1370:
1650:
1396:
1221:
1266:
1359:
1572:) could knock an electron free. For example, photons of blue light had sufficient energy to free an electron from the metal he used, but photons of red light did not. One photon of light above the threshold frequency could release only one electron; the higher the frequency of a photon, the higher the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, but no amount of light below the threshold frequency could release an electron. Despite confirmation by various experimental observations, the
1254:
5799:
5124:
1484:
4332:
1604:
1236:
5343:
1127:
Before proceeding further, it is critical to introduce some definitions of waves and particles both in a classical sense and in quantum mechanics. Waves and particles are two very different models for physical systems, each with an exceptionally large range of application. Classical waves obey the
1668:
The first beam-splitter mirror acts like double slits, but in the interferometer case we can remove the second beam splitter. Then the beam heading down ends up in output port 1: any photon particles on this path gets counted in that port. The beam going across the top ends up on output port 2. In
1621:
is considered to be a particle-like property, for instance a spinning top. However, light waves can have angular momentum when they form a vortex, as illustrated in the Figure. Electron waves with angular momentum have also been produced, with up to a thousand angular momentum quanta. These matter
1345:
Electrons from the source hit a wall with two thin slits. A mask behind the slits can expose either one or open to expose both slits. The results for high electron intensity are shown on the right, first for each slit individually, then with both slits open. With either slit open there is a smooth
1630:
In a "which way" experiment, particle detectors are placed at the slits to determine which slit the electron traveled through. When these detectors are inserted, quantum mechanics predicts that the interference pattern disappears because the detected part of the electron wave has changed (loss of
1349:
Having observed wave behavior, now change the experiment, lowering the intensity of the electron source until only one or two are detected per second, appearing as individual particles, dots in the video. As shown in the movie clip below, the dots on the detector seem at first to be random. After
909:
to fully describe the behavior of quantum objects. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, light was found to behave as a wave then later discovered to have a particulate behavior, whereas electrons behaved like particles in early experiments then later discovered to have wavelike behavior. The
1100:
and
Alexander Reid at Cambridge University scattered electrons through thin metal films and observed concentric diffraction rings. Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments, but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned. These
1113:
approach as the positions were systematically different; the approach of Bethe, which includes the refraction due to the average potential, yielded more accurate results. Davisson and
Thomson were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1937 for experimental verification of wave property of electrons by
1609:
1605:
1606:
1312:. These particles arrive one at time, randomly, but build up a pattern. The probability that experiments will measure particles at a point in space is the square of a complex-number valued wave. Experiments can be designed to exhibit diffraction and interference of the
1664:
Each output port has a camera to record the results. The two beams show interference characteristic of wave propagation. If the laser intensity is turned sufficiently low, individual dots appear on the cameras, building up the pattern as in the electron example.
1608:
1375:
Experimental electron double slit diffraction pattern. Across the middle of the image at the top the intensity alternates from high to low showing interference in the signal from the two slits. Bottom: movie of the pattern build up dot by dot.
1338:
106:
1433:
suggested that the energy of the light must occur a finite number of energy quanta. He postulated that electrons can receive energy from an electromagnetic field only in discrete units (quanta or photons): an amount of
1386:
The experiment shows wave interference revealed a single particle at a time -- quantum mechanical electrons display both wave and particle behavior. Similar results have been shown for atoms and even large molecules.
3152:
1118:
in the 1930s using beams of helium atoms and hydrogen molecules. These experiments further verified that wave behavior is not limited to electrons and is a general property of matter on a microscopic scale.
995:
from 1922 to 1924 demonstrating the momentum of light. The experimental evidence of particle-like momentum and energy seemingly contradicted the earlier work demonstrating wave-like interference of light.
1038:
and that electrons and all matter could be considered as waves. He merged the idea of thinking about them as particles, and of thinking of them as waves. He proposed that particles are bundles of waves
1639:
have been made and many have been converted into experiments and tried out. Every single one shows the same result: as soon as electron trajectories are detected, interference disappears.
1587:
Both discrete (quantized) energies and also momentum are, classically, particle attributes. There are many other examples where photons display particle-type properties, for instance in
1607:
1429:. This observation is at odds with classical electromagnetism, which predicts that the electron's energy should be proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation. In 1905,
1081:
gave a talk in an Oxford meeting about using the electron diffraction experiments to confirm the wave–particle duality of electrons. In his talk, Born cited experimental data from
3032:
Tavabi, A. H.; Rosi, P.; Roncaglia, A.; Rotunno, E.; Beleggia, M.; Lu, P.-H.; Belsito, L.; Pozzi, G.; Frabboni, S.; Tiemeijer, P.; Dunin-Borkowski, R. E.; Grillo, V. (2022).
1661:, then reflects downward. The other part of the beam reflects from the first mirror then turns at another mirror. The two beams meet at a second half-silvered beam splitter.
1530:
1369:
1341:
Left half: schematic setup for electron double-slit experiment with masking; inset micrographs of slits and mask; Right half: results for slit 1, slit 2 and both slits open.
1085:
in 1923. It happened that
Davisson also attended that talk. Davisson returned to his lab in the US to switch his experimental focus to test the wave property of electrons.
1334:
The electron double slit experiment is a textbook demonstration of wave-particle duality. A modern version of the experiment is shown schematically in the figure below.
1505:
1550:
1622:
waves will diffract and interfere, while simultaneously having particle-like angular momentum so they will interact with magnetic fields, similar to a current loop.
1478:
1109:, which is very close to how electron diffraction is now described. Significantly, Davisson and Germer noticed that their results could not be interpreted using a
5410:
1316:. Thus statistically large numbers of the random particle appearances can display wave-like properties. Similar equations govern collective excitations called
5714:
5739:
1669:
either case the counts will track the photon trajectories. However, as soon as the second beam splitter is removed the interference pattern disappears.
5325:
4368:
2901:
36:
4921:
2793:
2848:
1296:
Quantum systems obey wave equations that predict particle probability distributions. These particles are associated with discrete values called
5350:
4255:
983:
also with discrete energies for photons. These both indicate particle behavior. Despite confirmation by various experimental observations, the
4569:
1022:
among others had shown that free electrons had particle properties, for instance, the measurement of their mass by
Thomson in 1897. In 1924,
372:
5667:
3249:
873:
5744:
5270:
5092:
5300:
5160:
4005:
3034:"Generation of electron vortex beams with over 1000 orbital angular momentum quanta using a tunable electrostatic spiral phase plate"
1413:
While electrons were thought to be particles until their wave properties were discovered; for photons it was the opposite. In 1887,
5784:
4418:
4243:
124:
1293:
Some experiments on quantum systems show wave-like interference and diffraction; some experiments show particle-like collisions.
5673:
5104:
580:
1346:
intensity variation due to diffraction. When both slits are open the intensity oscillates, characteristic of wave interference.
5528:
4788:
4361:
1703:
1657:
A laser beam along the input port splits at a half-silvered mirror. Part of the beam continues straight, passes though a glass
1636:
353:
1259:
Line trace for a two-slit electron interference pattern. Compare to a slice through the image of the water wave pattern above.
5830:
4722:
1913:
1879:
1803:
1358:
536:
897:
entities exhibit particle or wave properties according to the experimental circumstances. It expresses the inability of the
4645:
2494:
1698:
1048:
459:
1132:; they have continuous values at many points in space that vary with time; their spatial extent can vary with time due to
3285:
1678:
5734:
5557:
5399:
5240:
2819:
936:
5418:
5295:
4391:
4354:
4141:
2741:
A History of the
Theories of Aether and Electricity: From the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century
1693:
119:
2092:
5533:
4501:
4222:
208:
5578:
5059:
4768:
4763:
4486:
1871:
The collected papers of Albert
Einstein. 3: The Swiss years: writings, 1909 - 1911: [English translation]
1795:
1643:
866:
315:
295:
163:
2442:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
1746:
1066:
developed the wave equation of motion for electrons. This rapidly became part of what was called by Schrödinger
5388:
5260:
5071:
4743:
1756:
1089:
959:
heuristically derived a formula for the observed spectrum by assuming that a hypothetical electrically charged
555:
285:
5153:
5049:
4826:
4748:
4531:
4401:
1595:
where the momentum is used to slow down (cool) atoms. These are a different aspect of wave-particle duality.
