:Bensaad, AnaĂŻs (2014-10-16).
1674:10.3917/rhis.g1997.602n1.0521
1619:Penser la violence des femmes
1374:10.3917/rhis.g1997.602n1.0521
1310:Penser la violence des femmes
978:
772:
297:Club de la DĂ©livrance at the
2510:Eichner, Carolyn J. (2004).
2223:(in French). La DĂ©couverte.
1454:/ Histoire. pp. 81–83.
1450:(in French). Vol. 263.
1421:"La Commune de Paris - 1871"
793:
7:
2128:Ross, Kristin, ... (2015).
1097:Burlot, RĂ©mi (2018-11-07).
546:
315:Club of Patriotic Women in
267:Clubs of the Paris Commune.
182:The outbreak of the Commune
153:
10:
2820:
2637:Schulkind, Eugene (1985).
2554:Journal of Women's History
2215:Michelle Zancarini-Fournel
2131:L'imaginaire de la Commune
1866:Journal Officiel (Commune)
1446:Rougerie, Jacques (2003).
1356:Krakovitch, Odile (1997).
1063:Rougerie, Jacques (2014).
992:Rougerie, Jacques (1995).
399:
168:siege of Paris (1870–1871)
150:legal and civil equality.
54:
798:
670:
571:Federated Legion of Women
310:Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois
86:French Revolution of 1848
37:National Assembly of 1871
2516:Indiana University Press
2493:Rutgers University Press
2258:The Massachusetts Review
958:
515:
469:Club des libres penseurs
227:right to vote for women.
2684:10.3406/r1848.1950.1467
2608:Linton, Marisa (1997).
1781:(in French). 2011-07-27
1197:Alméras, Henri (1927).
454:The Union demanded the
357:Rue des Acacias (Paris)
352:with up to 3,000 women.
60:A precarious daily life
41:universal male suffrage
2774:Women in war in France
2741:The Women Incendiaries
2651:10.1093/past/106.1.124
2566:10.1353/jowh.2010.0188
707:
692:
611:
566:
556:
508:
495:
481:
468:
443:
412:
397:
377:
278:
262:
239:
115:
81:
25:
2764:19th century in Paris
2694:Histoire du féminisme
2491:. New Brunswick, NJ:
2347:DĂ©couvertes Gallimard
1568:DĂ©couvertes Gallimard
1452:DĂ©couvertes Gallimard
681:the semaine sanglante
678:
561:
554:
479:The influence of the
387:
348:Club Ambroise in the
256:
235:
125:Julie-Victoire Daubié
113:
79:
2779:Feminism and history
2382:Paul Lidsky (1970).
2031:Genre & Histoire
1668:(2 (602)): 521–531.
1368:(2 (602)): 521–531.
998:. Paris: Gallimard.
788:Alexandre Dumas fils
732:Montparnasse station
265:The creation of the
66:Second French Empire
2514:. Bloomington, IN:
2325:L'Avenir des Femmes
1540:www.commune1871.org
1035:www.commune1871.org
909:Elisabeth Dmitrieff
600:Marguerite Lachaise
598:was wounded twice.
493:In addition to the
435:Élisabeth Dmitrieff
390:Élisabeth Dmitrieff
350:11th arrondissement
343:12th arrondissement
301:, presided over by
142:Le Droit des femmes
2784:Feminism in France
2731:Éditions Gallimard
2643:Past & Present
2601:10.1093/fh/8.3.276
2211:Florence Rochefort
2033:(in French) (14).
1938:, p. 103-104.
1752:lavoiedujaguar.net
806:Communardes !
711:on 11 April 1871.
693:
557:
509:Éducation Nouvelle
489:Other associations
398:
396:and Aline Jacquier
370:as vice-president.
263:
116:
82:
2789:Women in politics
2704:978-2-7071-5472-9
2544:978-0-472-10724-7
2230:978-2-348-05567-6
2141:978-2-35872-064-9
1733:978-1-135-45691-7
1637:978-2-7071-7296-9
1328:978-2-7071-7296-9
937:Anne-Marie MĂ©nand
894:Élisabeth Rétiffe
864:Eulalie Papavoine
826:Elisabeth Javelin
703:National Assembly
631:or food sellers.
592:semaine sanglante
579:Louise Neckbecker
575:Adélaïde Valentin
27:Semaine sanglante
2811:
2745:
2738:— (1966).
2734:
2716:
2687:
2662:
2645:(106): 124–163.
