Transcription (biology)

1236: 974:. RNA polymerase core enzyme binds to the bacterial general transcription (sigma) factor to form RNA polymerase holoenzyme and then binds to a promoter. (RNA polymerase is called a holoenzyme when sigma subunit is attached to the core enzyme which is consist of 2 α subunits, 1 β subunit, 1 β' subunit only). Unlike eukaryotes, the initiating nucleotide of nascent bacterial mRNA is not capped with a modified guanine nucleotide. The initiating nucleotide of bacterial transcripts bears a 5′ triphosphate (5′-PPP), which can be used for genome-wide mapping of transcription initiation sites. 795: 915: 900: 43: 633: 1133:(or noncoding strand), is used as a template for RNA synthesis. As transcription proceeds, RNA polymerase traverses the template strand and uses base pairing complementarity with the DNA template to create an RNA copy (which elongates during the traversal). Although RNA polymerase traverses the template strand from 3' → 5', the coding (non-template) strand and newly formed RNA can also be used as reference points, so transcription can be described as occurring 5' → 3'. This produces an RNA molecule from 5' → 3', an exact copy of the coding strand (except that 1122: 721:), with one member of the dimer anchored to its binding motif on the enhancer and the other member anchored to its binding motif on the promoter (represented by the red zigzags in the illustration). Several cell function specific transcription factors (there are about 1,600 transcription factors in a human cell) generally bind to specific motifs on an enhancer and a small combination of these enhancer-bound transcription factors, when brought close to a promoter by a DNA loop, govern level of transcription of the target gene. 741: 212: 732:(eRNAs) as illustrated in the Figure. An inactive enhancer may be bound by an inactive transcription factor. Phosphorylation of the transcription factor may activate it and that activated transcription factor may then activate the enhancer to which it is bound (see small red star representing phosphorylation of transcription factor bound to enhancer in the illustration). An activated enhancer begins transcription of its RNA before activating transcription of messenger RNA from its target gene. 791:. These MBD proteins have both a methyl-CpG-binding domain as well as a transcription repression domain. They bind to methylated DNA and guide or direct protein complexes with chromatin remodeling and/or histone modifying activity to methylated CpG islands. MBD proteins generally repress local chromatin such as by catalyzing the introduction of repressive histone marks, or creating an overall repressive chromatin environment through nucleosome remodeling and chromatin reorganization. 709:

enhancer DNA regions, for a particular type of tissue only specific enhancers are brought into proximity with the promoters that they regulate. In a study of brain cortical neurons, 24,937 loops were found, bringing enhancers to their target promoters. Multiple enhancers, each often at tens or hundred of thousands of nucleotides distant from their target genes, loop to their target gene promoters and can coordinate with each other to control transcription of their common target gene.

1461: 326: 1582: 1542:, such as MS2, into a gene, these become incorporated into newly synthesized RNA. The stem loops can then be detected using a fusion of GFP and the MS2 coat protein, which has a high affinity, sequence-specific interaction with the MS2 stem loops. The recruitment of GFP to the site of transcription is visualized as a single fluorescent spot. This new approach has revealed that transcription occurs in discontinuous bursts, or pulses (see 6602: 1392:, among which are ~8,000 polymerase II factories and ~2,000 polymerase III factories. Each polymerase II factory contains ~8 polymerases. As most active transcription units are associated with only one polymerase, each factory usually contains ~8 different transcription units. These units might be associated through promoters and/or enhancers, with loops forming a "cloud" around the factor. 568: 1388:. Such sites can be visualized by allowing engaged polymerases to extend their transcripts in tagged precursors (Br-UTP or Br-U) and immuno-labeling the tagged nascent RNA. Transcription factories can also be localized using fluorescence in situ hybridization or marked by antibodies directed against polymerases. There are ~10,000 factories in the nucleoplasm of a 1653:, a repeating sequence of DNA, to the end of linear chromosomes. It is important because every time a linear chromosome is duplicated, it is shortened. With the telomere at the ends of chromosomes, the shortening eliminates some of the non-essential, repeated sequence, rather than the protein-encoding DNA sequence farther away from the chromosome end. 497:

strand of DNA is read by RNA polymerase from the 3' end to the 5' end during transcription (3' → 5'). The complementary RNA is created in the opposite direction, in the 5' → 3' direction, matching the sequence of the sense strand except switching uracil for thymine. This directionality is because RNA

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Telomerase is often activated in cancer cells to enable cancer cells to duplicate their genomes indefinitely without losing important protein-coding DNA sequence. Activation of telomerase could be part of the process that allows cancer cells to become immortal. The immortalizing factor of cancer via

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mRNA transcription can involve multiple RNA polymerases on a single DNA template and multiple rounds of transcription (amplification of particular mRNA), so many mRNA molecules can be rapidly produced from a single copy of a gene. The characteristic elongation rates in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are

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The regulatory sequence elements (yellow) at the start of a eukaryotic protein-coding gene, can be immediately upstream of the open read frame (ORF, red), or many kilobases away (upstream or downstream). Promoter and enhancer regions up-regulate (and silencers downregulate) transcription from DNA to

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Enhancers are regions of the genome that are major gene-regulatory elements. Enhancers control cell-type-specific gene transcription programs, most often by looping through long distances to come in physical proximity with the promoters of their target genes. While there are hundreds of thousands of

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In eukaryotes, at an RNA polymerase II-dependent promoter, upon promoter clearance, TFIIH phosphorylates serine 5 on the carboxy terminal domain of RNA polymerase II, leading to the recruitment of capping enzyme (CE). The exact mechanism of how CE induces promoter clearance in eukaryotes is not yet