595:
333:
233:
1969:
5366:
5255:
5250:
4783:
4717:
4712:
4683:
4396:
4238:
531:
526:
497:
348:
129:
2912:
1337:
5523:
5482:
5426:
5275:
5200:
4851:
4758:
3241:
1722:
1019:
565:
310:
300:
5450:
5265:
5127:
4889:
4697:
4668:
3218:
1140:. Physical systems exhibiting wave behavior and described by the mathematics of wave equations include
859:
511:
482:
3245:
2835:
5358:
5285:
4911:
4778:
4702:
4663:
4620:
4594:
4444:
3226:
1687:
516:
477:
430:
405:
328:
188:
5803:
5754:
5749:
5729:
5719:
5679:
5374:
5230:
5146:
4978:
4958:
4948:
4938:
4894:
4469:
3726:
2610:
1101:
experiments were rapidly followed by the first non-relativistic diffraction model for electrons by
932:
600:
1819:
5759:
4673:
4599:
4282:
3917:
3544:
3278:
1930:
1350:
some time a pattern emerges, eventually forming an alternating sequence of light and dark bands.
1207:: particle models work across a huge scale. Unlike waves, particles do not exhibit interference.
769:
487:
395:
5087:
4635:
1649:
1106:
1071:
445:
343:
109:
5691:
5599:
5571:
5474:
5333:
4998:
4773:
4753:
4678:
4546:
4217:
3554:
2866:"Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt"
2544:
1510:
1329:
774:
492:
320:
290:
253:
4589:
1490:
1417:
observed that when light with sufficient frequency hits a metallic surface, the surface emits
400:
5764:
5724:
5564:
5513:
5508:
5434:
5245:
5225:
5215:
5023:
4536:
4516:
4304:
1712:
1535:
1313:
1010:
The contradictory evidence from electrons arrived in the opposite order. Many experiments by
243:
228:
1395:
947:
in 1819, validated Huygen's wave models. However, the wave model was challenged in 1901 by
5825:
5643:
5592:
5585:
5538:
5210:
5183:
5054:
4983:
4928:
4658:
4481:
4439:
2982:
2932:"Orbital angular momentum of light and the transformation of Laguerre-Gaussian laser modes"
2877:
2697:
2632:
2556:
2449:
2392:
2325:
2255:
2203:
2154:
2107:
2011:
1404:
1097:
980:
972:
952:
560:
472:
198:
155:
2582:
1906:
A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 2: The modern theories, 1900 - 1926
1454:
1063:
804:
8:
5039:
5008:
4953:
4933:
4841:
4798:
4653:
4579:
4506:
4496:
4408:
4319:
3302:
1632:
1426:
1220:
1172:
1160:
659:
467:
385:
213:
193:
145:
3090:
2986:
2882:
2701:
2644:
2636:
2560:
2453:
2396:
2329:
2259:
2207:
2158:
2111:
2015:
1088:
In 1927, the wave nature of electrons was empirically confirmed by two experiments. The
1062:
Following de
Broglie's proposal of wave–particle duality of electrons, in 1925 to 1926,
5840:
5606:
5490:
5466:
5310:
5193:
5188:
5099:
4968:
4866:
4574:
4521:
4413:
4262:
3271:
3198:
3128:
3102:
3071:
3045:
3014:
2825:
2771:
2721:
2687:
2656:
2622:
2522:
2475:
2418:
2356:
2313:
2286:
2243:
2123:
1789:
1781:
1658:
1507:
comes in from the left, collides with a target at rest, and a new photon of wavelength
1425:
discovered that the maximum possible energy of an ejected electron is unrelated to its
1408:
928:
380:
305:
238:
150:
3153:"A simple experiment for discussion of quantum interference and which-way measurement"
5697:
5109:
5018:
4988:
4916:
4879:
4874:
4856:
4821:
4811:
4526:
4491:
4474:
4377:
4331:
4299:
4212:
3691:
3436:
3363:
3175:
3120:
3075:
3063:
3006:
2998:
2951:
2830:
2815:
2713:
2648:
2526:
2514:
2467:
2410:
2361:
2343:
2291:
2273:
2221:
2172:
2066:
2027:
1950:
1909:
1875:
1799:
1752:
1226:
1137:
1114:
diffraction experiments. Similar crystal diffraction experiments were carried out by
898:
890:
814:
789:
729:
724:
624:
590:
570:
168:
27:
3132:
2931:
2754:
Wheaton, Bruce R. (1978). "Philipp Lenard and the
Photoelectric Effect, 1889-1911".
2725:
2479:
940:
5655:
5637:
5315:
4836:
4831:
4688:
4584:
4309:
4080:
3855:
3716:
3701:
3383:
3294:
3167:
3112:
3055:
3018:
2990:
2943:
2887:
2805:
2763:
2705:
2640:
2564:
2506:
2457:
2422:
2400:
2351:
2333:
2281:
2263:
2211:
2162:
2127:
2115:
2058:
2019:
1999:
1942:
1848:
1618:
1082:
1023:
819:
809:
799:
699:
679:
664:
634:
502:
390:
2660:
2495:"Electron diffraction chez Thomson: early responses to quantum physics in Britain"
5685:
5617:
5382:
5290:
5235:
5205:
5169:
5066:
4993:
4973:
4943:
4906:
4901:
4806:
4630:
4277:
4202:
4186:
4126:
3536:
3461:
3451:
3441:
3353:
3116:
2861:
2789:
1777:
1561:
1430:
1309:
1305:
1056:
1015:
976:
948:
844:
714:
694:
440:
280:
5625:
1034:. He suggested that an electron around a nucleus could be thought of as being a
5835:
5442:
5220:
5044:
5013:
5003:
4625:
4615:
4449:
4336:
4250:
4207:
3943:
3731:
3504:
3426:
3421:
3343:
1935:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
1869:
1581:
1577:
1422:
1414:
1301:
1164:
1110:
1044:
992:
988:
779:
739:
719:
689:
669:
619:
585:
435:
425:
218:
2510:
1946:
5819:
5661:
5631:
5518:
4963:
4816:
4707:
4541:
4511:
4464:
4294:
4146:
4113:
3905:
3875:
3807:
3666:
3446:
3373:
3358:
3179:
3124:
3067:
3002:
2947:
2892:
2865:
2717:
2652:
2568:
2518:
2471:
2414:
2347:
2277:
2225:
2176:
2070:
2031:
1954:
1853:
1836:
1785:
1592:
1569:
1317:
1272:
1145:
1129:
1035:
1011:
839:
834:
764:
734:
704:
575:
521:
248:
223:
101:{\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\Psi \rangle }
2930:
Allen, L.; Beijersbergen, M. W.; Spreeuw, R. J. C.; Woerdman, J. P. (1992).
2675:
2023:
5769:
5649:
4846:
4459:
4454:
4272:
3822:
3812:
3802:
3563:
3514:
3456:
3378:
3333:
3010:
2462:
2437:
2365:
2295:
2216:
2191:
2167:
2142:
2088:
1552:. The target recoils, and the photons have provided momentum to the target.
1418:
1242:
1196:
1168:
944:
924:
829:
824:
759:
744:
709:
203:
2955:
2609:
Bach, Roger; Pope, Damian; Liou, Sy-Hwang; Batelaan, Herman (2013-03-13).