2633:
2614:Revue historique
2604:
2577:
2548:
2529:
2506:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2449:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2416:
2410:
2405:
2399:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2339:Jacques Rougerie
2335:
2329:
2328:
2320:
2314:
2308:
2297:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2161:
2153:
2125:
2119:
2118:, p. 46-48.
2113:
2107:
2106:
2099:Lyonnet, Henry.
2096:
2090:
2089:
2083:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2056:
2043:
2042:
2022:
2016:
2011:
2005:
2004:, pp. 41–42
1999:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1950:, p. 71-72.
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1912:
1911:, pp. 24–27
1906:
1885:
1884:
1883:. 14 April 1871.
1876:
1870:
1869:
1868:. April 2, 1871.
1861:
1855:
1854:
1846:
1840:
1834:
1817:
1811:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1771:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1717:
1711:
1710:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1662:Revue Historique
1657:
1642:
1641:
1613:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1560:Jacques Rougerie
1556:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1546:
1532:
1526:
1525:, pp. 21–22
1520:
1501:
1500:, pp. 37–39
1495:
1478:
1477:, pp. 23–24
1472:
1466:
1465:
1443:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1417:
1411:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1362:Revue Historique
1353:
1347:
1346:
1340:
1332:
1304:
1298:
1297:, pp. 35–36
1292:
1275:
1274:. via Archive.is
1273:
1271:
1269:
1260:. Archived from
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1231:, pp. 18–20
1226:
1203:
1202:
1194:
1188:
1185:Riot-Sarcey 2008
1182:
1176:
1173:Riot-Sarcey 2008
1170:
1164:
1161:Riot-Sarcey 2008
1158:
1149:
1148:, pp. 15–17
1143:
1128:
1127:, pp. 26–28
1122:
1107:
1106:
1094:
1081:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1060:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1027:
1018:
1017:
989:
972:
969:
947:
933:
923:Victorine Gorget
919:
905:
890:
875:
859:
847:
835:
823:
804:Wilfrid Lupano,
710:
708:Union des femmes
689:Musée Carnavalet
683:. Lithograph by
614:
612:Union des femmes
608:
596:Léontine Suétens
511:
498:
496:Union des femmes
484:
482:Union des femmes
471:
446:
444:Union des femmes
428:
417:
380:
378:Union des femmes
368:BĂ©atrix Excoffon
365:
325:
303:LodoĂŻska Caweska
281:
279:Union des femmes
275:
231:Jacques Rougerie
106:
30:
2819:
2818:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2749:
2748:
2726:Les PĂ©troleuses
2705:
2545:
2526:
2503:
2483:
2478:
2477:
2466:
2464:
2451:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2391:
2380:
2376:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2336:
2332:
2321:
2317:
2309:
2300:
2292:
2285:
2254:
2250:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2204:
2200:
2189:
2187:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2155:
2154:
2142:
2126:
2122:
2114:
2110:
2097:
2093:
2077:
2076:
2070:
2068:
2057:
2046:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2008:
2000:
1991:
1982:
1980:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1922:
1915:
1907:
1888:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1847:
1843:
1835:
1820:
1812:
1805:
1797:
1793:
1784:
1782:
1773:
1772:
1765:
1756:
1754:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1718:
1714:
1701:
1697:
1658:
1645:
1638:
1614:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1578:
1557:
1553:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1504:
1496:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1444:
1440:
1429:
1427:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1408:Manière de voir
1401:
1397:
1354:
1350:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1305:
1301:
1293:
1278:
1267:
1265:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1206:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1159:
1152:
1144:
1131:
1123:
1110:
1095:
1084:
1076:
1072:
1061:
1050:
1039:
1037:
1029:
1028:
1021:
1006:
990:
986:
981:
976:
975:
970:
966:
961:
954:
948:
939:
934:
925:
920:
911:
906:
897:
891:
882:
876:
867:
860:
851:
848:
839:
836:
827:
824:
815:
801:
796:
775:
764:Maria Deraismes
722:, defended the
720:Malvina Poulain
673:
661:
645:Paris City Hall
637:
621:
602:
549:
523:
518:
491:
422:
404:
382:
359:
319:
269:
261:, 20 April 1871
251:
249:Political Clubs
197:
195:Social measures
184:
156:
100:
74:
62:
57:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2817:
2807:
2806:
2801:
2799:Women in Paris
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2769:1871 in France
2766:
2761:
2747:
2746:
2735:
2717:
2703:
2688:
2678:(185): 15–29.
