42:
55:
258:
quantity of virus in their circulatory system. When a blood-feeding insect feeds on such animals, it picks up this virus and transmits it to other animals or humans. Although other animals, such as cattle, swine, and dogs, can become infected, they generally do not show signs of the disease or contribute to its spread.
261:
The virion is spherical and approximately 70 nm in diameter. It has a lipid membrane with glycoprotein surface proteins spread around the outside. Surrounding the nuclear material is a nucleocapsid that has an icosahedral symmetry of T = 4, and is approximately 40 nm in diameter.
455:
Auguste, Albert J.; Volk, Sara M.; Arrigo, Nicole C.; Martinez, Raymond; Ramkissoon, Vernie; Adams, A. Paige; Thompson, Nadin N.; Adesiyun, Abiodun A.; Chadee, Dave D.; Foster, Jerome E.; Travassos Da Rosa, Amelia P.A.; Tesh, Robert B.; Weaver, Scott C.; Carrington, Christine V.F. (September 2009).
257:
subtypes, on the other hand, can spread rapidly through large populations. These forms of the virus are highly pathogenic to equines and can also affect human health. Equines, rather than rodents, are the primary animal species that carry and spread the disease. Infected equines develop an enormous
350:
There is an inactivated vaccine containing the C-84 strain for VEEV that is used to immunize horses. Another vaccine, containing the TC-83 strain, is only used on humans in military and laboratory positions that risk contracting the virus. The human vaccine can result in side effects and does not
319:
An outbreak of this disease occurred in
Colombia on September 1995. This outbreak resulted in 14,156 human cases that were attributable to Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus with 26 human deaths. A possible explanation for the serious outbreaks was the particularly heavy rain that had fallen.
293:
In the
Americas, there have been 21 reported outbreaks of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Outbreaks occurred in Central American and South American countries. This virus was isolated in 1938, and outbreaks have been reported in many different countries since then. Mexico, Colombia,
250:
subtypes of VEE are diseases endemic to certain areas. Generally these serotypes do not spread to other localities. Enzootic subtypes are associated with the rodent-mosquito transmission cycle. These forms of the virus can cause human illness but generally do not affect equine health.
316:-like cases were reported in the northwest portion of the country. Eventually, the outbreak spread more towards the north as well as to the south. The outbreak caused about 11,390 febrile cases in humans as well as 16 deaths. About 500 equine cases were reported with 475 deaths.
245:
The virus that causes VEE is transmitted primarily by mosquitoes that bite an infected animal and then bite and feed on another animal or human. The speed with which the disease spreads depends on the subtype of the VEE virus and the density of mosquito populations.
277:
has shown the presence of six different subtypes (classified I to VI). These have been given names, including
Mucambo, Tonate, and Pixuna subtypes. There are seven different variants in subtype I, and three of these variants, A, B, and C are the epizootic strains.
367:
reported that samples of
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus were discovered missing during an inventory of a group of samples left by a departed researcher. The report stated the samples were likely among those destroyed when a freezer malfunctioned.
920:
908:
896:
294:
Venezuela, and the United States are just some of the countries that have reported outbreaks. Outbreaks of VEE generally occur after periods of heavy precipitation that cause mosquito populations to thrive.
700:
Beaman, Joseph R.; Turell, Michael J. (1 January 1991). "Transmission of
Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus by Strains of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Collected in North and South America".
2904:
336:
Though the majority of VEE outbreaks occur in
Central and South America, the virus has potential to outbreak again in the United States. It has been shown the invasive mosquito species
320:
This could have caused increased numbers of mosquitoes that could serve as vectors for the disease. A more likely explanation is that deforestation caused a change in mosquito species.
2737:
242:-like symptoms, such as high fevers and headaches. People with weakened immune systems and the young and the elderly can become severely ill or die from this disease.
