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78:(surrounds) the pattern with refractory material to make a mould, and a molten substance is cast into the mold. Materials that can be cast include stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminium, carbon steel and glass. The cavity inside the refractory mould is a slightly oversized but otherwise exact duplicate of the desired part. Due to the hardness of refractory materials used, investment casting can produce products with exceptional surface qualities, which can reduce the need for secondary machine processes.
439:
804:
109:
574:. Typically VPC machines consist of an upper and a lower chamber—the upper chamber, or melting chamber, housing the crucible, and the lower casting chamber housing the investment mould. Both chambers are connected via a small hole containing a stopper. A vacuum is pulled in the lower chamber, while pressure is applied in the upper, and then the stopper is removed. This creates the greatest pressure differential to fill the moulds. The most common materials for
423:
451:
188:. Wax patterns can be produced in one of two ways. In one process, the wax is poured into the mould and swished around until an even coating, usually about 3 mm (0.12 in) thick, covers the inner surface of the mould. This is repeated until the desired pattern thickness is reached. Another method involves filling the entire mould with molten wax and letting it cool as a solid object.
415:: After grinding, the completed casting is then subject to finishing. This usually goes further than grinding, with impurities and negatives being removed via hand tooling and welding. In the case that the part needs additional straightening, this process is usually carried out by hydraulic straightening presses, which bring the product in line with its tolerances.
540:
does not have to control turbulence. The metal is drawn from below the top of the pool, so the metal is free from dross and slag (which are lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool). The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every intricacy of the mould. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure.
100:, but per-unit costs decrease with large volumes. Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with exceptional surface qualities and low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or machining required.
535:
process after the
Hitchiner Manufacturing Company that invented the technique. In this technique, the mould has a downward fill pipe that is lowered into the melt. A vacuum draws the melt into the cavity; when the important parts have solidified, the vacuum is released, and the unused material leaves
349:
that is much greater than the investment material surrounding it—as the wax is heated it expands and introduces stress. To minimize these stresses the wax is heated as rapidly as possible so that outer wax surfaces can melt and drain quickly, making space for the rest of the wax to expand. In certain
364:
the mould. Sometimes this heating is also used to preheat the mould before pouring, but other times the mould is allowed to cool so that it can be tested. Preheating allows the metal to stay liquid longer so that it can better fill all mould details and increase dimensional accuracy. If the mould is
88:
investment casting are the two primary investment casting methods currently in use. The main differences are the surface roughness and cost of casting. Water glass method dewaxes into the high-temperature water, and the ceramic mould is made of water glass quartz sand. Silica sol method dewaxes into
494:
The main disadvantage is the overall cost, especially for short-run productions. Some of the reasons for the high cost include specialized equipment, costly refractories, and binders, many operations to make a mould, a lot of labor is needed and occasional minute defects occur. However, the cost is
258:
allows coatings to cure. These steps are repeated until the investment reaches its required thickness—usually 5 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 in). Investment moulds are left to dry completely, which can take 16 to 48 hours. Drying can be accelerated by applying a vacuum or minimizing environmental
539:
This technique is more metal efficient than traditional pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to 50% metal yield compared to 60 to 95% for counter-gravity pouring. There is also less turbulence, so the gating system can be simplified since it
660:
where the process produced detailed artwork of copper, bronze and gold. By far, one of the earliest identified uses of the investment casting process was seen in objects found in the 'Cave of
Treasure', discovered in Southern Israel. These items were identified as being made around 3700 BC using
587:
Investment casting is used with almost any castable metal. However, aluminium alloys, copper alloys, and steel are the most common. In industrial use, the size limits are 3 g (0.1 oz) to several hundred kilograms. The cross-sectional limits are 0.6 mm (0.024 in) to 75 mm
699:
in 1897. Its use was accelerated by
William H. Taggart of Chicago, whose 1907 paper described his development of a technique. He also formulated a wax pattern compound of excellent properties, developed an investment material, and invented an air-pressure casting machine.
116:
Castings can be made from an original wax model (the direct method) or from wax replicas of an original pattern that need not be made from wax (the indirect method). The following steps describe the indirect process, which can take two to seven days to complete.