2663:
2634:
2605:
2595:(3): 276-295.
2588:French History
2578:
2549:
2543:
2530:
2524:
2507:
2501:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2463:. 30 June 2020
2444:
2433:
2422:
2411:
2400:
2389:
2374:
2370:Schulkind 1950
2362:
2355:
2330:
2315:
2298:
2294:Schulkind 1950
2283:
2248:
2236:
2229:
2217:(2020-09-03).
2198:
2186:. 26 July 2009
2169:
2140:
2120:
2108:
2091:
2065:Les Clionautes
2044:
2017:
2006:
1989:
1979:. 30 June 2020
1964:
1952:
1940:
1928:
1913:
1909:Schulkind 1950
1886:
1871:
1856:
1841:
1837:Schulkind 1950
1818:
1816:, p. 245.
1803:
1791:
1763:
1739:
1732:
1712:
1695:
1643:
1636:
1595:
1593:, p. 167.
1583:
1576:
1551:
1527:
1523:Schulkind 1950
1502:
1479:
1475:Schulkind 1950
1467:
1460:
1438:
1412:
1395:
1348:
1327:
1299:
1276:
1245:
1233:
1229:Schulkind 1950
1204:
1189:
1177:
1165:
1150:
1146:Schulkind 1950
1129:
1108:
1103:Les Clionautes
1082:
1070:
1048:
1019:
1004:
983:
982:
980:
977:
974:
973:
963:
962:
960:
957:
956:
955:
949:
942:
940:
935:
928:
926:
921:
914:
912:
907:
900:
898:
892:
885:
883:
877:
870:
868:
861:
854:
852:
849:
842:
840:
837:
830:
828:
825:
818:
814:
811:
810:
809:
800:
797:
795:
792:
774:
771:
672:
669:
660:
657:
636:
633:
620:
617:
548:
545:
522:
519:
517:
514:
490:
487:
431:Nathalie Lemel
410:movement, the
400:Main article:
394:Nathalie Lemel
381:
373:
372:
371:
353:
346:
339:
333:
326:
313:
306:
299:Trinité church
295:
292:Sophie Poirier
259:L'Illustration
250:
247:
229:The historian
196:
193:
183:
180:
176:Sophie Poirier
155:
152:
137:Adèle Esquiros
133:Amélie Bosquet
94:Pauline Roland
73:
70:
61:
58:
56:
53:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2816:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2759:Paris Commune
2757:
2756:
2754:
2743:
2742:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2721:Thomas, Édith
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2700:
2696:
2695:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2525:0-253-34442-5
2521:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2502:9781978827684
2498:
2494:
2490:
2485:
2484:
2462:
2459:(in French).
2458:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2437:
2431:
2426:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2404:
2398:
2393:
2385:
2378:
2371:
2366:
2358:
2356:2-07-053289-5
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2334:
2326:
2319:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2295:
2290:
2288:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2245:
2240:
2232:
2226:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2173:
2165:
2159:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2133:
2132:
2124:
2117:
2112:
2104:
2103:
2095:
2087:
2081:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2015:
2010:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1961:
1956:
1949:
1944:
1937:
1932:
1926:, p. 71.
1925:
1920:
1918:
1910:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1882:
1875:
1867:
1860:
1852:
1845:
1838:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1815:
1810:
1808:
1800:
1795:
1780:
1776:
1770:
1768:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1735:
1729:
1726:. Routledge.