281:
The
Mucambo virus (subtype III) appears to have evolved ~1807 AD (95% credible interval: 1559–1944). In Venezuela the Mucambo subtype was identified in 1975 by
2044:
2661:
301:
experienced an outbreak of this virus. Overall, 28 cases of the disease were reported along with 12 deaths. June 1993 saw a bigger outbreak in the
Venezuelan
2717:
2611:
2259:
985:
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1800:
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2802:
17:
551:
Weaver, Scott C.; Ferro, Cristina; Barrera, Roberto; Boshell, Jorge; Navarro, Juan-Carlos (7 January 2004). "Venezuelan equine encephalitis".
2876:
2054:
2939:
1429:
505:
Esparza, J.; Sánchez, A. (June 1975). "Multiplication of
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (Mucambo) virus in cultured mosquito cells".
954:
2837:
2732:
2727:
2268:
381:
2616:
392:, author Stephen Handelman details the weaponization of VEE and other biologicals including plague, anthrax, and smallpox, by Dr.
1066:
191:
2722:
2252:
978:
782:
681:
958:
802:
1418:
351:
fully immunize the patient. The TC-83 strain was generated by passing the virus 83 times through a guinea pig heart cell
458:"Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of Mucambo virus (Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex subtype IIIA) in Trinidad"
2712:
2676:
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1293:
597:
385:
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disorders. Humans also can contract this disease. Healthy adults who become infected by the virus may experience
736:
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1765:
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1112:
751:
586:
Osorio, Jorge E.; Yuill, Thomas M. (2017). "Venzuelan Equine
Encephalitis". In Beran, George W. (ed.).
54:
674:
Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Man and Animals: Chlamydioses, rickettsioses, and viroses
2742:
2656:
1970:
1433:
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2049:
1992:
1870:
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1190:
935:
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2914:
2153:
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390:
Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World
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1933:
1842:
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1484:
1393:
1161:
963:
822:
770:
615:"Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America"
312:
A much larger outbreak in Venezuela and Colombia occurred in 1995. On May 23, 1995, equine
2824:
2747:
2474:
2237:
1985:
1980:
1359:
626:
429:
329:
49:
564:
8:
2681:
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2307:
2302:
2118:
1245:
530:
482:
457:
41:
929:
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2413:
2198:
1975:
1318:
1132:
778:
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614:
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568:
522:
487:
186:
534:
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1926:
1911:
1541:
1352:
1347:
710:
644:
634:
560:
514:
477:
469:
437:
338:
808:
363:
In April 2009, the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases at
2595:
2348:
2003:
1633:
1626:
1621:
1424:
1335:
1215:
1210:
940:
775:
Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen
587:
127:
103:
473:
2393:
1830:
1518:
1489:
714:
619:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
298:
1885:
613:
Rico-Hesse, R; Weaver, S C; de Siger, J; Medina, G; Salas, R A (6 June 1995).
441:
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1956:
1938:
1860:
1780:
1656:
1638:
1550:
1340:
997:
352:
115:
91:
823:"PAHO Epidemiological Bulletin: Outbreak of Venezuelan Equine Encephalities"
639:
2868:
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2641:
2626:
2621:
2514:
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2454:
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2358:
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2017:
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1183:
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572:
491:
364:
313:
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722:
658:
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2012:
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1379:
1313:
1270:
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1122:
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1001:
526:
302:
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1943:
1825:
1706:
1561:
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1370:
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1101:
518:
393:
151:
139:
888:
2509:
2504:
2322:
2312:
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1010:
254:
79:
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mosquitoes, which are more likely to bite humans and large equines.
2781:
2423:
2368:
2287:
994:
397:
377:
270:
247:
203:
2297:
2282:
2148:
2097:
2075:
234:. After infection, equines may suddenly die or show progressive
2829:
2428:
2186:
1965:
1694:
1683:
912:
900:
856:"Army: 3 vials of virus samples missing from Maryland facility"
752:"Army: 3 vials of virus samples missing from Maryland facility"
306:
227:
993:
612:
2408:
322:
274:
231:
223:
207:
66:
2267:
420:
Vlak, Just M. (July 2007). "Gernot H. Bergold (1911–2003)".