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to each of the five RNA polymerase subunits in bacteria and also contains additional subunits. In archaea and eukaryotes, the functions of the bacterial general transcription factor sigma are performed by multiple general transcription factors that work together. In archaea, there are three general

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RNA polymerase, assisted by one or more general transcription factors, then unwinds approximately 14 base pairs of DNA to form an RNA polymerase-promoter open complex. In the open complex, the promoter DNA is partly unwound and single-stranded. The exposed, single-stranded DNA is referred to as the

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The splice isoform DNMT3A2 behaves like the product of a classical immediate-early gene and, for instance, it is robustly and transiently produced after neuronal activation. Where the DNA methyltransferase isoform DNMT3A2 binds and adds methyl groups to cytosines appears to be determined by histone

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transcription factor binding site is frequently located in enhancer or promoter sequences. There are about 12,000 binding sites for EGR1 in the mammalian genome and about half of EGR1 binding sites are located in promoters and half in enhancers. The binding of EGR1 to its target DNA binding site is

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are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a gene. The binding sequence for a transcription factor in DNA is usually about 10 or 11 nucleotides long. As summarized in 2009, Vaquerizas et al. indicated there are approximately 1,400 different transcription

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marker found predominantly within CpG sites. About 28 million CpG dinucleotides occur in the human genome. In most tissues of mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated (forming 5-methylCpG or 5-mCpG). However, unmethylated cytosines within 5'cytosine-guanine 3' sequences often

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may also work to inhibit the action of transcription. Potent, bioactive natural products like triptolide that inhibit mammalian transcription via inhibition of the XPB subunit of the general transcription factor TFIIH has been recently reported as a glucose conjugate for targeting hypoxic cancer

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Elongation also involves a proofreading mechanism that can replace incorrectly incorporated bases. In eukaryotes, this may correspond with short pauses during transcription that allow appropriate RNA editing factors to bind. These pauses may be intrinsic to the RNA polymerase or due to chromatin

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the methylated CpG islands at those promoters. Upon demethylation, these promoters can then initiate transcription of their target genes. Hundreds of genes in neurons are differentially expressed after neuron activation through EGR1 recruitment of TET1 to methylated regulatory sequences in their

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During transcription initiation, proteins (dark grey semi-circles) bound to the DNA can be brought into proximity with each other since the intervening DNA can loop back on itself. In this way, the basal transcription machinery can interact with distant activators and repressors many kilobases

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gene into protein at one hour after stimulation is drastically elevated. Production of EGR1 transcription factor proteins, in various types of cells, can be stimulated by growth factors, neurotransmitters, hormones, stress and injury. In the brain, when neurons are activated, EGR1 proteins are

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shown by a small red star on a transcription factor on the enhancer) the enhancer is activated and can now activate its target promoter. The active enhancer is transcribed on each strand of DNA in opposite directions by bound RNAP IIs. Mediator (a complex consisting of about 26 proteins in an

777:, at active promoters. About 60% of promoter sequences have a CpG island while only about 6% of enhancer sequences have a CpG island. CpG islands constitute regulatory sequences, since if CpG islands are methylated in the promoter of a gene this can reduce or silence gene transcription. 829:

factors encoded in the human genome by genes that constitute about 6% of all human protein encoding genes. About 94% of transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) that are associated with signal-responsive genes occur in enhancers while only about 6% of such TFBSs occur in promoters.

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have a leading role in the initiation of gene transcription. An enhancer localized in a DNA region distant from the promoter of a gene can have a very large effect on gene transcription, with some genes undergoing up to 100-fold increased transcription due to an activated enhancer.

1247: 1083:, and is common for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Abortive initiation continues to occur until an RNA product of a threshold length of approximately 10 nucleotides is synthesized, at which point promoter escape occurs and a transcription elongation complex is formed. 1187:

followed by a run of Us. When the hairpin forms, the mechanical stress breaks the weak rU-dA bonds, now filling the DNA–RNA hybrid. This pulls the poly-U transcript out of the active site of the RNA polymerase, terminating transcription. In Rho-dependent termination,

655:(RNAP II) bound to the promoter at the transcription start site of the gene. The loop is stabilized by one architectural protein anchored to the enhancer and one anchored to the promoter and these proteins are joined to form a dimer (red zigzags). Specific regulatory 1345:

or passenger mutations. However, transcriptional inhibition (silencing) may be of more importance than mutation in causing progression to cancer. For example, in colorectal cancers about 600 to 800 genes are transcriptionally inhibited by CpG island methylation (see

1165:. Since transcription enhances the accessibility of DNA to exogenous chemicals and internal metabolites that can cause recombinogenic lesions, homologous recombination of a particular DNA sequence may be strongly stimulated by transcription. 725:(a complex usually consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from enhancer DNA-bound transcription factors directly to the RNA polymerase II (pol II) enzyme bound to the promoter. 3220:

Dukatz M, Holzer K, Choudalakis M, Emperle M, Lungu C, Bashtrykov P, Jeltsch A (December 2019). "H3K36me2/3 Binding and DNA Binding of the DNA Methyltransferase DNMT3A PWWP Domain Both Contribute to its Chromatin Interaction".

1046:. The TFIID is the first component to bind to DNA due to binding of TBP, while TFIIH is the last component to be recruited. In archaea and eukaryotes, the RNA polymerase-promoter closed complex is usually referred to as the " 687:

are sufficient to direct transcription initiation, but generally have low basal activity. Other important cis-regulatory modules are localized in DNA regions that are distant from the transcription start sites. These include

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The schematic illustration in this section shows an enhancer looping around to come into close physical proximity with the promoter of a target gene. The loop is stabilized by a dimer of a connector protein (e.g. dimer of

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Transcription termination in eukaryotes is less well understood than in bacteria, but involves cleavage of the new transcript followed by template-independent addition of adenines at its new 3' end, in a process called

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then digests the RNA strand, and reverse transcriptase synthesises a complementary strand of DNA to form a double helix DNA structure (cDNA). The cDNA is integrated into the host cell's genome by the enzyme

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act as major barriers to transcribing polymerases during transcription elongation. In these organisms, the pausing induced by nucleosomes can be regulated by transcription elongation factors such as TFIIS.