205:
To attach patterns, a heating tool is used to slightly melt designated wax surfaces, which are then pressed against each other and left to cool and harden. As many as several hundred patterns can be assembled into a tree. Wax patterns can also be
592:
are 0.1 mm for the first 25 mm (0.005 in for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for the each additional centimeter (0.002 in for each additional inch). A standard surface finish is 1.3–4 micrometres (50–125 μin) RMS.
63:
and specialist alloys are typically used for making patterns. Investment casting is valued for its ability to produce components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals and high-performance alloys.
715:
that could not be shaped by traditional methods, or that required too much machining. Industry turned to investment casting. After the war, its use spread to many commercial and industrial applications that used complex metal parts.
728:
Unveiling the titanium integral space bus satellite by
Planetary Resources in February 2014. The sacrificial mould for the investment casting was 3D-printed with integral cable routing and toroidal propellant tank. From left:
190:
If a core is required, there are two options: soluble wax or ceramic. Soluble wax cores are designed to melt out of the investment coating with the rest of the wax pattern; ceramic cores are removed after the product has
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industries to produce turbine blades with complex shapes or cooling systems. Blades produced by investment casting can include single-crystal (SX), directionally solidified (DS), or conventional equiaxed blades.
578:
are the high nickel-based alloy and super alloys. Turbocharger products are a common applications for this casting process, though it is also regularly used in the manufacture of silver and gold jewellery.
438:
695:
Investment casting came into use as a modern industrial process in the late 19th century, when dentists began using it to make crowns and inlays, as described by
Barnabas Frederick Philbrook of
770:
Other industries that use standard investment-cast parts include military, aerospace, medical, jewelry, airline, automotive and golf clubs especially since the start of 3D printing technology.
238:
involves dipping a pattern cluster into a slurry of fine refractory material and then draining to create a uniform surface coating. Fine materials are used in this first step, also called a
767:
by incorporating investment casting for the first time for clubheads. Quickly the process became an industry standard to allow weight distribution around the perimeter of the clubhead.
156:(SLA) or DLP 3D printers for high resolution patterns or standard PLA filament when high levels of accuracy are not required. If using a 3D Printed pattern proceed directly to step 5.
38:
371:: The investment mould is then placed open-side up into a tub filled with sand. The metal may be gravity poured or forced by applying positive air pressure or other forces.
170:, is made to fit the master pattern. If the master pattern was made from steel, the master die can be cast directly from the pattern using metal with a lower melting point.
263:
and then pouring liquid investment material from above. The flask is then vibrated to allow entrapped air to escape and help the investment material fill any small voids.
350:
situations, holes may be drilled into the mould before heating to help reduce these stresses. Any wax that runs out of the mould is usually recovered and reused.
197:: Multiple wax patterns can be created and assembled into one large pattern to be cast in one batch pour. In this situation, patterns are attached to a wax
67:
The fragile wax patterns must withstand forces encountered during the mould making. Much of the wax used in investment casting can be reclaimed and reused.
753:
Investment casting is also widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers, triggers, hammers, and other precision parts at low cost.
89:
the flash fire, and silica sol zircon sand makes the ceramic mould. Silica sol method costs more but has the better surface than the water glass method.
422:
1598:
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moulds can also be cast directly from the master pattern. Alternatively, a master die can be machined independently—without creating a master pattern.
405:) to release the casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The casting may then be cleaned up to remove signs of the casting process, usually by
293:
are a mixture of alumina and silica, where commonly used mixtures have an alumina content from 42 to 72%; at 72% alumina the compound is known as
92:
The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings weighing several hundred pounds. It can be more expensive than
383:
are methods that use additional forces and are especially useful when moulds contain thin sections that would be otherwise be difficult to fill.
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1281:"The long history of lost wax casting. Over five thousand years of art and craftsmanship - ITRI - Tin Markets, Technology and Sustainability"
937:
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the mould. The technique can use substantially less material than gravity pouring because the sprue and some gating need not solidify.
52:, one of the oldest known metal-forming techniques. The term "lost-wax casting" can also refer to modern investment casting processes.
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17:
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The earliest known text that describes the investment casting process (Schedula
Diversarum Artium) was written around 1100 A.D. by
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There are many process factors to affect the quality of the mould and casting, so the quality management system is challenging.