1725:
1724:
1716:
1708:
1707:
1699:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1639:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1620:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1592:
1587:
1579:
1577:2-07-053289-5
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1524:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1476:
1471:
1463:
1461:2-07-053289-5
1457:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1409:
1405:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1344:
1338:
1330:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1303:
1296:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1264:on 2012-12-09
1263:
1259:
1258:ac-creteil.fr
1255:
1249:
1242:
1237:
1230:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1200:
1193:
1186:
1181:
1174:
1169:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1104:
1100:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1079:
1074:
1066:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1024:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1005:2-07-053289-5
1001:
997:
996:
988:
984:
968:
964:
952:
951:Louise Pioger
946:
941:
938:
932:
927:
924:
918:
913:
910:
904:
899:
895:
889:
884:
881:
874:
869:
865:
858:
853:
846:
841:
834:
829:
822:
817:
816:
807:
803:
802:
791:
789:
783:
779:
770:
767:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
739:
737:
733:
729:
728:Place Pigalle
725:
724:Place Blanche
721:
716:
712:
709:
704:
700:
699:
690:
686:
682:
677:
668:
666:
656:
654:
650:
646:
641:
635:"PĂ©troleuses"
632:
630:
625:
616:
613:
606:
601:
597:
593:
588:
586:
582:
580:
576:
572:
565:
560:
553:
544:
542:
538:
534:
533:
528:
513:
510:
504:
502:
497:
486:
483:
477:
473:
470:
465:
460:
457:
456:right to work
452:
448:
445:
440:
436:
432:
426:
421:
420:rue du Temple
416:
415:
409:
403:
395:
391:
386:
379:
369:
363:
358:
354:
351:
347:
344:
340:
338:
334:
331:
327:
323:
318:
314:
311:
307:
304:
300:
296:
293:
289:
286:
285:
284:
280:
273:
268:
260:
255:
246:
242:
238:
234:
232:
228:
223:
221:
217:
212:
210:
206:
202:
201:Eugène Varlin
192:
190:
179:
177:
172:
169:
165:
164:Prussian Army
161:
160:Louise Michel
151:
148:
144:
143:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
112:
108:
104:
99:
95:
91:
90:Jeanne Deroin
87:
78:
69:
67:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
29:
28:
22:
21:Paris Commune
2739:
2724:
2693:
2675:
2671:
2642:
2613:
2592:
2586:
2560:(1): 39–57.
2557:
2553:
2534:
2511:
2488:
2481:Bibliography
2465:. Retrieved
2456:
2447:
2436:
2425:
2414:
2403:
2392:
2383:
2377:
2372:, p. 29
2365:
2342:
2333:
2324:
2318:
2313:, p. 45
2296:, p. 28
2261:
2257:
2251:
2246:, p. 44
2239:
2219:
2207:Bibia Pavard
2201:
2188:. Retrieved
2181:
2172:
2130:
2123:
2116:Johnson 1997
2111:
2101:
2094:
2069:. Retrieved
2064:
2030:
2020:
2009:
1981:. Retrieved
1976:
1967:
1962:, p. 43
1955:
1948:Eichner 2022
1943:
1936:Eichner 2004
1931:
1924:Eichner 2022
1880:
1874:
1865:
1859:
1850:
1844:
1839:, p. 24
1814:Johnson 1996
1801:, p. 40
1794:
1783:. Retrieved
1778:
1755:. Retrieved
1751:
1742:
1722:
1715:
1705:
1698:
1665:
1661:
1618:
1591:Johnson 1996
1586:
1563:
1554:
1543:. Retrieved
1539:
1530:
1470:
1447:
1441:
1428:. Retrieved
1424:
1415:
1407:
1398:
1365:
1361:
1351:
1309:
1302:
1266:. Retrieved
1262:the original
1257:
1248:
1243:, p. 31
1236:
1198:
1192:
1187:, p. 52
1180:
1175:, p. 50
1168:
1163:, p. 51
1102:
1080:, p. 25
1073:
1064:
1038:. Retrieved
1034:
994:
987:
967:
866:(1846-1875)
862:Portrait of
805:
784:
780:
776:
768:
740:
717:
713:
696:
694:
680:
662:
638:
626:
622:
589:
585:
583:
577:and Captain
567:
562:
558:
540:
536:
530:
526:
524:
506:The society
505:
500:
492:
478:
474:
461:
453:
449:
405:
290:presided by
264:
258:
243:
240:
236:
224:
213:
209:Benoît Malon
198:
185:
173:
157:
140:
117:
83:
63:
33:insurrection
18:
2311:Linton 1997
2244:Linton 1997
2190:2 September
2067:(in French)
2014:Thomas 1963
2002:Linton 1997
1960:Linton 1997
1799:Linton 1997
1498:Linton 1997
1430:7 September
1295:Linton 1997
1268:19 November
1241:Linton 1997
1125:Linton 1997
1078:Linton 1997
953:, songmaker
896:(1834-1882)
663:The singer
659:Other roles
629:cantinières
603: [
590:During the
521:Journalists
423: [
360: [
320: [
270: [
233:noted that
205:LĂ©o Frankel
147:LĂ©on Richer
101: [
2753:Categories
2461:Le Maitron
2457:maitron.fr
2264:(3): 416.