868:(DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) catalyze the addition of methyl groups to cytosines in DNA. While DNMT1 is a maintenance methyltransferase, DNMT3A and DNMT3B can carry out new methylations. There are also two 517:, because its sequence is the same as the newly created RNA transcript (except for the substitution of uracil for thymine). This is the strand that is used by convention when presenting a DNA sequence. 520:

Transcription has some proofreading mechanisms, but they are fewer and less effective than the controls for copying DNA. As a result, transcription has a lower copying fidelity than DNA replication.

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After the first bond is synthesized, the RNA polymerase must escape the promoter. During this time there is a tendency to release the RNA transcript and produce truncated transcripts. This is called

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by several laboratories by 1965; however, the RNA synthesized by these enzymes had properties that suggested the existence of an additional factor needed to terminate transcription correctly.

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Papantonis A, Kohro T, Baboo S, Larkin JD, Deng B, Short P, Tsutsumi S, Taylor S, Kanki Y, Kobayashi M, Li G, Poh HM, Ruan X, Aburatani H, Ruan Y, Kodama T, Wada Y, Cook PR (November 2012).

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Weintraub AS, Li CH, Zamudio AV, Sigova AA, Hannett NM, Day DS, Abraham BJ, Cohen MA, Nabet B, Buckley DL, Guo YE, Hnisz D, Jaenisch R, Bradner JE, Gray NS, Young RA (December 2017).

1566:, which allows the measurement of relative abundance of RNA, as well as the detection of additional variations such as fusion genes, post-transcriptional edits and novel splice sites 3974:"Recombinogenic effects of DNA-damaging agents are synergistically increased by transcription in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. New insights into transcription-associated recombination" 1254:

As shown in the image in the right it is evident that the CTD (C Terminal Domain) is a tail that changes its shape; this tail will be used as a carrier of splicing, capping and

1634:, which causes the host cell to generate viral proteins that reassemble into new viral particles. In HIV, subsequent to this, the host cell undergoes programmed cell death, or 4992: 1546:). With the notable exception of in situ techniques, most other methods provide cell population averages, and are not capable of detecting this fundamental property of genes. 5782: 4791: 748:

Transcription regulation at about 60% of promoters is also controlled by methylation of cytosines within CpG dinucleotides (where 5' cytosine is followed by 3' guanine or

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bind to DNA sequence motifs on the enhancer. General transcription factors bind to the promoter. When a transcription factor is activated by a signal (here indicated as

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Carullo NV, Phillips I RA, Simon RC, Soto SA, Hinds JE, Salisbury AJ, Revanna JS, Bunner KD, Ianov L, Sultan FA, Savell KE, Gersbach CA, Day JJ (September 2020).

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into DNA. The resulting DNA can be merged with the DNA genome of the host cell. The main enzyme responsible for synthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called

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Cramer, P.; Armache, K.-J.; Baumli, S.; Benkert, S.; Brueckner, F.; Buchen, C.; Damsma, G.E.; Dengl, S.; Geiger, S.R.; Jasiak, A.J.; Jawhari, A. (June 2008).

1192:, a protein factor, destabilizes the interaction between the template and the mRNA, thus releasing the newly synthesized mRNA from the elongation complex. 970:

consists of five subunits: 2 α subunits, 1 β subunit, 1 β' subunit, and 1 ω subunit. In bacteria, there is one general RNA transcription factor known as a

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can catalyse demethylation of 5-methylcytosine. When EGR1 transcription factors bring TET1 enzymes to EGR1 binding sites in promoters, the TET enzymes can

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Sun Z, Xu X, He J, Murray A, Sun MA, Wei X, Wang X, McCoig E, Xie E, Jiang X, Li L, Zhu J, Chen J, Morozov A, Pickrell AM, Theus MH, Xie H (August 2019).

1141:, and the nucleotides are composed of a ribose (5-carbon) sugar whereas DNA has deoxyribose (one fewer oxygen atom) in its sugar-phosphate backbone). 5775: 2867:

Vaquerizas JM, Kummerfeld SK, Teichmann SA, Luscombe NM (April 2009). "A census of human transcription factors: function, expression and evolution".

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On the other hand, neural activation causes degradation of DNMT3A1 accompanied by reduced methylation of at least one evaluated targeted promoter.

4185:"The structure and activities of the archaeal transcription termination factor Eta detail vulnerabilities of the transcription elongation complex" 728:

Enhancers, when active, are generally transcribed from both strands of DNA with RNA polymerases acting in two different directions, producing two

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polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing mRNA chain. This use of only the 3' → 5' DNA strand eliminates the need for the

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Bayraktar G, Yuanxiang P, Confettura AD, Gomes GM, Raza SA, Stork O, Tajima S, Suetake I, Karpova A, Yildirim F, Kreutz MR (November 2020).

1796:"Tentative identification of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases of dsRNA viruses and their relationship to positive strand RNA viral polymerases" 959:

and an extending NTP) complementary to the transcription start site sequence, and catalyzes bond formation to yield an initial RNA product.

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machinery to repair the lesion. Mfd is proposed to also resolve conflicts between DNA replication and transcription. In eukayrotes, ATPase

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Goodrich JA, Tjian R (April 1994). "Transcription factors IIE and IIH and ATP hydrolysis direct promoter clearance by RNA polymerase II".