2338:
2268:
5774:
5458:
5280:
4884:
4287:
4055:
3958:
3953:
3870:
3865:
3795:
3749:
3706:
3671:
3630:
3522:
3486:
3348:
2970:
2902:"On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light"
2084:
1717:
1564:(6.626×10 J⋅s). Only photons of a high enough frequency (above a certain
1153:
1149:
1141:
1133:
1052:
1040:
1005:
960:
794:
749:
684:
639:
2994:
2775:
2604:
2602:
1253:
5779:
4029:
3923:
3913:
3895:
3785:
3686:
3621:
3338:
3263:
1588:
1204:
1192:
1176:
1115:
1102:
956:
784:
754:
674:
649:
644:
629:
3171:
3059:
2810:
2709:
2062:
1051:. Both of these depend upon the energy, which in turn connects to the
963:
in a cavity that contained black-body radiation could only change its
4738:
4434:
4171:
4161:
4131:
4024:
3990:
3983:
3860:
3850:
3845:
3817:
3585:
3368:
2767:
2599:
2405:
2380:
2119:
1483:
1442:
275:
4346:
3033:
2692:
2046:
1576:
theory (as it came to be called later) remained controversial until
1265:
4267:
4095:
4050:
4034:
3995:
3968:
3681:
3676:
3656:
3626:
3616:
3611:
3431:
3406:
3401:
3328:
3050:
1276:
1078:
1027:
902:
654:
5138:
3107:
2627:
1286:
Both interference and trajectories are observed in quantum systems
4176:
4166:
4136:
4090:
4085:
4060:
3978:
3963:
3890:
3885:
3790:
3775:
3721:
3696:
3661:
3590:
3572:
3311:
2929:
1297:
1200:
1188:
894:
3089:
Ma, Xiao-song; Kofler, Johannes; Zeilinger, Anton (2016-03-03).
1235:
4156:
4151:
3780:
3767:
3758:
3580:
3494:
3393:
3205:. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy
2314:"Reflection and Refraction of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
1573:
1435:
1180:
1093:
984:
964:
910:
concept of duality arose to name these seeming contradictions.
2000:"An Undulatory Theory of the Mechanics of Atoms and Molecules"
987:
theory (as it came to be called) remained controversial until
4181:
4121:
3973:
3832:
3711:
3651:
3606:
3499:
3477:
3320:
2804:(4). Impey, C.D. Bantam Spectra (published April 2002): 80~.
1229:
in water due to two sources marked as red points on the left.
1184:
3091:"Delayed-choice gedanken experiments and their realizations"
1323:
3948:
3880:
3840:
3416:
3411:
2968:
2093:"The scattering of electrons by a single crystal of nickel"
971:, that was proportional to the frequency of its associated
906:
3031:
1837:"Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum"
1825:(Leiden, Netherlands: Pieter van der Aa, 1690), Chapter 1.
1245:
for a mass thrown at an angle of 70°, at different speeds.
2676:"Testing the limits of quantum mechanical superpositions"
2438:"The diffraction of cathode rays by thin celluloid films"
1642:
A simple example of these "which way" experiments uses a
1213:
Classical waves interfere. Particles follow trajectories.
1979:(English translation by A.F. Kracklauer, 2004. ed.)
1708:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1683:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1646:, a device based on lasers and mirrors sketched below.
1584:
from 1922 to 1924 demonstrating the momentum of light.
2854:
5411:
Die Grundlagen der Einsteinschen Relativitäts-Theorie
3151:
Schneider, Mark B.; LaPuma, Indhira A. (2002-03-01).
2971:"Production and application of electron vortex beams"
1706: – Number of quantum physics thought experiments
1538:
1513:
1493:
1457:
39:
2969:
Verbeeck, J.; Tian, H.; Schattschneider, P. (2010).
2608:
1776:
3146:
3144:
3142:
2545:"Theorie der Beugung von Elektronen an Kristallen"
1591:, where sunlight could propel a space vehicle and
1544:
1524:
1499:
1472:
999:
100:
5344:Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement
3088:
3082:
2192:"Diffraction of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
2143:"Diffraction of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
1390:
918:
5817:
2244:"Reflection of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
1598:
1122:
3150:
3139:
2673:
2318:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2248:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1092:at Bell Labs measured electrons scattered from
5351:Relativity: The Special and the General Theory
2499:The British Journal for the History of Science
2311:
2241:
2189:
2140:
1798:. Vol. 3. Reading/Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
5154:
4362:
3279:
2611:"Controlled double-slit electron diffraction"
867:
2381:"Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin Film"
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1378:Click on the thumbnail to enlarge the movie.
927:had advocated that light was particles, but
95:
69:
3250:Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
2756:Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences
2378:
1997:
1991:
5161:
5147:
4369:
4355:
3286:
3272:
2732:
2044:
1421:, what are now called electrons. In 1902,
874:
860:
3246:"Quantum 101 – Quantum Science Explained"
3106:
3049:
2920:The term "photon" was introduced in 1926.
2891:
2881:
2829:
2809:
2738:
2691:
2674:Arndt, Markus; Hornberger, Klaus (2014).
2626:
2461:
2404:
2355:
2337:
2285:
2267:
2215:
2166:
1903:
1888:
1852:
1765:
1740:
1738:
1625:
1324:Electrons behaving as waves and particles
5785:Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists
3293:
2860:
2782:
2538:
2536:
1867:
1751:. North Holland, John Wiley & Sons.
1648:
1602:
1482:
1394:
1336:
2788:
2753:
2492:
2312:Davisson, C. J.; Germer, L. H. (1928).
2242:Davisson, C. J.; Germer, L. H. (1928).
2237:
2235:
2047:"Electron diffraction: fifty years ago"
1928:
1908:(Repr ed.). New York: Dover Publ.
1744:
1183:their trajectories are straight lines.
1179:that vary over time; in the absence of
5818:
5529:Albert Einstein World Award of Science
3757:
2307:
2305:
1967:
1961:
1834:
1735:
5142:
4376:
4350:
3267:
2542:
2533:
2045:Gehrenbeck, Richard K. (1978-01-01).
1874:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr.
1681: – Non-mathematical introduction
2899:
2846:– via Random House Audiobooks.
2435:
2232:
2190:Davisson, C.; Germer, L. H. (1927).
2141:Davisson, C.; Germer, L. H. (1927).
2134:
1699:Interpretations of quantum mechanics
1055:and the relativistic formulation of
1032:Recherches sur la théorie des quanta
5168:
3196:
2302:
1704:Wheeler's delayed choice experiment
1679:Basic concepts of quantum mechanics
13:
5558:Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel
5271:Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations
5241:Einstein relation (kinetic theory)
406:Sum-over-histories (path integral)
92:
66:
22:Part of a series of articles about
14:
5852:
5419:The Einstein Theory of Relativity
3190:
2583:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1937"
2379:Thomson, G. P.; Reid, A. (1927).
43:
5798:
5797:
5534:Einstein Prize for Laser Science
5123:
5122:
4330:
4223:Timeline of particle discoveries
3240:
1653:Interferometer schematic diagram
1368:
1357:
1264:
1252:
1234:
1219:
931:took an opposing wave approach.
5579:Einstein: His Life and Universe
3025:
2962:
2923:
2747:
2667:
2575:
2486:
2429:
2372:
2183:
2077:
2038:
1796:The Feynman Lectures on Physics
1690: – Quantum physics concept
1399:Photoelectric effect in a solid
1000:Wave-particle duality of matter
5201:Mass–energy equivalence (E=mc)
5072:Relativistic quantum mechanics
1977:Foundation of Louis de Broglie
1922:
1861:
1828:
1812:
1694:Einstein's thought experiments
1613:Focused Laguerre-Gaussian beam
1391:Observing photons as particles
923:In the late 17th century, Sir
919:Wave-particle duality of light
556:Relativistic quantum mechanics
88:
81:
62:
1:
5050:Quantum statistical mechanics
4827:Quantum differential calculus
4749:Delayed-choice quantum eraser
4532:Symmetry in quantum mechanics
2645:10.1088/1367-2630/15/3/033018
2621:(3). IOP Publishing: 033018.
1904:Whittaker, Edmund T. (1989).