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Investment casting has been used in various forms for the last 5,000 years. In its earliest forms, beeswax was used to form
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American
Society for Metals; ASM International Handbook Committee; ASM International Alloy Phase Diagram Committee (1990),
380:
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The variation on the gravity pouring technique is to fill the mould using a vacuum. A common form of this is called the
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This process is expensive, is usually limited to small casting, and presents some difficulties where cores are involved.
232:, is produced by repeating a series of steps—coating, stuccoing, and hardening—until a desired thickness is achieved.
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Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and should be no deeper than about 1.5 times the diameter.
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360:, which heats the mould to between 870 °C and 1095 °C to remove any moisture and residual wax, and to
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is less likely to react with the molten metal. Prior to silica, a mixture of plaster and ground up old moulds (
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to melt out and/or vaporize the wax. Most shell failures occur at this point because the waxes used have a
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777:, 3D printing has begun to be used to make much larger sacrificial moulds used in investment casting.
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676:(1500–1571), who detailed in his autobiography the investment casting process he used for the
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499:; for example, gun manufacturing has moved to investment casting to lower costs of producing
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Inlet-outlet cover of a valve for a nuclear power station produced using investment casting
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A view of the interior investment shows the smooth surface finish and high level of detail
8:
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1195:
An introduction to materials engineering and science for chemical and materials engineers
778:
519:
Investment castings require longer production cycles compared to other casting processes.
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humidity. Investment moulds can also be created by placing the pattern clusters into a
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left to cool, any cracks found can be repaired with ceramic slurry or special cements.
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is a modern form of investment casting that eliminates certain steps in the process.
68:
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570:, uses gas pressure and a vacuum to improve the quality of the casting and minimize
337:: Once ceramic moulds have fully cured, they are turned upside-down and placed in a
1502:"The Spectrum of Investment Casting Possibilities: PMI Alloy and Engineering Guide"
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for stoking furnaces. Examples have been found across the world, such as in the
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1389:"Karsten Solheim changed golf equipment forever and he changed me too"
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materials used to create the investments are: silica, zircon, various
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1026:"A Guide To The Investment Casting Process. Texmo Precision Castings"
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785:, which is then dipped in ceramic to form the investment cast for a
252:, placing it in a rainfall-sander, or by applying materials by hand.
1528:"Opinion: Why The Supply Chain's Achilles' Heel Is 5,000 Years Old"
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1100:"Energy and Waste Minimization in the Investment Casting Industry"
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are rubbed out using the heated metal tool. Finally, patterns are
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necessary for the casting process. Today, more advanced waxes,
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applies coarse ceramic particles by dipping patterns into a
124:: An artist or mould-maker creates an original pattern from
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with integral propellant tank and embedded cable routing.
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still less than producing the same part by machining from
1435:
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),
222:(by removing imperfections) to look like finished pieces.
125:
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for patterns, clay for the moulds and manually operated
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dates back thousands of years. Its earliest use was for
317:(water-based, also known as silica sol, set by drying),
184:, pattern materials may also include plastic and frozen
322:
112:
A wax pattern used to create a jet engine turbine blade
1330:"Casting Metals in Dentistry: Past - Present - Future"
773:
With the increased availability of higher-resolution
1305:"Everything You Need to Know About Lost Wax Casting"
1107:
The
American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy
799:
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has used the technique to print the mould for a new
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It can be difficult to cast objects requiring cores.
485:
Fewer environmental hazards from the foundry process
1457:
Lost-wax
Casting: Old, New, and Inexpensive Methods
1420:, vol. 15 (10th ed.), ASM International,
74:Investment casting is so named because the process
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672:. This book was used by sculptor and goldsmith
301:-based refractories are commonly used, because
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1168:"Hitchiner's Countergravity Casting Services"
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543:This process is also used to cast refractory
1507:. Precision Metalsmiths, Inc. Archived from
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27:Industrial process based on lost-wax casting
1475:Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven (2006),
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401:, or chemically dissolved (sometimes with
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1460:(illustrated ed.), Woodsmere Press,
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991:
989:
938:"The Not-So-Lost Art of Lost Wax Casting"
894:
148:software has become popular using mainly
1477:Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
1437:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
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321:, and a hybrid of these controlled for
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847:Investment Casting Process Description
473:Extremely intricate parts are castable
289:is used because it is less expensive.