3612:"Functional interactions of RNA-capping enzyme with factors that positively and negatively regulate promoter escape by RNA polymerase II" 3077:

Oliveira AM, Hemstedt TJ, Bading H (July 2012). "Rescue of aging-associated decline in Dnmt3a2 expression restores cognitive abilities".

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Notable vertebrate −ssRNA viruses include the Ebola virus, hantaviruses, influenza viruses, the Lassa fever virus, and the rabies virus.

1572:: amplifies and reads partial transcriptomes from isolated cells, allowing for detailed analyses of RNA in tissues, embryos, and cancers 4509:

Tessitore A, Cicciarelli G, Del Vecchio F, Gaggiano A, Verzella D, Fischietti M, Vecchiotti D, Capece D, Zazzeroni F, Alesse E (2014).

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RNA which acts as a template for positive sense viral messenger RNA - a necessary step in the synthesis of viral proteins needed for

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Aymard F, Bugler B, Schmidt CK, Guillou E, Caron P, Briois S, Iacovoni JS, Daburon V, Miller KM, Jackson SP, Legube G (April 2014).

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Bacteria use two different strategies for transcription termination – Rho-independent termination and Rho-dependent termination. In

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sequence to form an RNA polymerase-promoter closed complex. In the closed complex, the promoter DNA is still fully double-stranded.

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Roeder, Robert G. (1991). "The complexities of eukaryotic transcription initiation: regulation of preinitiation complex assembly".

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While only small amounts of EGR1 transcription factor protein are detectable in cells that are un-stimulated, translation of the

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Image showing RNA polymerase interacting with different factors and DNA during transcription, especially CTD (C Terminal Domain)

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regulates gene transcription through interaction with methyl binding domain (MBD) proteins, such as MeCP2, MBD1 and MBD2. These

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Beagan JA, Pastuzyn ED, Fernandez LR, Guo MH, Feng K, Titus KR, Chandrashekar H, Shepherd JD, Phillips-Cremins JE (June 2020).

1908: 1526:: measures the relative abundance of the global total or nuclear RNA levels; however, these may differ from transcription rates 810:, wherein the lighter regions are generally more transcriptionally active, whereas darker regions are more inactive, including 5473: 5108: 4766: 3723: 3333: 1985: 1892: 1413: 1347: 1316: 4056:

Lykke-Andersen S, Jensen TH (October 2007). "Overlapping pathways dictate termination of RNA polymerase II transcription".

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with the remaining 10% using an alternative telomere maintenance route called ALT or Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres.

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mRNA. The 5' and 3' untranslated regions of that mRNA (UTR, blue) then regulate translation into the final protein product.

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interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from the enhancer DNA-bound transcription factors to the promoter.

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is the process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA. The segments of DNA transcribed into RNA molecules that can encode

4972: 4651:"Kethoxal-assisted single-stranded DNA sequencing captures global transcription dynamics and enhancer activity in situ" 3712:

Milo, Ron; Philips, Rob (2015). "4. Rates and Duration: Central dogma: Which is faster:transcription or translation?".

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Lambert SA, Jolma A, Campitelli LF, Das PK, Yin Y, Albu M, Chen X, Taipale J, Hughes TR, Weirauch MT (February 2018).

5080: 4885: 1947: 614: 1520:: measures the absolute abundance of total or nuclear RNA levels, which may however differ from transcription rates 1363: 1101:

However, later data showed that upon and following promoter clearance, the sigma factor is released according to a

1338: 1322: 5677: 5234: 5178: 4354:"A genome-wide analysis of CpG dinucleotides in the human genome distinguishes two distinct classes of promoters" 2600:"Enhancer RNAs predict enhancer-gene regulatory links and are critical for enhancer function in neuronal systems" 2502:"The degree of enhancer or promoter activity is reflected by the levels and directionality of eRNA transcription" 995: 472: 835:

protein is a particular transcription factor that is important for regulation of methylation of CpG islands. An

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Spitz F, Furlong EE (September 2012). "Transcription factors: from enhancer binding to developmental control".

1227:, preventing errors in chromosomal segregation. In archaea, the Eta ATPase is proposed to play a similar role. 627: 464: 350: 20: 5672: 4813:

Cesare AJ, Reddel RR (May 2010). "Alternative lengthening of telomeres: models, mechanisms and implications".

1207:), transcription may also need to be terminated when it encounters conditions such as DNA damage or an active 230: 6572: 5725: 5261: 5192: 4933: 468: 460: 5693: 5667: 2207:

Schoenfelder S, Fraser P (August 2019). "Long-range enhancer-promoter contacts in gene expression control".

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may occur more frequently by over-produced microRNA-182 than by hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter (see

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Interactive Java simulation of transcription interference—a game of promoter dominance in bacterial virus.

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Shi, J; Wen, A; Zhao, M; Jin, S; You, L; Shi, Y; Dong, S; Hua, X; Zhang, Y; Feng, Y (18 November 2020).

1090:, providing the energy needed to break interactions between RNA polymerase holoenzyme and the promoter. 6627: 6592: 5353: 5212: 3266:"Synaptic control of DNA methylation involves activity-dependent degradation of DNMT3A1 in the nucleus" 2551:"MAP kinase phosphorylation-dependent activation of Elk-1 leads to activation of the co-activator p300" 2157:"Three-dimensional genome restructuring across timescales of activity-induced neuronal gene expression" 1569: 1216: 1212: 956: 865: 503: 119: 3030:"Neuronal DNA Methyltransferases: Epigenetic Mediators between Synaptic Activity and Gene Expression?" 2977:

Kubosaki A, Tomaru Y, Tagami M, Arner E, Miura H, Suzuki T, Suzuki M, Suzuki H, Hayashizaki Y (2009).