1728:
1599:Duality with other properties
1123:Classical waves and particles
596:Quantum statistical mechanics
5831:Foundational quantum physics
4239:History of subatomic physics
3117:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.015005
2794:"The Universe in a Nutshell"
1074:and also "wave mechanics".
16:Concept in quantum mechanics
7:
5524:Albert Einstein Peace Prize
5301:Unsuccessful investigations
4852:Quantum stochastic calculus
4842:Quantum measurement problem
4764:Mach–Zehnder interferometer
3160:American Journal of Physics
2898:translated into English as
1723:Corpuscular theory of light
1672:
1644:Mach–Zehnder interferometer
566:Quantum information science
10:
5857:
5451:Picasso at the Lapin Agile
5389:Russell–Einstein Manifesto
5261:Bose–Einstein correlations
1968:de Broglie, Louis Victor.
1402:
1327:
1090:Davisson–Germer experiment
1003:
913:
5793:
5707:
5616:
5547:
5501:
5398:
5359:The Meaning of Relativity
5324:
5176:
5118:
5080:
5032:
4912:Quantum complexity theory
4890:Quantum cellular automata
4865:
4797:
4731:
4644:
4608:
4595:Path integral formulation
4562:
4427:
4384:
4328:
4231:
4195:
4112:
4073:
4043:
4017:
4013:
4004:
3936:
3904:
3831:
3766:
3748:
3644:
3599:
3571:
3562:
3553:
3535:
3513:
3485:
3476:
3392:
3319:
3310:
3301:
3227:American Physical Society
3095:Reviews of Modern Physics
2739:Whittaker, E. T. (1910).
2511:10.1017/S0007087410000026
1970:"On the Theory of Quanta"
1947:10.1080/14786449708621070
1868:Einstein, Albert (1993).
1688:Complementarity (physics)
1525:{\displaystyle \lambda '}
1159:Classical particles obey
1026:introduced his theory of
5750:Albert Einstein Archives
5680:Bernhard Caesar Einstein
5427:Relics: Einstein's Brain
5375:The Evolution of Physics
5256:Bose–Einstein statistics
5251:Bose–Einstein condensate
5231:Einstein field equations
4979:Quantum machine learning
4959:Quantum key distribution
4949:Quantum image processing
4939:Quantum error correction
4789:Wheeler's delayed choice
4256:mathematical formulation
3851:Eta and eta prime mesons
2948:10.1103/PhysRevA.45.8185
2893:10.1002/andp.19053220607
2743:. Longman, Green and Co.
2569:10.1002/andp.19283921704
2436:Reid, Alexander (1928).
1998:Schrödinger, E. (1926).
1854:10.1002/andp.19013090310
1745:Messiah, Albert (1966).
1500:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1441:that was related to the
1167:and extent; they follow
1030:waves in his PhD thesis
967:in a minimal increment,
937:interference experiments
601:Quantum machine learning
354:Wheeler's delayed-choice
5760:Einstein Papers Project
5276:Einstein–de Haas effect
4895:Quantum finite automata
3918:Double-charm tetraquark
3219:"Wave–particle duality"
3199:"Wave–Particle Duality"
3038:Applied Physics Letters
2493:Navarro, Jaume (2010).
2024:10.1103/PhysRev.28.1049
1929:Thomson, J. J. (1897).
1545:{\displaystyle \theta }
1487:A photon of wavelength
1300:for properties such as
1279:acting like a particle.
311:Leggett–Garg inequality
5692:Thomas Martin Einstein
5600:Introducing Relativity
5572:Einstein for Beginners
5475:Einstein and Eddington
5266:Einstein–Cartan theory
4999:Quantum neural network
2909:The Old Quantum Theory
2615:New Journal of Physics
2463:10.1098/rspa.1928.0121
2217:10.1103/PhysRev.30.705
2168:10.1103/physrev.30.705
1654:
1626:Which slit experiments
1614:
1553:
1546:
1526:
1501:
1474:
1400:
1342:
1330:Double-slit experiment
102:
5765:Einstein refrigerator
5755:Einstein's Blackboard
5634:(second wife; cousin)
5565:Einstein and Religion
5514:Albert Einstein Medal
5509:Albert Einstein Award
5367:The World as I See It
5306:Wave–particle duality
5286:Bohr–Einstein debates
5246:Cosmological constant
5226:Equivalence principle
5216:Einstein coefficients
5024:Quantum teleportation
4552:Wave–particle duality
4315:Wave–particle duality
4305:Relativistic particle
3442:Electron antineutrino
2838:on September 21, 2020
2792:(November 6, 2001) .
2339:10.1073/pnas.14.8.619
2269:10.1073/pnas.14.4.317
1713:Uncertainty principle
1652:
1612:
1582:series of experiments
1547:
1527:
1502:
1486:
1475:
1398:
1340:
1314:probability amplitude
993:series of experiments
887:Wave-particle duality
296:Elitzur–Vaidman
286:Davisson–Germer
103:
5644:Hans Albert Einstein
5593:I Am Albert Einstein
5539:Einstein Prize (APS)
5211:Photoelectric effect
5184:Theory of relativity
5055:Quantum field theory
4984:Quantum metamaterial
4929:Quantum cryptography
4659:Consistent histories
3545:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
3295:Particles in physics
1835:Planck, Max (1901).
1821:Traité de la lumiere
1818:Christiaan Huygens,
1536:
1532:emerges at an angle
1511:
1491:
1473:{\displaystyle E=hf}
1455:
1405:Photoelectric effect
1107:Schrödinger equation
1098:George Paget Thomson
1072:Schrödinger equation
1068:undulatory mechanics
1059:a few years before.
981:photoelectric effect
973:electromagnetic wave
953:black-body radiation
943:'s detection of the
561:Quantum field theory
473:Consistent histories
110:Schrödinger equation
37:
5296:Thought experiments
5040:Quantum fluctuation
5009:Quantum programming
4969:Quantum logic gates
4954:Quantum information
4934:Quantum electronics
4409:Classical mechanics
4320:Particle chauvinism
4263:Subatomic particles
2995:10.1038/nature09366
2987:2010Natur.467..301V
2883:1905AnP...322..132E
2702:2014NatPh..10..271A
2637:2013NJPh...15c3018B
2561:1928AnP...392...55B
2454:1928RSPSA.119..663R
2397:1927Natur.119Q.890T
2330:1928PNAS...14..619D
2260:1928PNAS...14..317D
2208:1927PhRv...30..705D
2159:1927PhRv...30..705D
2112:1927Natur.119..558D
2016:1926PhRv...28.1049S
1782:Leighton, Robert B.
1778:Feynman, Richard P.
1568:value which is the
1271:Curved arc shows a
1161:classical mechanics
1136:, and they display
1043:) that move with a
349:Stern–Gerlach
146:Classical mechanics
5745:Things named after
5607:Subtle is the Lord
5430:(1994 documentary)
5422:(1923 documentary)
5414:(1922 documentary)
5311:Gravitational wave
5194:General relativity
5189:Special relativity
5093:in popular culture
4875:Quantum algorithms
4723:Von Neumann–Wigner
4703:Objective collapse
4414:Old quantum theory
2870:Annalen der Physik
2549:Annalen der Physik
2543:Bethe, H. (1928).
1931:"XL. Cathode Rays"
1841:Annalen der Physik
1655:
1615:
1554:
1542:
1522:
1497:
1470:
1409:Compton scattering
1401:
1343:
929:Christiaan Huygens
889:is the concept in
537:Von Neumann–Wigner
517:Objective-collapse
316:Mach–Zehnder
306:Leggett inequality
301:Franck–Hertz
151:Old quantum theory
98:
5813:
5812:
5715:Awards and honors
5698:Siegbert Einstein
5586:Einstein's Cosmos
5136:
5135:
5110:Quantum mysticism
5088:Schrödinger's cat
5019:Quantum simulator
4989:Quantum metrology
4917:Quantum computing
4880:Quantum amplifier
4857:Quantum spacetime
4822:Quantum cosmology
4812:Quantum chemistry
4527:Scattering theory
4475:Zero-point energy
4470:Degenerate levels
4378:Quantum mechanics
4344:
4343:
4300:Massless particle
4108:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4069:
4068:
3932:
3931:
3744:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3692:Magnetic monopole
3640:
3639:
3531:
3530:
3472:
3471:
3452:Muon antineutrino
3437:Electron neutrino
3172:10.1119/1.1450558
3060:10.1063/5.0093411
2981:(7313): 301–304.