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1532:Aviation Week & Space Technology
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313:(alcohol-based and chemically set),
707:increased the demand for precision
629:Civilisation (2500–2000 BC) idols,
428:The investment shell for casting a
356:: The mould is then subjected to a
30:For investment casting in art, see
24:
741:Investment casting is used in the
228:: The ceramic mould, known as the
48:is an industrial process based on
25:
1880:
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1155:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1062:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1013:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
912:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
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281:. Silica is usually used in the
201:to create a pattern cluster, or
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678:Perseus with the Head of Medusa
1781:Semi-finished casting products
1526:Kevin Michaels (Feb 7, 2019).
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711:manufacturing and specialized
482:Effective utilization of metal
297:. During the primary coat(s),
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680:sculpture that stands in the
661:Carbon-14 dating techniques.
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347:thermal expansion coefficient
1349:10.1177/08959374880020011701
858:Kalpakjian & Schmid 2006
476:Almost any metal can be cast
7:
1606:
1337:Advances in Dental Research
1198:, Wiley-IEEE, p. 725,
1192:Mitchell, Brian S. (2004),
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763:design through his company
603:history of lost-wax casting
566:), properly referred to as
10:
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936:Dvorak, Donna (May 2008),
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226:Apply investment materials
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1479:(5th ed.), Pearson,
568:vacuum assist direct pour
479:No flash or parting lines
470:High dimensional accuracy
389:: The shell is hammered,
18:Vacuum assist direct pour
1030:Texmo Precision Castings
833:
759:famously revolutionized
467:Excellent surface finish
122:Produce a master pattern
1864:Casting (manufacturing)
1439:(9th ed.), Wiley,
1309:www.deangroup-int.co.uk
588:(3.0 in). Typical
560:Vacuum pressure casting
555:Vacuum pressure casting
527:Counter-gravity casting
456:The completed workpiece
1454:Sias, Fred R. (2006),
1242:"Nickel Alloy Casting"
738:
576:vacuum casting process
144:of models produced by
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1838:Tools and terminology
1654:Investment (Lost wax)
1417:ASM Handbook: Casting
733:, Chris Lewicki, and
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195:Assemble wax patterns
146:computer-aided design
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40:
1128:"Investment casting"
1075:"Investment Casting"
944:(13), archived from
882:"Investment casting"
697:Council Bluffs, Iowa
666:Theophilus Presbyter
285:form, but sometimes
178:Produce wax patterns
61:refractory materials
1637:Evaporative-pattern
1157:, pp. 319–320.
1132:The Open University
998:, pp. 261–262.
971:, pp. 257–258.
870:Investment Castings
779:Planetary Resources
381:centrifugal casting
291:Aluminium silicates
275:aluminium silicates
942:Copper in the Arts
810:Engineering portal
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354:Burnout preheating
180:: Although called
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46:Investment casting
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1467:978-0-9679600-0-5
1427:978-0-87170-021-6
1391:. 6 February 2011
1205:978-0-471-43623-2
983:, pp. 13–14.
823:Lost-foam casting
818:Full-mold casting
674:Benvenuto Cellini
154:Stereolithography
69:Lost-foam casting
16:(Redirected from
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1869:Jewellery making
1674:Semi-solid metal
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1659:Permanent mold
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311:ethyl silicate
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160:Create a mould
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490:Disadvantages
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1725:Molding sand
1679:Shaw process
1664:Plaster mold
1653:
1570:Metalworking
1531:
1516:. Retrieved
1509:the original
1476:
1456:
1436:
1416:
1408:Bibliography
1393:. Retrieved
1383:
1343:(2): 33–43.