1257:
2905:
Arthropod-borne viral fevers and viral haemorrhagic fevers
777:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 30–31.
550:
454:
239:
297:
Between December 1992 and January 1993, the Venezuelan
809:"PAHO: Equine Encephalitis in the Event of a Disaster"
878:
327:mosquitos, which prefer rodents, were replaced by
592:. Vol. Section B Viral Zoonoses. CRC Press.
2896:
837:"PATHINFO: Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus"
695:
693:
771:"The Post-World War II Era and the Korean War"
546:
544:
504:
285:and J. Sánchez using cultured mosquito cells.
222:). VEE can affect all equine species, such as
2253:
979:
690:
699:
1430:Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome
749:
671:
585:
541:
388:researched and weaponized VEE. In his book
2260:
2246:
986:
972:
762:
415:
413:
40:
743:
648:
638:
481:
2269:United States biological weapons program
382:United States biological weapons program
672:Acha, Pedro N.; Szyfres, Boris (2001).
410:
14:
2897:
768:
737:"Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus"
358:
2763:
2762:
2241:
1801:Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
967:
565:10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123422
2803:Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
2773:Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
959:World Organisation for Animal Health
750:Shaughnessy, Larry (22 April 2009).
419:
371:
200:Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
181:Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
166:Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
34:Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
2940:Biological anti-agriculture weapons
1304:Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
803:Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis
24:
2718:Korean War bio-warfare allegations
305:, as 55 humans died as well as 66
25:
2951:
2713:Soviet biological weapons program
2677:Plum Island Animal Disease Center
2612:U.S. Army Biological Warfare Labs
874:
422:Journal of Invertebrate Pathology
386:Soviet biological weapons program
355:; C-84 is a derivative of TC-83.
265:
1294:Western equine encephalomyelitis
1284:Eastern equine encephalomyelitis
53:
2733:U.S. biological defense program
2728:U.S. biological weapons program
1419:Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever
288:
1581:Kemerovo tickborne viral fever
729:
665:
606:
579:
498:
448:
212:Venezuelan equine encephalitis
18:Venezuelan equine encephalitis
13:
1:
2667:One-Million-Liter Test Sphere
1838:Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
1077:Jamestown Canyon encephalitis
703:Journal of Medical Entomology
403:
342:is a viable carrier of VEEV.
1732:Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever
7:
2662:Horn Island Testing Station
1754:Brazilian hemorrhagic fever
1742:Argentine hemorrhagic fever
676:. Pan American Health Org.
553:Annual Review of Entomology
474:10.1016/j.virol.2009.06.038
10:
2956:
1766:Bolivian hemorrhagic fever
1646:Sandfly fever Naples virus
345:
273:testing performed on this
2771:
2743:War Bureau of Consultants
2690:
2657:Granite Peak Installation
2604:
2528:
2447:
2331:
2275:
2207:
2175:
2166:
2137:
2107:
2085:
2074:
2033:
2001:
1954:
1895:
1884:
1858:
1789:
1704:
1693:
1682:
1654:
1604:
1593:
1559:
1539:
1457:
1434:Huaiyangshan banyangvirus
1403:
1392:
1368:
1268:
1146:
1031:
1020:
1009:
882:
442:10.1016/j.jip.2007.03.015
400:Soviet weapons programs.