2942:(11): 8185–8189.
2936:Physical Review A
2811:10.1063/1.1480788
2710:10.1038/nphys2863
2106:(2998): 558–560.
2063:10.1063/1.3001830
1915:978-0-486-26126-3
1881:978-0-691-10250-4
1805:978-0-201-02118-9
1791:Quantum Mechanics
1786:Sands, Matthew L.
1748:Quantum Mechanics
1610:
1227:Wave interference
1171:characterized by
1163:; they have some
1138:wave interference
1070:, now called the
1064:Erwin Schrödinger
901:concepts such as
891:quantum mechanics
884:
883:
591:Scattering theory
571:Quantum computing
344:Schrödinger's cat
276:Bell's inequality
84:
59:
28:Quantum mechanics
5848:
5801:
5800:
5700:(distant cousin)
5694:(great-grandson)
5656:Hermann Einstein
5638:Lieserl Einstein
5316:Tea leaf paradox
5163:
5156:
5149:
5140:
5139:
5126:
5125:
4837:Quantum geometry
4832:Quantum dynamics
4689:Superdeterminism
4585:Matrix mechanics
4440:Bra–ket notation
4371:
4364:
4357:
4348:
4347:
4334:
4310:Virtual particle
4081:Mesonic molecule
4015:
4014:
4011:
4010:
3856:Bottom eta meson
3764:
3763:
3755:
3754:
3727:W′ and Z′ bosons
3717:Sterile neutrino
3702:Majorana fermion
3569:
3568:
3560:
3559:
3483:
3482:
3462:Tau antineutrino
3317:
3316:
3308:
3307:
3288:
3281:
3274:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3258:
3256:
3237:
3235:
3233:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3184:
3183:
3157:
3148:
3137:
3136:
3110:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3053:
3029:
3023:
3022:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2927:
2921:
2919:
2918:on 11 June 2009.
2917:
2911:. Archived from
2906:
2897:
2895:
2885:
2862:Einstein, Albert
2858:
2852:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2834:. Archived from
2833:
2813:
2790:Hawking, Stephen
2786:
2780:
2779:
2768:10.2307/27757381
2751:
2745:
2744:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2695:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2630:
2606:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2540:
2531:
2530:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2465:
2448:(783): 663–667.
2433:
2427:
2426:
2408:
2406:10.1038/119890a0
2376:
2370:
2369:
2359:
2341:
2309:
2300:
2299:
2289:
2271:
2239:
2230:
2229:
2219:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2170:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2120:10.1038/119558a0
2097:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2010:(6): 1049–1070.
1995:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1974:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1941:(269): 293–316.
1926:
1920:
1919:
1901:
1886:
1885:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1832:
1826:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1774:
1763:
1762:
1742:
1709:
1684:
1635:). Many similar
1619:angular momentum
1611:
1551:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1521:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1498:
1479:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1448:of the light by
1372:
1361:
1275:trajectory of a
1268:
1256:
1238:
1223:
1083:Clinton Davisson
1024:Louis de Broglie
979:interpreted the
876:
869:
862:
503:Superdeterminism
156:Bra–ket notation
107:
105:
104:
99:
91:
86:
85:
77:
65:
60:
58:
47:
19:
18:
5856:
5855:
5851:
5850:
5849:
5847:
5846:
5845:
5816:
5815:
5814:
5809:
5789:
5740:Religious views
5735:Political views
5703:
5688:(granddaughter)
5686:Evelyn Einstein
5674:Robert Einstein
5668:Eduard Einstein
5612:
5549:
5543:
5497:
5467:Einstein's Gift
5401:
5394:
5335:Annus mirabilis
5320:
5291:Teleparallelism
5236:Einstein radius
5206:Brownian motion
5172:
5170:Albert Einstein
5167:
5137:
5132:
5114:
5100:Wigner's friend
5076:
5067:Quantum gravity
5028:
5014:Quantum sensing
4994:Quantum network
4974:Quantum machine
4944:Quantum imaging
4907:Quantum circuit
4902:Quantum channel
4861:
4807:Quantum biology
4793:
4769:Elitzur–Vaidman
4744:Davisson–Germer
4727:
4679:Hidden-variable
4669:de Broglie–Bohm
4646:Interpretations
4640:
4604:
4558:
4445:Complementarity
4423:
4380:
4375:
4345:
4340:
4324:
4278:Nuclear physics
4227:
4191:
4127:Davydov soliton
4100:
4065:
4039:
4000:
3928:
3900:
3827:
3736:
3636:
3595:
3549:
3527:
3509:
3468:
3388:
3297:
3292:
3254:
3252:
3231:
3229:
3217:
3208:
3206:
3193:
3188:
3187:
3155:
3149:
3140:
3087:
3083:
3030:
3026:
2967:
2963:
2928:
2924:
2915:
2904:
2859:
2855:
2841:
2839:
2822:
2787:
2783:
2752:
2748:
2737:
2733:
2672:
2668:
2607:
2600:
2591:
2589:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2541:
2534:
2491:
2487:
2434:
2430:
2377:
2373:
2310:
2303:
2240:
2233:
2196:Physical Review
2188:
2184:
2147:Physical Review
2139:
2135:
2095:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2043:
2039:
2004:Physical Review
1996:
1992:
1982:
1980:
1972:
1966:
1962:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1902:
1889:
1882:
1866:
1862:
1833:
1829:
1817:
1813:
1806:
1775:
1766:
1759:
1743:
1736:
1731:
1707:
1682:
1675:
1628:
1603:
1601:
1562:Planck constant
1537:
1534:
1533:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1431:Albert Einstein
1411:
1403:Main articles:
1393:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1373:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1332:
1326:
1310:magnetic moment
1306:electric charge
1291:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1269:
1261:
1260:
1257:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1239:
1231:
1230:
1224:
1215:
1214:
1125:
1105:based upon the
1057:Albert Einstein
1016:Robert Millikan
1008:
1002:
921:
916:
880:
851:
850:
849:
614:
606:
605:
551:
550:Advanced topics
543:
542:
541:
493:Hidden-variable
483:de Broglie–Bohm
462:
460:Interpretations
452:
451:
450:
420:
412:
411:
410:
368:
360:
359:
358:
325:
281:CHSH inequality
270:
262:
261:
260:
189:Complementarity
183:
175:
174:
173:
141:
112:
87:
76:
75:
61:
51:
46:
38:
35:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5854:
5844:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5811:
5810:
5808:
5807:
5794:
5791:
5790:
5788:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5711:
5709:
5705:
5704:
5702:
5701:
5695:
5689:
5683:
5677:
5671:
5665:
5659:
5653:
5647:
5641:
5635:
5629:
5622:
5620:
5614:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5603:
5596:
5589:
5582:
5575:
5568:
5561:
5553:
5551:
5545:
5544:
5542:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5505:
5503:
5499:
5498:
5496:
5495:
5487:
5479:
5478:(2008 TV film)
5471:
5463:
5455:
5447:
5443:Young Einstein
5439:
5435:Insignificance
5431:
5423:
5415:
5406:
5404:
5396:
5395:
5393:
5392:
5386:
5383:Why Socialism?