6441: 5550: 5486: 5456: 5434: 4896: 4872: 4144:"Involvement of transcription termination factor 2 in mitotic repression of transcription elongation" 1243:

RNA polymerase plays a very crucial role in all steps including post-transcriptional changes in RNA.

784: 583: 494: 432: 343: 4578: 4562:"TNFα signals through specialized factories where responsive coding and miRNA genes are transcribed" 3173:"Isoform-specific localization of DNMT3A regulates DNA methylation fidelity at bivalent CpG islands" 2500:

Mikhaylichenko O, Bondarenko V, Harnett D, Schor IE, Males M, Viales RR, Furlong EE (January 2018).

6622: 6288: 6189: 6106: 5344: 5336: 5256: 5044: 4957: 4926: 4021:

Richardson JP (September 2002). "Rho-dependent termination and ATPases in transcript termination".

1543: 1449: 1445: 1158: 680: 533: 137: 3868:"Transcriptionally active chromatin recruits homologous recombination at DNA double-strand breaks" 1657:

telomere lengthening due to telomerase has been proven to occur in 90% of all carcinogenic tumors

1642:. However, in other retroviruses, the host cell remains intact as the virus buds out of the cell. 1400:

A molecule that allows the genetic material to be realized as a protein was first hypothesized by

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ATPase can remove a RNA polymerase stalled at a lesion by prying open its clamp. It also recruits

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Jabbari K, Bernardi G (May 2004). "Cytosine methylation and CpG, TpG (CpA) and TpA frequencies".

1381: 1375: 1291: 952: 948: 529: 423:, the term transcription is used when referring to mRNA synthesis from a viral RNA molecule. The 6543: 5859: 5560: 5313: 5222: 5147: 5039: 4619: 4573: 2919:"EGR1 recruits TET1 to shape the brain methylome during development and upon neuronal activity" 1503: 999: 722: 672: 4243: 3120:

Dhayalan A, Rajavelu A, Rathert P, Tamas R, Jurkowska RZ, Ragozin S, Jeltsch A (August 2010).

6303: 6276: 5891: 5744: 5739: 5607: 5509: 5137: 5122: 5002: 4259: 3713: 1755: 1615: 1593: 1586: 1529: 1485: 1283: 1174: 825: 701: 700:

and tethering elements. Among this constellation of elements, enhancers and their associated

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Ouyang J, Yadav T, Zhang JM, Yang H, Rheinbay E, Guo H, Haber DA, Lan L, Zou L (June 2021).

3122:"The Dnmt3a PWWP domain reads histone 3 lysine 36 trimethylation and guides DNA methylation" 628:

Enhancers, transcription factors, Mediator complex, and DNA loops in mammalian transcription

6247: 6242: 6118: 5641: 5555: 5521: 5415: 5244: 5142: 5060: 4465: 4365: 4306: 4196: 3928: 3820: 3760: 3623: 3525: 3468: 3370: 2930: 2405: 1807: 1054: 1023: 991: 929: 869: 794: 697: 656: 459:, which direct and regulate the synthesis of that protein. The regulatory sequence before ( 3571:"Holoenzyme switching and stochastic release of sigma factors from RNA polymerase in vivo" 1097:

is definitely released after promoter clearance occurs. This theory had been known as the

8: 6483: 6325: 6281: 6237: 5975: 5624: 5592: 5478: 5452: 5070: 1732: 1722: 1464: 1355: 1342: 1303: 1271: 1080: 933: 864:

The methylation of promoters is also altered in response to signals. The three mammalian

693: 689: 676: 640: 632: 589: 285: 265: 200: 157: 151: 142: 114: 5305: 4469: 4369: 4310: 4200: 3932: 3824: 3764: 3627: 3529: 3514:"Abortive initiation and productive initiation by RNA polymerase involve DNA scrunching" 3472: 3374: 2934: 2409: 1811: 42: 6533: 5393: 5205: 5088: 4858: 4838: 4732: 4707: 4688: 4675: 4650: 4596: 4561: 4537: 4510: 4486: 4453: 4452:

Vogelstein B, Papadopoulos N, Velculescu VE, Zhou S, Diaz LA, Kinzler KW (March 2013).

4388: 4353: 4329: 4294: 4280: 4219: 4184: 4119: 4092: 3998: 3973: 3949: 3916: 3892: 3867: 3843: 3808: 3781: 3748: 3694: 3546: 3513: 3489: 3456: 3452: 3393: 3358: 3339: 3290: 3265: 3246: 3197: 3172: 3148: 3121: 3102: 3054: 3029: 3005: 2979:"Genome-wide investigation of in vivo EGR-1 binding sites in monocytic differentiation" 2978: 2951: 2918: 2892: 2757: 2732: 2673: 2648: 2624: 2599: 2526: 2501: 2477: 2452: 2428: 2393: 2325: 2300: 2276: 2251: 2232: 2181: 2156: 2134: 2086: 2059: 2035: 2010: 1833: 1500:: measures single-stranded DNA generated by RNA polymerases; can work with 1,000 cells. 1351: 1299: 1102: 914: 899: 413: 280: 275: 250: 172: 5760: 4160: 4143: 4034: 3646: 3611: 2575: 2550: 943:

RNA polymerase, assisted by one or more general transcription factors, then selects a

6528: 6232: 5712: 4830: 4762: 4737: 4692: 4680: 4601: 4542: 4491: 4434: 4393: 4334: 4263: 4224: 4165: 4124: 4073: 4038: 4003: 3954: 3897: 3848: 3786: 3729: 3719: 3686: 3682: 3651: 3592: 3551: 3494: 3433: 3429: 3398: 3343: 3329: 3295: 3250: 3238: 3202: 3153: 3094: 3059: 3010: 2956: 2884: 2849: 2803: 2762: 2713: 2678: 2629: 2580: 2531: 2482: 2433: 2371: 2330: 2281: 2236: 2224: 2186: 2138: 2126: 2091: 2040: 1991: 1981: 1943: 1888: 1858: 1825: 1820: 1795: 1622: 1441: 1003: 986: 857: 652: 578: 436: 330: 215: 94: 5289: 4842: 4183:

Marshall, CJ; Qayyum, MZ; Walker, JE; Murakami, KS; Santangelo, TJ (9 August 2022).