185:
180:
48:
39:
32:
2050:SARS-related coronavirus
2013:Henipavirus encephalitis
1871:Murid gammaherpesvirus 4
1716:Viral hemorrhagic fevers
1497:Viral hemorrhagic fevers
1469:Arbovirus encephalitides
1445:Arbovirus encephalitides
1415:Viral hemorrhagic fevers
1380:Banna virus encephalitis
1280:Arbovirus encephalitides
1225:Viral hemorrhagic fevers
1191:Saint Louis encephalitis
1158:Arbovirus encephalitides
1109:Viral hemorrhagic fevers
1043:Arbovirus encephalitides
795:
715:10.1093/jmedent/28.1.161
2154:Yaba monkey tumor virus
1511:Kyasanur Forest disease
1473:Tick-borne encephalitis
1174:Australian encephalitis
1067:California encephalitis
640:10.1073/pnas.92.12.5278
2529:Operations and testing
2500:Flettner rotor bomblet
1501:Omsk hemorrhagic fever
1082:La Crosse encephalitis
236:central nervous system
2920:Animal viral diseases
2708:Entomological warfare
2637:Dugway Proving Ground
2571:Operation Magic Sword
2551:Operation Dark Winter
1934:Marburg virus disease
1485:Powassan encephalitis
1162:Japanese encephalitis
769:Croddy, Eric (2002).
210:pathogen that causes
2748:War Research Service
2738:U.S. bio-weapons ban
2475:E48 particulate bomb
1360:Semliki Forest virus
589:Handbook of zoonoses
507:Archives of Virology
330:Aedes taeniorhynchus
50:Virus classification
2935:Health in Venezuela
2682:Vigo Ordnance Plant
2632:Deseret Test Center
2586:Operation Whitecoat
2581:Operation Polka Dot
2561:Operation Drop Kick
2536:Operation Sea-Spray
1907:Ebola virus disease
1571:Colorado tick fever
1326:O'nyong'nyong fever
631:1995PNAS...92.5278R
434:2007JInvP..95..231V
359:Society and culture
2930:Viral encephalitis
2925:Biological weapons
2703:Biological warfare
2672:Pine Bluff Arsenal
2546:Operation Big Itch
2541:Operation Big Buzz
2303:Enterotoxin type B
2119:Simian foamy virus
519:10.1007/BF01317545
192:Infectious disease
2892:
2891:
2765:Taxon identifiers
2756:
2755:
2576:Operation May Day
2460:E133 cluster bomb
2332:Researched agents
2276:Weaponized agents
2235:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2162:
2161:
2070:
2069:
1880:
1879:
1678:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1589:
1588:
1388:
1387:
1133:Rift Valley fever
950:
949:
784:978-0-387-95076-1
683:978-92-75-11580-0
625:(12): 5278–5281.
372:Biological weapon
299:state of Trujillo
216:encephalomyelitis
197:
196:
175:Medical condition
173:
172:
16:(Redirected from
2947:
2885:
2884:
2872:
2871:
2859:
2858:
2846:
2845:
2833:
2832:
2820:
2819:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2760:
2759:
2698:Biological agent
2520:M33 cluster bomb
2495:E96 cluster bomb
2490:E86 cluster bomb
2485:E77 balloon bomb
2262:
2255:
2248:
2239:
2238:
2173:
2172:
2083:
2082:
1893:
1892:
1702:
1701:
1691:
1690:
1666:Chandipura virus
1602:
1601:
1542:Orthomyxoviridae
1401:
1400:
1348:Ross River fever
1113:Bunyamwera fever
1029:
1028:
1018:
1017:
988:
981:
974:
965:
964:
880:
879:
870:
868:
867:
851:
849:
848:
839:. Archived from
832:
830:
829:
818:
816:
815:
789:
788:
766:
760:
759:
747:
741:
740:
733:
727:
726:
697:
688:
687:
669:
663:
662:
652:
642:
610:
604:
603:
583:
577:
576:
548:
539:
538:
513:(2–3): 273–280.