5379:
5371:
5363:
5355:
5347:
5340:
5330:
5328:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5221:Einstein solid
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5191:
5180:
5178:
5174:
5173:
5166:
5165:
5158:
5151:
5143:
5134:
5133:
5131:
5130:
5119:
5116:
5115:
5113:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5096:
5095:
5084:
5082:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5063:
5062:
5052:
5047:
5045:Casimir effect
5042:
5036:
5034:
5030:
5029:
5027:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5004:Quantum optics
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4925:
4924:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4898:
4897:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4871:
4869:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4803:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4779:Quantum eraser
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4735:
4733:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4694:
4693:
4692:
4691:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4650:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4612:
4610:
4606:
4605:
4603:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4566:
4564:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4556:
4555:
4554:
4549:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4478:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4452:
4450:Density matrix
4447:
4442:
4437:
4431:
4429:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4405:
4404:
4394:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4374:
4373:
4366:
4359:
4351:
4342:
4341:
4337:Physics portal
4329:
4326:
4325:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4251:Standard Model
4248:
4247:
4246:
4235:
4233:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4218:Quasiparticles
4215:
4210:
4205:
4199:
4197:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4118:
4116:
4114:Quasiparticles
4110:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4077:
4075:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4047:
4045:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4021:
4019:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3938:
3934:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3926:
3921:
3910:
3908:
3906:Exotic hadrons
3902:
3901:
3899:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3837:
3835:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3772:
3770:
3761:
3752:
3746:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3734:
3732:X and Y bosons
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3603:
3601:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3577:
3575:
3566:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3548:
3547:
3541:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3519:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3507:
3505:W and Z bosons
3502:
3497:
3491:
3489:
3480:
3474:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3398:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3359:Strange (quark
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3325:
3323:
3314:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3291:
3290:
3283:
3276:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3238:
3215:
3192:
3191:External links
3189:
3186:
3185:
3166:(3): 266–271.
3138:
3081:
3024:
2961:
2922:
2853:
2821:978-0553802023
2820:
2781:
2746:
2731:
2686:(4): 271–277.
2680:Nature Physics
2666:
2598:
2587:NobelPrize.org
2574:
2555:(17): 55–129.
2532:
2505:(2): 245–275.
2485:
2428:
2371:
2324:(8): 619–627.
2301:
2254:(4): 317–322.
2231:
2202:(6): 705–740.
2182:
2153:(6): 705–740.
2133:
2076:
2037:
1990:
1960:
1921:
1914:
1887:
1880:
1860:
1847:(3): 553–563.
1827:
1811:
1804:
1764:
1757:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1685:
1674:
1671:
1627:
1624:
1600:
1597:
1578:Arthur Compton
1541:
1520:
1517:
1496:
1481:
1480:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1423:Philipp Lenard
1415:Heinrich Hertz
1392:
1389:
1374:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1325:
1322:
1318:quasiparticles
1284:
1283:
1270:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1240:
1233:
1232:
1225:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1209:
1165:center of mass
1124:
1121:
1049:effective mass
1045:group velocity
1020:Charles Wilson
1004:Main article:
1001:
998:
989:Arthur Compton
941:François Arago
920:
917:
915:
912:
882:
881:
879:
878:
871:
864:
856:
853:
852:
848:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
616:
615:
612:
611:
608:
607:
604:
603:
598:
593:
588:
586:Density matrix
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
552:
549:
548:
545:
544:
540:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
509:
508:
507:
506:
505:
490:
485:
480:
475:
470:
464:
463:
458:
457:
454:
453:
449:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
422:
421:
418:
417:
414:
413:
409:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
377:
376:
375:
369:
366:
365:
362:
361:
357:
356:
351:
346:
340:
339:
338:
337:
336:
334:Delayed-choice
329:Quantum eraser
324:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
272:
271:
268:
267:
264:
263:
259:
258:
257:
256:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
219:Quantum number
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
185:
184:
181:
180:
177:
176:
172:
171:
166:
160:
159:
158:
153:
148:
142:
139:
138:
135:
134:
133:
132:
127:
122:
114:
113:
108:
97:
94:
90:
83:
80:
74:
71:
68:
64:
57:
54:
50:
45:
42:
31:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5853:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5823:
5821:
5806:
5805:
5796:
5795:
5792:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5706:
5699:
5696:
5693:
5690:
5687:
5684:
5681:
5678:
5675:
5672:
5669:
5666:
5663:
5662:Maja Einstein
5660:
5657:
5654:
5651:
5648:
5645:
5642:
5639:
5636:
5633:
5632:Elsa Einstein
5630:
5627:
5624:
5623:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5609:
5608:
5604:
5602:
5601:
5597:
5595:
5594:
5590:
5588:
5587:
5583:
5581:
5580:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5569:
5567:
5566:
5562:
5560:
5559:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5546:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5519:Kalinga Prize
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5500:
5493:
5492:
5488:
5486:(2017 series)
5485:
5484:
5480:
5477:
5476:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5464:
5461:
5460:
5456:
5453:
5452:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5432:
5429:
5428:
5424:
5421:
5420:
5416:
5413:
5412:
5408:
5407:
5405:
5403:
5397:
5390:
5387:
5384:
5380:
5377:
5376:
5372:
5369:
5368:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5356:
5353:
5352:
5348:
5345:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5332:
5331:
5329:
5327:
5323:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5186:
5185:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5164:
5159:
5157:
5152:
5150:
5145:
5144:
5141:
5129:
5121:
5120:
5117:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5094:
5091:
5090:
5089:
5086:
5085:
5083:
5079:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5035:
5031:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4964:Quantum logic
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4872:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4817:Quantum chaos
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4784:Stern–Gerlach
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4736:
4734:
4730:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4718:Transactional
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4708:Quantum logic
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4690:
4687:
4686:
4685:
4682:
4681:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4561:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4544:
4543:
4542:Wave function
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4517:Superposition
4515:
4513:
4512:Quantum state
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4465:Excited state
4463:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4432:
4430:
4426:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4372:
4367:
4365:
4360:
4358:
4353:
4352:
4349:
4339:
4338:
4333:
4327:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4295:Exotic matter
4293:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4283:Eightfold way
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4273:Antiparticles
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4245:
4242:
4241:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4230:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4200:
4198:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4111:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4003:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3956:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3944:Atomic nuclei
3942:
3941:
3939:
3935:
3925:
3922:
3919:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3907:
3903:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3876:Upsilon meson
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3808:Lambda baryon
3806:
3804:
3801:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3747:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3667:Dual graviton
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3564:Superpartners
3561:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3540:
3538:
3534:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3475:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3447:Muon neutrino
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3379:Bottom (quark
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3289:
3284:
3282:
3277:
3275:
3270:
3269:
3266:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3204:
3200:
3195:
3194:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3101:(1): 015005.
3100:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2900:Einstein, A.
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2876:(6): 132–48.
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2850:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2798:Physics Today
2795:
2791:
2785:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2742:
2735:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2551:(in German).
2550:
2546:
2539:
2537:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2391:(3007): 890.
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2306:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2236:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2051:Physics Today
2048:
2041:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1978:
1971:
1964:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1883:
1877:
1873:
1872:
1864:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1843:(in German).