2183:Le Maitron
2071:2020-12-29
1983:2021-01-03
1977:maitron.fr
1785:2020-11-02
1779:L'Humanité
1757:2021-09-14
1545:2020-10-22
1425:8mars.info
979:References
880:Versailles
773:Importance
760:hysterical
748:prostitute
736:Batignolle
649:scapegoats
640:PĂ©troleuse
541:La Commune
537:La Sociale
527:La Commune
337:Belleville
216:free union
189:Montmartre
129:Paule Mink
114:Paule Mink
64:Under the
2713:300280620
2630:0035-3264
2574:144137693
2270:0025-4878
2158:cite book
2150:902796458
2039:2102-5886
1682:0035-3264
1382:0035-3264
1337:cite book
794:Posterity
744:concubine
698:Le Rappel
653:vandalism
532:Le Rappel
220:equal pay
191:hilltop.
120:André Léo
80:André Léo
2723:(1963).
2467:31 March
2341:(2003).
2327:: 76–82.
2278:25088134
2080:cite web
1690:40956099
1562:(2003).
1390:40956099
1014:34359690
691:, Paris.
651:for the
547:Soldiers
464:brothels
408:feminist
154:1870 war
1040:30 June
756:thieves
752:lesbian
276:by the
55:Context
47:or the
2711:
2701:
2659:650641
2657:
2628:
2572:
2541:
2522:
2499:
2353:
2276:
2268:
2227:
2148:
2138:
2037:
1730:
1688:
1680:
1634:
1574:
1458:
1388:
1380:
1325:
1012:
1002:
799:Comics
685:Moloch
671:Events
92:, and
2655:JSTOR
2570:S2CID
2274:JSTOR
1686:JSTOR
1386:JSTOR
959:Notes
607:]
516:Roles
427:]
364:]
324:]
274:]
105:]
2709:OCLC
2699:ISBN
2626:ISSN
2539:ISBN
2520:ISBN
2497:ISBN
2469:2021
2351:ISBN
2266:ISSN
2225:ISBN
2192:2020
2164:link
2146:OCLC
2136:ISBN
2086:link
2035:ISSN
1728:ISBN
1678:ISSN
1632:ISBN
1572:ISBN
1456:ISBN
1432:2018
1378:ISSN
1343:link
1323:ISBN
1270:2016
1042:2016
1010:OCLC
1000:ISBN
665:Agar
535:and
433:and
375:The
207:and
84:The
19:The
2680:doi
2647:doi
2618:doi
2597:doi
2562:doi
1670:doi
1666:297
1624:doi
1370:doi
1366:297
1315:doi
581:.
429:by
145:by
2755::
2707:.
2676:42
2674:.
2670:.
2653:.
2641:.
2624:.
2612:.
2591:.
2585:.
2568:.
2556:.
2518:.
2495:.
2455:.
2345:.
2301:^
2286:^
2272:.
2262:12
2260:.
2213:;
2209:;
2180:.
2160:}}
2156:{{
2144:.
2082:}}
2078:{{
2063:.
2047:^
2029:.
1992:^
1975:.
1916:^
1889:^
1821:^
1806:^
1777:.
1766:^
1750:.
1684:.
1676:.
1664:.
1646:^
1630:.
1598:^
1566:.
1538:.
1505:^
1482:^
1423:.
1406:,
1384:.
1376:.
1364:.
1360:.
1339:}}
1335:{{
1321:.
1279:^
1256:.
1207:^
1153:^
1132:^
1111:^
1101:.
1085:^
1051:^
1033:.
1022:^
1008:.
758:,
750:,
746:,
738:.
687:.
605:fr
543:.
529:,
425:fr
392:,
362:fr
322:fr
272:fr
203:,
135:,
131:,
103:fr
51:.
2733:.
2715:.
2686:.
2682::
2661:.
2649::
2632:.
2620::
2603:.
2599::
2593:8
2576:.
2564::
2558:9
2547:.
2528:.
2505:.
2473:.
2471:.
2386:.
2359:.
2280:.
2233:.
2196:.
2194:.
2166:)
2152:.
2088:)
2074:.
2041:.
1986:.
1788:.
1760:.
1736:.
1692:.
1672::
1640:.
1626::
1580:.
1548:.
1464:.
1436:.
1434:.
1392:.
1372::
1345:)
1331:.
1317::
1272:.
1105:.
1046:.
1044:.
1016:.
345:.
332:.
312:,
305:.
294:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