3698: 3106: 2733:"Pervasive and CpG-dependent promoter-like characteristics of transcribed enhancers" 1837: 1401: 6264: 6158: 5791: 5634: 5617: 4822: 4727: 4719: 4670: 4662: 4591: 4583: 4532: 4522: 4481: 4473: 4424: 4383: 4373: 4324: 4314: 4255: 4214: 4204: 4155: 4114: 4104: 4065: 4030: 3993: 3985: 3944: 3936: 3887: 3879: 3838: 3828: 3776: 3768: 3678: 3641: 3631: 3582: 3541: 3533: 3484: 3476: 3425: 3388: 3378: 3359:"Global repositioning of transcription start sites in a plant-fermenting bacterium" 3321: 3285: 3277: 3230: 3192: 3184: 3143: 3133: 3086: 3049: 3041: 3000: 2990: 2946: 2938: 2896: 2876: 2839: 2793: 2752: 2744: 2705: 2668: 2660: 2619: 2611: 2570: 2562: 2521: 2513: 2472: 2464: 2423: 2413: 2394:"Positional specificity of different transcription factor classes within enhancers" 2361: 2320: 2312: 2271: 2263: 2216: 2176: 2168: 2118: 2081: 2071: 2030: 2022: 1815: 1645:

Some eukaryotic cells contain an enzyme with reverse transcription activity called

1208: 1183:, RNA transcription stops when the newly synthesized RNA molecule forms a G-C-rich 1121: 753: 499: 222: 3171:

Manzo M, Wirz J, Ambrosi C, Villaseñor R, Roschitzki B, Baubec T (December 2017).

2549:

Li QJ, Yang SH, Maeda Y, Sladek FM, Sharrocks AD, Martins-Green M (January 2003).

1380:

Active transcription units are clustered in the nucleus, in discrete sites called

6521: 6215: 6194: 6123: 5926: 5498: 5266: 5103: 4949: 4913: 4900: 4889: 4876: 4865: 4756: 4069: 3989: 3749:"Nucleosomal fluctuations govern the transcription dynamics of RNA polymerase II" 3587: 3570: 1878: 1750: 1717: 1702: 1697: 1523: 1479: 1334: 1255: 1197: 1069:, which modulate formation and function of the transcription initiation complex. 872: 780: 660: 479: 3316:

Pakay, Julian; Duivenvoorden, Hendrika; Shafee, Thomas; Clarke, Kaitlin (2023).

2011:"Eukaryotic core promoters and the functional basis of transcription initiation" 1337:

the gene becomes inhibited (silenced). Colorectal cancers typically have 3 to 6

1230: 740: 6606: 6511: 6398: 6269: 6128: 6111: 5916: 5846: 5708: 5696: 5646: 5093: 5065: 4723: 4358:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4319: 4295:"A Glucose-Triptolide Conjugate Selectively Targets Cancer Cells under Hypoxia" 4189:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3940: 3616:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2942: 2709: 2366: 2349: 2316: 1677: 1626: 1491: 1431: 1326: 1295: 1087: 811: 788: 774: 382: 270: 195: 4666: 3807:

Fitz V, Shin J, Ehrlich C, Farnung L, Cramer P, Zaburdaev V, Grill SW (2016).

3733: 3281: 3234: 2392:

Grossman SR, Engreitz J, Ray JP, Nguyen TH, Hacohen N, Lander ES (July 2018).

2220: 2172: 2076: 2026: 1995: 1610:), have the ability to transcribe RNA into DNA. HIV has an RNA genome that is 639:. An active enhancer regulatory region of DNA is enabled to interact with the 6616: 6551: 6516: 6359: 6349: 6320: 5953: 5946: 5410: 5294: 4981: 4708:"Nature, nurture, or chance: stochastic gene expression and its consequences" 3045: 2995: 1727: 1682: 1563: 1549: 1468: 1405: 1275: 648: 514: 428: 378: 4477: 4378: 4209: 3833: 3772: 3636: 3537: 3480: 3188: 3138: 2649:"DNA methylation in human epigenomes depends on local topology of CpG sites" 2418: 1621:

In the case of HIV, reverse transcriptase is responsible for synthesizing a

1157:

Double-strand breaks in actively transcribed regions of DNA are repaired by

493:

Only one of the two DNA strands serves as a template for transcription. The

6538: 6381: 6341: 6308: 6080: 6066: 5964: 5168: 5098: 4967: 4834: 4741: 4684: 4605: 4587: 4546: 4495: 4438: 4397: 4338: 4267: 4228: 4169: 4128: 4077: 4042: 4007: 3971: 3958: 3901: 3852: 3790: 3655: 3596: 3555: 3498: 3402: 3299: 3242: 3206: 3157: 3098: 3063: 3014: 2960: 2888: 2853: 2807: 2766: 2717: 2682: 2633: 2584: 2566: 2535: 2517: 2486: 2437: 2375: 2334: 2285: 2228: 2190: 2130: 2095: 2044: 1427: 1409: 1184: 1094: 971: 803: 729: 389: 260: 4882: 4527: 4109: 3972:

García-Rubio M, Huertas P, González-Barrera S, Aguilera A (October 2003).