1842:
1838:
1831:
1824:
1822:
1815:
1807:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1760:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1741:
1739:
1734:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1660:
1659:phase shifter
1651:
1647:
1645:
1640:
1638:
1634:
1623:
1620:
1596:
1594:
1593:laser cooling
1590:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1570:work function
1567:
1563:
1559:
1539:
1518:
1515:
1494:
1485:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1406:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1371:
1360:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1287:
1278:
1274:
1273:cloud chamber
1267:
1255:
1244:
1237:
1228:
1222:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1146:seismic waves
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1130:wave equation
1120:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1036:standing wave
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1012:J. J. Thomson
1007:
997:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
939:in 1801, and
938:
934:
930:
926:
911:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
877:
872:
870:
865:
863:
858:
857:
855:
854:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
617:
610:
609:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
576:Quantum chaos
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
553:
547:
546:
538:
535:
533:
532:Transactional
530:
528:
525:
523:
522:Quantum logic
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
504:
501:
500:
499:
496:
495:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
465:
461:
456:
455:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
423:
416:
415:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
374:
371:
370:
364:
363:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
341:
335:
332:
331:
330:
327:
326:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
273:
266:
265:
255:
252:
251:
250:
249:Wave function
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
229:Superposition
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
186:
179:
178:
170:
167:
165:
162:
161:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
143:
137:
136:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
117:
116:
115:
111:
78:
72:
55:
52:
48:
40:
33:
32:
29:
26:
25:
21:
20:
5802:
5770:Einsteinhaus
5650:Pauline Koch
5628:(first wife)
5626:Mileva Marić
5605:
5598:
5591:
5584:
5577:
5570:
5563:
5556:
5489:
5481:
5473:
5465:
5457:
5449:
5441:
5433:
5425:
5417:
5409:
5373:
5365:
5357:
5349:
5334:
5305:
4847:Quantum mind
4759:Franck–Hertz
4621:Klein–Gordon
4570:Formulations
4563:Formulations
4551:
4492:Interference
4482:Entanglement
4460:Ground state
4455:Energy level
4428:Fundamentals
4392:Introduction
4335:
4314:
4006:Hypothetical
3954:Exotic atoms
3823:Omega baryon
3813:Sigma baryon
3803:Delta baryon
3555:Hypothetical
3537:Ghost fields
3523:Higgs boson
3457:Tau neutrino
3349:Charm (quark
3253:. Retrieved
3230:. Retrieved
3223:PhysicsQuest
3222:
3209:December 12,
3207:. Retrieved
3203:HyperPhysics
3202:
3163:
3159:
3098:
3094:
3084:
3041:
3037:
3027:
2978:
2974:
2964:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2913:the original
2908:
2873:
2869:
2856:
2842:December 14,
2840:. Retrieved
2836:the original
2801:
2797:
2784:
2759:
2755:
2749:
2740:
2734:
2683:
2679:
2669:
2618:
2614:
2590:. Retrieved
2586:
2577:
2552:
2548:
2502:
2498:
2488:
2445:
2441:
2431:
2388:
2384:
2374:
2321:
2317:
2251:
2247:
2199:
2195:
2185:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2103:
2099:
2089:L. H. Germer
2079:
2057:(1): 34–41.
2054:
2050:
2040:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1981:. Retrieved
1976:
1963:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1905:
1870:
1863:
1844:
1840:
1830:
1820:
1814:
1790:
1747:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1641:
1629:
1616:
1586:
1580:performed a
1565:
1557:
1555:
1445:
1438:
1419:cathode rays
1412:
1385:
1377:
1348:
1344:
1333:
1295:
1292:
1285:
1243:trajectories
1197:tennis balls
1169:trajectories
1158:
1156:, and more.
1126:
1087:
1076:
1067:
1061:
1047:and have an
1041:wave packets
1031:
1009:
991:performed a
968:
949:Planck's law
945:Poisson spot
933:Thomas Young
925:Isaac Newton
922:
886:
885:
431:Klein–Gordon
367:Formulations
204:Energy level
199:Entanglement
182:Fundamentals
169:Interference
120:Introduction
5826:Dichotomies
5775:Einsteinium
5548:Books about
5494:(2023 film)
5491:Oppenheimer
5470:(2003 play)
5462:(1994 film)
5454:(1993 play)
5446:(1988 film)
5438:(1985 film)
5281:EPR paradox
5105:EPR paradox
4885:Quantum bus
4754:Double-slit
4732:Experiments
4698:Many-worlds
4636:Schrödinger
4600:Phase space
4590:Schrödinger
4580:Interaction
4537:Uncertainty
4507:Nonlocality
4502:Measurement
4497:Decoherence
4487:Hamiltonian
4288:Quark model
4056:Theta meson
3959:Positronium
3871:Omega meson
3866:J/psi meson
3796:Antineutron
3707:Dark photon
3672:Graviphoton
3631:Stop squark
3339:Down (quark
3242:Mack, Katie
2762:: 299–322.
2693:1410.0270v1
2085:C. Davisson
1983:25 February
1718:Matter wave
1589:solar sails
1205:sand grains
1154:radio waves
1150:sound waves
1142:water waves
1134:diffraction
1111:Bragg's law
1006:Matter wave
820:von Neumann
805:Schrödinger
581:EPR paradox
512:Many-worlds
446:Schrödinger
401:Schrödinger
396:Phase-space
386:Interaction
291:Double-slit
269:Experiments
244:Uncertainty
214:Nonlocality
209:Measurement
194:Decoherence
164:Hamiltonian
5820:Categories
5780:Max Talmey
5682:(grandson)
5640:(daughter)
5400:In popular
5033:Extensions
4867:Technology
4713:Relational
4664:Copenhagen
4575:Heisenberg
4522:Tunnelling
4385:Background
4030:Heptaquark
3991:Superatoms
3924:Pentaquark
3914:Tetraquark
3896:Quarkonium
3786:Antiproton
3687:Leptoquark
3622:Neutralino
3384:antiquark)
3374:antiquark)
3369:Top (quark
3364:antiquark)
3354:antiquark)
3344:antiquark)
3334:antiquark)
3303:Elementary
3255:August 31,
3232:August 31,
3051:2203.00477
2592:2024-03-18
1758:0486409244
1729:References
1328:See also:
1241:Classical
1193:spacecraft
1177:velocities
1116:Otto Stern
1103:Hans Bethe
1096:surfaces.
1053:wavevector
975:. In 1905
961:oscillator
957:Max Planck
815:Sommerfeld
730:Heisenberg
725:Gutzwiller
665:de Broglie
613:Scientists
527:Relational
478:Copenhagen
381:Heisenberg
239:Tunnelling
140:Background
5841:Particles
4739:Bell test
4609:Equations
4435:Born rule
4268:Particles
4213:Particles
4172:Polariton
4162:Plasmaron
4132:Dropleton
4025:Hexaquark
3996:Molecules
3984:Protonium
3861:Phi meson
3846:Rho meson
3818:Xi baryon
3750:Composite
3586:Gravitino
3329:Up (quark
3197:R. Nave.
3180:0002-9505
3125:0034-6861
3108:1407.2930
3076:247187983
3068:0003-6951
3003:0028-0836
2831:120382028
2718:1745-2473
2653:1367-2630
2628:1210.6243
2527:171025814
2519:0007-0874
2472:0950-1207
2415:0028-0836
2348:0027-8424
2278:0027-8424
2226:0031-899X
2177:0031-899X
2071:0031-9228
2032:0031-899X
1955:1941-5982
1637:proposals
1633:coherence
1617:Normally
1566:threshold
1540:θ
1516:λ
1495:λ
1443:frequency
1427:intensity
1173:positions
1077:In 1926,
899:classical
845:Zeilinger
690:Ehrenfest
419:Equations
96:⟩
93:Ψ
82:^
70:⟩
67:Ψ
44:ℏ
5804:Category
5730:Memorial
5676:(cousin)
5664:(sister)
5658:(father)
5652:(mother)
5550:Einstein
5385:" (1949)
5346:" (1905)
5128:Category
4922:Timeline
4674:Ensemble
4654:Bayesian
4547:Collapse
4419:Glossary
4402:Timeline
4244:timeline
4096:R-hadron
4051:Glueball
4035:Skyrmion
3969:Tauonium
3682:Inflaton
3677:Graviton
3657:Curvaton
3627:Sfermion
3617:Higgsino
3612:Chargino
3573:Gauginos
3432:Neutrino
3417:Antimuon
3407:Positron
3402:Electron
3312:Fermions
3133:34901303
3011:20844532
2864:(1905).
2776:27757381
2726:56438353
2480:98311959
2366:16587378
2296:16587341
2091:(1927).
1788:(2007).