502:
496:
495:
485:
452:
446:
445:
417:
339:Aedes albopictus
178:
177:
58:
57:
44:
30:
29:
27:Species of virus
21:
2955:
2954:
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2946:
2945:
2944:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2888:
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2875:
2867:
2862:
2854:
2849:
2841:
2836:
2828:
2823:
2815:
2810:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2767:
2757:
2752:
2686:
2600:
2596:Project Bacchus
2524:
2443:
2327:
2323:Wheat stem rust
2271:
2266:
2236:
2223:
2203:
2168:
2158:
2133:
2103:
2077:
2066:
2029:
2004:Paramyxoviridae
1997:
1950:
1887:
1876:
1854:
1785:
1696:
1685:
1670:
1650:
1634:Pappataci fever
1627:Oropouche virus
1622:Oropouche fever
1596:
1585:
1555:
1535:
1453:
1425:Heartland virus
1395:
1384:
1364:
1336:Pogosta disease
1264:
1211:West Nile fever
1142:
1023:
1012:
1005:
992:
951:
946:
945:
891:
877:
865:
863:
854:
846:
844:
835:
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503:
499:
453:
449:
418:
411:
406:
374:
361:
348:
291:
268:
176:
169:
129:Martellivirales
105:Kitrinoviricota
52:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2953:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2915:Horse diseases
2912:
2907:
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2821:
2808:
2793:
2777:
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2769:
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2725:
2723:List of topics
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2700:
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2691:Related topics
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1341:Sindbis virus
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843:on 2006-08-28
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801:APHIS. 1996.
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117:Alsuviricetes
114:
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93:Orthornavirae
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68:
65:
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56:
51:
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38:
35:
31:
19:
2910:Alphaviruses
2772:
2647:Fort Douglas
2642:Fort Detrick
2627:Building 470
2622:Building 257
2617:Building 101
2515:M143 bomblet
2470:E23 munition
2465:E14 munition
2455:E120 bomblet
2439:Yellow fever
2359:Dengue fever
2317:
2208:
2199:Mokola virus
2176:
2138:
2110:Retroviridae
2108:
2096:
2086:
2034:
2002:
1955:
1896:
1869:
1859:
1792:Bunyavirales
1790:
1707:Arenaviridae
1705:
1655:
1607:Bunyavirales
1605:
1560:
1540:
1526:Langat virus
1460:Flaviviridae
1458:
1449:Bhanja virus
1406:Bunyavirales
1404:
1369:
1303:
1269:
1241:Yellow fever
1229:Dengue fever
1149:Flaviviridae
1147:
1092:Tahyna virus
1057:Bwamba Fever
1034:Bunyavirales
1032:
955:Disease card
934:
919:
907:
895:
864:. Retrieved
862:. 2009-04-22
859:
845:. Retrieved
841:the original
826:. Retrieved
812:. Retrieved
774:
764:
755:
745:
731:
706:
702:
673:
667:
622:
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608:
588:
581:
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461:
450:
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421:
389:
375:
365:Fort Detrick
362:
349:
337:
335:
328:
321:
318:
314:encephalitis
311:
296:
292:
289:Epidemiology
283:Jose Esparza
280:
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244:
219:
215:
211:
199:
198:
165:
164:
152:
140:
128:
116:
104:
92:
80:
73:
63:(unranked):
33:
2797:Wikispecies
2591:Project 112
2404:Psittacosis
2384:Melioidosis
2379:Lassa fever
2293:Brucellosis
1898:Filoviridae
1720:Lassa fever
1616:Adria virus
1314:Chikungunya
1271:Togaviridae
1201:Usutu virus
1123:Ngari virus
1047:Batai virus
380:, both the
376:During the
141:Togaviridae
2899:Categories
2652:Fort Terry
2605:Facilities
2419:Rinderpest
2374:Hantavirus
2308:Rice blast
2210:Poxviridae
2140:Poxviridae
2060:SARS-CoV-2
1562:Reoviridae
1440:Tete virus
1371:Reoviridae
1253:Zika fever
1102:Tete virus
1000:(A80–B34,
866:2009-04-23
847:2007-03-17
828:2007-03-17
814:2007-03-17
404:References
394:Ken Alibek
153:Alphavirus
2510:M115 bomb
2505:M114 bomb
2448:Munitions
2313:Tularemia
2219:Monkeypox
1011:Arthropod
325:taenopius
255:Epizootic
187:Specialty
160:Species:
88:Kingdom:
81:Riboviria
2856:11461158
2843:10085919
2782:Wikidata
2480:E61 bomb
2424:Smallpox
2369:Glanders
2349:Bird flu
2288:Botulism
2167:Multiple
2055:SARS-CoV
2045:MERS-CoV
1234:DENV-1-4
1022:Mosquito
995:Zoonotic
573:14651460
535:20202029
492:19631956
462:Virology
398:Cold War
384:and the
378:Cold War
309:deaths.