1340:
1336:
1323:
1312:. Retrieved
1308:
1299:
1288:. Retrieved
1284:
1275:
1264:. Retrieved
1262:. 2014-10-30
1259:
1250:
1236:
1225:, retrieved
1220:
1214:
1194:
1187:
1176:. Retrieved
1172:the original
1162:
1135:. Retrieved
1131:
1122:
1110:. Retrieved
1106:
1094:
1082:. Retrieved
1078:
1069:
1033:. Retrieved
1029:
1020:
996:ASM Handbook
976:
969:ASM Handbook
950:, retrieved
946:the original
941:
931:
924:ASM Handbook
919:
885:. Retrieved
876:
865:
853:
842:
772:
769:
755:
752:
740:
720:Applications
705:World War II
702:
694:
663:
633:'s tombs of
600:
586:
575:
567:
563:
559:
558:
548:
542:
538:
532:
530:
505:
493:
430:turbocharger
412:
386:
377:tilt casting
368:
357:
353:
334:
283:fused silica
266:
255:
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229:
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207:
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182:wax patterns
181:
177:
167:
159:
121:
115:
98:sand casting
91:
80:
73:
66:
54:
45:
44:
1808:Fabrication
1749:Terminology
1622:Centrifugal
1079:Forcebeyond
775:3D printers
639:Mesopotamia
635:Tutankhamun
142:3D printing
94:die casting
82:Water glass
1858:Categories
1828:Metallurgy
1698:Components
1627:Continuous
1518:2009-02-23
1395:3 February
1314:2021-10-27
1290:2016-06-09
1266:2016-06-09
1227:2010-03-03
1178:2015-12-05
1035:2019-02-27
952:2009-03-22
887:2017-10-10
829:References
652:, and the
590:tolerances
462:Advantages
399:waterjeted
271:refractory
240:prime coat
230:investment
168:master die
86:silica sol
1823:Machining
1818:Jewellery
1647:Lost foam
1642:Full mold
1615:Processes
981:Sias 2006
790:space bus
761:golf club
743:aerospace
709:net shape
670:parchment
615:jewellery
611:ornaments
533:Hitchiner
497:bar stock
413:Finishing
387:Divesting
343:autoclave
327:viscosity
303:zirconium
269:: common
267:Materials
256:Hardening
246:Stuccoing
216:flashings
191:hardened.
1833:Smithing
1375:17215227
1260:MetalTek
1137:30 March
1112:30 March
1084:30 March
796:See also
787:titanium
686:Florence
627:Harappan
572:porosity
545:ceramics
407:grinding
395:vibrated
307:chamotte
57:patterns
1843:Welding
1813:Forming
1803:Casting
1771:Foundry
1730:Pattern
1608:Casting
1367:3073783
623:bellows
619:beeswax
597:History
583:Details
501:pistols
369:Pouring
358:burnout
339:furnace
295:mullite
279:alumina
236:Coating
220:dressed
186:mercury
138:plastic
104:Process
76:invests
1483:
1464:
1443:
1424:
1373:
1365:
1202:
713:alloys
658:Africa
650:Mexico
362:sinter
299:zircon
287:quartz
277:, and
208:chased
172:Rubber
152:based
1776:Ingot
1766:Dross
1761:Draft
1740:Sprue
1735:Riser
1720:Flask
1705:Chill
1512:(PDF)
1505:(PDF)
1371:S2CID
1333:(PDF)
1103:(PDF)
834:Notes
690:Italy
654:Benin
647:Mayan
643:Aztec
631:Egypt
607:idols
432:rotor
335:Dewax
261:flask
203:tree.
199:sprue
164:mould
150:resin
1786:Slag
1715:Core
1689:Spin
1669:Sand
1481:ISBN
1462:ISBN
1441:ISBN
1422:ISBN
1397:2019
1363:PMID
1200:ISBN
1139:2021
1114:2021
1086:2021
765:PING
745:and
645:and
613:and
601:The
325:and
162:: A
134:wood
130:clay
84:and
1632:Die
1353:hdl
1345:doi
684:in
564:VPC
341:or
214:or
126:wax
96:or
1860::
1530:.
1369:.
1361:.
1351:.
1339:.
1335:.
1307:.
1283:.
1258:.
1147:^
1130:.
1105:.
1077:.
1044:^
1028:.
1003:^
988:^
961:^
940:,
896:^
692:.
688:,
641:,
609:,
551:.
503:.
397:,
393:,
375:,
323:pH
136:,
132:,
128:,
1600:e
1593:t
1586:v
1562:e
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1548:v
1534:.
1521:.
1490:.
1471:.
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1431:.
1399:.
1377:.
1355::
1347::
1341:1
1317:.
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1181:.
1141:.
1116:.
1088:.
1038:.
956:.
890:.
860:.
737:.
562:(
409:.
329:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