1673:See also
1519:′
1277:positron
1094:Ni metal
1079:Max Born
1028:electron
977:Einstein
903:particle
770:Millikan
695:Einstein
680:Davisson
635:Blackett
620:Aharonov
488:Ensemble
468:Bayesian
373:Overview
254:Collapse
234:Symmetry
125:Glossary
5708:Related
5402:culture
5177:Physics
5081:Related
5060:History
4799:Science
4631:Rydberg
4397:History
4232:Related
4203:Baryons
4177:Polaron
4167:Plasmon
4142:Fracton
4137:Exciton
4091:Diquark
4086:Pomeron
4061:T meson
4018:Baryons
3979:Pionium
3964:Muonium
3891:D meson
3886:B meson
3791:Neutron
3776:Nucleon
3768:Baryons
3759:Hadrons
3722:Tachyon
3697:Majoron
3662:Dilaton
3591:Photino
3427:Antitau
3394:Leptons
3019:2970408
2983:Bibcode
2956:9906912
2878:Bibcode
2849:Alt URL
2698:Bibcode
2633:Bibcode
2557:Bibcode
2450:Bibcode
2423:4122313
2393:Bibcode
2357:1085652
2326:Bibcode
2287:1085484
2256:Bibcode
2204:Bibcode
2155:Bibcode
2128:4104602
2108:Bibcode
2012:Bibcode
1560:is the
1201:bullets
1189:planets
914:History
895:quantum
810:Simmons
800:Rydberg
765:Moseley
745:Kramers
735:Hilbert
720:Glauber
715:Feynman
700:Everett
670:Compton
441:Rydberg
130:History
5618:Family
5502:Prizes
5483:Genius
5391:(1955)
5378:(1938)
5370:(1934)
5362:(1922)
5354:(1916)
5339:(1905)
5337:papers
4774:Popper
4208:Mesons
4157:Phonon
4152:Magnon
4074:Others
4044:Mesons
3937:Others
3833:Mesons
3781:Proton
3645:Others
3600:Others
3581:Gluino
3515:Scalar
3495:Photon
3478:Bosons
3321:Quarks
3178:
3131:
3123:
3074:
3066:
3017:
3009:
3001:
2975:Nature
2954:
2828:
2818:
2774:
2724:
2716:
2661:832961
2659:
2651:
2525:
2517:
2478:
2470:
2421:
2413:
2385:Nature
2364:
2354:
2346:
2294:
2284:
2276:
2224:
2175:
2126:
2100:Nature
2069:
2030:
1953:
1912:
1878:
1802:
1755:
1574:photon
1556:where
1436:energy
1298:quanta
1181:forces
1018:, and
985:photon
965:energy
840:Zeeman
835:Wigner
785:Planck
755:Landau
740:Jordan
391:Matrix
321:Popper
5836:Waves
5725:House
5720:Brain
5670:(son)
5646:(son)
5326:Works
4684:Local
4626:Pauli
4616:Dirac
4196:Lists
4187:Trion
4182:Roton
4122:Anyon
3949:Atoms
3712:Preon
3652:Axion
3607:Axino
3500:Gluon
3487:Gauge
3156:(PDF)
3129:S2CID
3103:arXiv
3072:S2CID
3046:arXiv
3044:(7).
3015:S2CID
2916:(PDF)
2905:(PDF)
2826:S2CID
2772:JSTOR
2722:S2CID
2688:arXiv
2657:S2CID
2623:arXiv
2523:S2CID
2476:S2CID
2419:S2CID
2124:S2CID
2096:(PDF)
1973:(PDF)
1185:Stars
893:that
795:Raman
780:Pauli
775:Onnes
710:Fermi
685:Debye
675:Dirac
640:Bloch
630:Bethe
498:Local
436:Pauli
426:Dirac
224:State
5459:I.Q.
4147:Hole
3974:Onia
3881:Kaon
3841:Pion
3412:Muon
3257:2023
3234:2023
3211:2005
3176:ISSN
3121:ISSN
3064:ISSN
3007:PMID
2999:ISSN
2952:PMID
2844:2020
2816:ISBN
2714:ISSN
2649:ISSN
2515:ISSN
2468:ISSN
2411:ISSN
2362:PMID
2344:ISSN
2292:PMID
2274:ISSN
2222:ISSN
2173:ISSN
2087:and
2067:ISSN
2028:ISSN
1985:2023
1951:ISSN
1910:ISBN
1876:ISBN
1800:ISBN
1753:ISBN
1407:and
1308:and
1302:spin
1175:and
951:for
907:wave
830:Wien
825:Weyl
790:Rabi
760:Laue
750:Lamb
705:Fock
660:Bose
655:Born
650:Bohr
645:Bohm
625:Bell
3422:Tau
3168:doi
3113:doi
3056:doi
3042:121
2991:doi
2979:467
2944:doi
2888:doi
2806:doi
2764:doi
2706:doi
2641:doi
2565:doi
2553:392
2507:doi
2458:doi
2446:119
2401:doi
2389:119
2352:PMC
2334:doi
2282:PMC
2264:doi
2212:doi
2163:doi
2116:doi
2104:119
2059:doi
2020:doi
1943:doi
1849:doi
1845:309
1823:...
935:'s
905:or
5822::
3248:.
3244:.
3225:.
3221:.
3201:.
3174:.
3164:70
3162:.
3158:.
3141:^
3127:.
3119:.
3111:.
3099:88
3097:.
3093:.
3070:.
3062:.
3054:.
3040:.
3036:.
3013:.
3005:.
2997:.
2989:.
2977:.
2973:.
2950:.
2940:45
2938:.
2934:.
2907:.
2886:.
2874:17
2872:.
2868:.
2824:.
2814:.
2802:55
2800:.
2796:.
2770:.
2758:.
2720:.
2712:.
2704:.
2696:.
2684:10
2682:.
2678:.
2655:.
2647:.
2639:.
2631:.
2619:15
2617:.
2613:.
2601:^
2585:.
2563:.
2547:.
2535:^
2521:.
2513:.
2503:43
2501:.
2497:.
2474:.
2466:.
2456:.
2444:.
2440:.
2417:.
2409:.
2399:.
2387:.
2383:.
2360:.
2350:.
2342:.
2332:.
2322:14
2320:.
2316:.
2304:^
2290:.
2280:.
2272:.
2262:.
2252:14
2250:.
2246:.
2234:^
2220:.
2210:.
2200:30
2198:.
2194:.
2171:.
2161:.
2151:30
2149:.
2145:.
2122:.
2114:.
2102:.
2098:.
2065:.
2055:31
2053:.
2049:.
2026:.
2018:.
2008:28
2006:.
2002:.
1975:.
1949:.
1939:44
1937:.
1933:.
1890:^
1839:.
1794:.
1784:;
1780:;
1767:^
1737:^
1320:.
1304:,
1203:,
1199:,
1195:,
1191:,
1187:,
1152:,
1148:,
1144:,
1014:,
955:.
5381:"
5342:"
5162:e
5155:t
5148:v
4370:e
4363:t
4356:v
3920:)
3916:(
3633:)
3629:(
3287:e
3280:t
3273:v
3259:.
3236:.
3213:.
3182:.
3170::
3135:.
3115::
3105::
3078:.
3058::
3048::
3021:.
2993::
2985::
2958:.
2946::
2896:,
2890::
2880::
2851:.
2808::
2778:.
2766::
2760:9
2728:.
2708::
2700::
2690::
2663:.
2643::
2635::
2625::
2595:.
2571:.
2567::
2559::
2529:.
2509::
2482:.
2460::
2452::
2425:.
2403::
2395::
2368:.
2336::
2328::
2298:.
2266::
2258::
2228:.
2214::
2206::
2179:.
2165::
2157::
2130:.
2118::
2110::
2073:.
2061::
2034:.
2022::
2014::
1987:.
1957:.
1945::
1918:.
1884:.
1857:.
1851::
1808:.
1761:.
1558:h
1468:f
1465:h
1462:=
1459:E
1446:f
1439:E
1039:(
969:E
875:e
868:t
861:v
89:|
79:H
73:=
63:|
56:t
53:d
49:d
41:i
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.