3690: 3437: 2748: 2615: 1829: 1250:

The Image shows how CTD is carrying protein for further changes in the RNA

744:

This shows where the methyl group is added when 5-methylcytosine is formed

482:, transcription results in an RNA complement that includes the nucleotide 6562: 6428: 6376: 6371: 5884: 5597: 5565: 5468: 5271: 5200: 2664: 1707: 1535: 1460: 1385: 1066: 1062: 1035: 1027: 1015: 853: 849: 769: 757: 3917:"RNA transcripts stimulate homologous recombination by forming DR-loops" 3809:"Nucleosomal arrangement affects single-molecule transcription dynamics" 3383: 2250:

Pennacchio LA, Bickmore W, Dean A, Nobrega MA, Bejerano G (April 2013).

2060:"The Why of YY1: Mechanisms of Transcriptional Regulation by Yin Yang 1" 592:. Can we just make a canonical "main article" and redirect people there? 381:(mRNA). Other segments of DNA are transcribed into RNA molecules called 6470: 6465: 6418: 6411: 6406: 6391: 6386: 6227: 6162: 5911: 5853: 5749: 5443: 5398: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5229: 4508: 4429: 4412: 4293:

Datan E, Minn I, Peng X, He QL, Ahn H, Yu B, Pomper MG, Liu JO (2020).

2798: 2781: 1646: 1287: 1267: 1189: 1162: 1146: 1053:

Transcription initiation is regulated by additional proteins, known as

1006:-dependent transcription, there are six general transcription factors: 982: 967: 405: 397: 190: 104: 84: 59: 3883: 3610:

Mandal SS, Chu C, Wada T, Handa H, Shatkin AJ, Reinberg D (May 2004).

3569:

Raffaelle M, Kanin EI, Vogt J, Burgess RR, Ansari AZ (November 2005).

2844: 2827: 6475: 6460: 6447: 6199: 5987: 5818: 5405: 3747:

Hodges C, Bintu L, Lubkowska L, Kashlev M, Bustamante C (July 2009).

2866: 1635: 1631: 1581: 1539: 1507: 1389: 1058: 817: 807: 799: 749: 393: 147: 4826: 4451: 3090: 2880: 2499: 2468: 2267: 2122: 502:

that are seen in DNA replication. This also removes the need for an

19:

This article is about transcription in biology. For other uses, see

6601: 6506: 6452: 6354: 6298: 6293: 6184: 6145: 6101: 6003: 5808: 5612: 5602: 5249: 5239: 5163: 4023:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Structure and Expression

2057: 1976:

Watson JD, Baker TA, Bell SP, Gann AA, Levine M, Losick RM (2013).

1884: 1740: 1650: 1418: 1330: 1203:

Beyond termination by a terminator sequences (which is a part of a

963: 765: 451:

A DNA transcription unit encoding for a protein may contain both a

420: 206: 89: 79: 34: 4918: 3325: 1562:: applies next-generation sequencing techniques to sequence whole 1494:

assay: measures the relative abundance of newly formed transcripts

6488: 6366: 6150: 6135: 5838: 5813: 5572: 5439: 4985: 3263: 1659: 1649:. Telomerase carries an RNA template from which it synthesizes a 1599: 1559: 1553: 1475:

Transcription can be measured and detected in a variety of ways:

1224: 1134: 978: 487: 404:

language. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by an RNA

374: 1350:). Transcriptional repression in cancer can also occur by other 6579: 6557: 6254: 6177: 6172: 5937: 5828: 5823: 5368: 2730: 1736: 1712: 1639: 1517: 1279: 1138: 483: 424: 99: 74: 3315: 3219: 2828:"Methyl-CpG-binding domain proteins: readers of the epigenome" 506:

to initiate RNA synthesis, as is the case in DNA replication.

6061: 6053: 5871: 5833: 5629: 5481: 5007: 4093:"Structural basis of Mfd-dependent transcription termination" 2453:"The Mediator complex: a central integrator of transcription" 2249: 1687: 1359: 1231:

Role of RNA polymerase in post-transcriptional changes in RNA

1043: 1039: 1031: 1019: 1011: 1007: 928:

Transcription begins with the RNA polymerase and one or more

4907:

Virtual Cell Animation Collection, Introducing Transcription

4182: 3119: 2731:

Steinhaus R, Gonzalez T, Seelow D, Robinson PN (June 2020).

2058:

Verheul TC, van Hijfte L, Perenthaler E, Barakat TS (2020).

1246: 6567: 6259: 5800: 5700: 5530: 5461: 4784:"Some patterns of apoptosis mechanism during HIV-infection" 4283:

8-Hydroxyquinoline from SIGMA-ALDRICH. Retrieved 2022-02-15

3746: 1744: 1692: 1672: 1607: 1511: 1220: 1204: 836: 832: 735: 714: 644: 4559: 4241: 3865: 3512:

Revyakin A, Liu C, Ebright RH, Strick TR (November 2006).

3170: 2646: 2597: 2301:"YY1 Is a Structural Regulator of Enhancer-Promoter Loops" 2154: 1471:

strands are visible as branches from the main DNA strand.

879:

gene: DNA methyltransferase proteins DNMT3A1 and DNMT3A2.

5335: 4977: 3568: 2976: 2391: 2347: 1603: 1302:

is an antifungal transcription inhibitor. The effects of

848:

up-regulated and they bind to (recruit) the pre-existing

761: 718: 647:

by the formation of a chromosome loop. This can initiate

69: 64: 4859:

Interactive Java simulation of transcription initiation.

3511: 2647:

Lövkvist C, Dodd IB, Sneppen K, Haerter JO (June 2016).