271:Serology
248:Enzootic
204:mosquito
136:Family:
100:Phylum:
2788:Q473462
2298:Q fever
2283:Anthrax
2169:vectors
2149:Tanapox
2098:B virus
2076:Primate
1595:Sandfly
1421:(CCHFV)
1002:042–079
941:D004685
916:: A92.2
723:2033608
659:7777497
627:Bibcode
483:2804100
430:Bibcode
396:in the
353:culture
346:Vaccine
228:donkeys
206:-borne
148:Genus:
124:Order:
112:Class:
2830:539939
2429:Typhus
2394:Plague
2187:Rabies
2129:HTLV-2
2124:HTLV-1
2078:-borne
1966:Rabies
1888:-borne
1697:-borne
1695:Rodent
1686:-borne
1684:Mammal
1618:(ADRV)
1597:-borne
1396:-borne
1024:-borne
1013:-borne
904:: 1C8C
781:
721:
680:
657:
647:
596:
571:
533:
527:813617
525:
490:
480:
307:equine
232:zebras
230:, and
224:horses
2882:11036
2869:96519
2851:IRMNG
2817:7FLNK
2409:Ricin
2354:CHIKV
1927:ZEBOV
1831:THAIV
1319:CHIKV
930:066.2
796:Notes
650:41677
531:S2CID
323:Culex
275:virus
208:viral
202:is a
74:Realm
67:Virus
2877:NCBI
2838:GBIF
2192:RABV
1993:CHPV
1981:DUVV
1976:MOKV
1971:ABLV
1944:RAVV
1939:MARV
1922:TAFV
1917:SUDV
1912:BDBV
1843:ANDV
1826:AMRV
1821:SEOV
1816:PUUV
1811:HTNV
1806:DOBV
1781:CHPV
1776:LUJV
1770:MACV
1759:SABV
1747:JUNV
1736:GTOV
1725:LASV
1575:CTFV
1530:LGTV
1519:AHFV
1515:KFDV
1505:OHFV
1490:POWV
1478:TBEV
1394:Tick
1330:ONNV
1308:VEEV
1298:WEEV
1288:EEEV
1258:ZIKV
1205:USUV
1195:SLEV
1184:KUNV
1179:MVEV
1137:RVFV
1127:NRIV
1117:BUNV
1096:TAHV
1086:LACV
1061:BWAV
1051:BATV
936:MeSH
925:9-CM
779:ISBN
719:PMID
678:ISBN
655:PMID
594:ISBN
569:PMID
523:PMID
488:PMID
2864:ISC
2825:EoL
2812:CoL
2434:WEE
2414:RVF
2389:VND
2364:EEE
2344:BHF
2339:AHF
2318:VEE
2023:NiV
2018:HeV
1986:LBV
1886:Bat
1848:SNV
1353:RRV
1246:YFV
1216:WNV
1167:JEV
1071:CEV
957:on
921:ICD
909:ICD
897:ICD
860:CNN
756:CNN
711:doi
645:PMC
635:doi
561:doi
515:doi
478:PMC
470:doi
466:392
438:doi
240:flu
220:VEE
214:or
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226:,
76::
2261:e
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980:t
973:v
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899:-
889:D
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