2298: 1793: 5790: 4511:"MicroRNAs in the DNA Damage/Repair Network and Cancer" 4142:

Jiang, Y; Liu, M; Spencer, CA; Price, DH (7 May 2004).

4893: 4869: 3806: 3457:"Direct detection of abortive RNA transcripts in vivo" 3076: 1416:

in 1959 for developing a process for synthesizing RNA

852:

enzymes that are produced in high amounts in neurons.

6590: 3450: 1364:

Low expression of BRCA1 in breast and ovarian cancers

1307:

cells with increased glucose transporter production.

1223:

helps to suppress the action of RNAP I and II during

4281:

http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/sial/h6878

4141: 4055: 3914: 947:

in the transcription bubble, binds to an initiating

2825: 1975: 1855:

Biology, 8th Edition, International Student Edition

1794:Koonin EV, Gorbalenya AE, Chumakov KM (July 1989). 4705: 4351: 3609: 2206: 1937: 1853:Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W. Martin. 1625:strand (cDNA) to the viral RNA genome. The enzyme 1552:: the traditional method, and until the advent of 1358:. In breast cancer, transcriptional repression of 1093:In bacteria, it was historically thought that the 671:for transcription in mammals is regulated by many 3802: 3800: 2548: 1488:assay: identifies transcription start sites (TSS) 1022:(a multisubunit factor in which the key subunit, 921:upstream or downstream of the open reading frame. 787:proteins bind most strongly to highly methylated 455:, which will be translated into the protein, and 6614: 4413:"DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory" 3311: 3309: 2782:"DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory" 1086:Mechanistically, promoter escape occurs through 840:insensitive to cytosine methylation in the DNA. 4292: 3813:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3027: 2695: 2387: 2385: 2202: 2200: 1482:transcription assay: measures promoter strength 1467:of transcription of ribosomal RNA. The forming 1333:. When many of a gene's promoter CpG sites are 557: 4352:Saxonov S, Berg P, Brutlag DL (January 2006). 3797: 1942:(6th ed.). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. 1145:about 10–100 nts/sec. In eukaryotes, however, 513:-template (sense) strand of DNA is called the 5776: 5321: 4934: 4090: 3668: 3306: 2916: 1294:of DNA into mRNA by inhibiting DNA-dependent 490:(T) would have occurred in a DNA complement. 351: 4812: 4806: 4502: 4445: 4345: 3257: 3213: 3164: 3113: 3070: 3021: 2860: 2826:Du Q, Luu PL, Stirzaker C, Clark SJ (2015). 2773: 2724: 2689: 2640: 2591: 2542: 2493: 2450: 2444: 2382: 2341: 2292: 2243: 2197: 2108: 2102: 2008: 1872: 1870: 677:core promoter and promoter-proximal elements 16:Process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA 4781: 3711: 3350: 2972: 2970: 2051: 2002: 1448:"for his studies of the molecular basis of 5783: 5769: 5328: 5314: 5089:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA) 4941: 4927: 4020: 3409: 1931: 1455: 1369: 1354:mechanisms, such as altered production of 1286:). An example of such an antibacterial is 1125:Simple diagram of transcription elongation 358: 344: 4731: 4706:Raj A, van Oudenaarden A (October 2008). 4674: 4595: 4577: 4536: 4526: 4485: 4428: 4387: 4377: 4328: 4318: 4244:"Structure of Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases" 4218: 4208: 4159: 4118: 4108: 3997: 3948: 3891: 3842: 3832: 3780: 3645: 3635: 3586: 3545: 3488: 3392: 3382: 3289: 3196: 3147: 3137: 3053: 3004: 2994: 2950: 2843: 2797: 2756: 2672: 2623: 2574: 2525: 2476: 2427: 2417: 2365: 2324: 2275: 2180: 2150: 2148: 2085: 2075: 2034: 1867: 1849: 1847: 1819: 1181:Rho-independent transcription termination 615:Learn how and when to remove this message 4260:10.1146/annurev.biophys.37.032807.130008 2967: 1580: 1576: 1459: 1310: 1266:Transcription inhibitors can be used as 1245: 1234: 1120: 793: 739: 736:CpG island methylation and demethylation 631: 471:from) the coding sequence is called the 463:from) the coding sequence is called the 3356: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2906: 802:of a human, showing an overview of the 683:of genes. Core promoters combined with 439:. This process is catalyzed by a viral 6615: 3415: 2145: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1938:Berg J, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2006). 1844: 1532:: detects the presence of a transcript 637:Regulation of transcription in mammals 5764: 5474:Histone acetylation and deacetylation 5309: 5109:Histone acetylation and deacetylation 4922: 4754: 3028:Bayraktar G, Kreutz MR (April 2018). 2821: 2819: 2817: 2252:"Enhancers: five essential questions" 1876: 1414:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1348:regulation of transcription in cancer 1321:In vertebrates, the majority of gene 1317:Regulation of transcription in cancer 1258:, as shown in the image on the left. 5174:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC) 4410: 4404: 2903: 2779: 1919:from the original on 27 October 2017 1426:, which was useful for cracking the 561: 4948: 4648: 4630:from the original on March 15, 2007 2451:Allen BL, Taatjes DJ (March 2015). 2009:Haberle V, Stark A (October 2018). 1956: 1514:: detect active transcription sites 1298:by binding its beta-subunit, while 985:, RNA polymerase contains subunits 13: 4794:from the original on July 10, 2011 3318:Threshold Concepts in Biochemistry 2814: 1161:during the S and G2 phases of the 1074: 883:post translational modifications. 824:As noted in the previous section, 408:, which produces a complementary, 14: 6644: 4852: 4515:International Journal of Genomics 2350:"The Human Transcription Factors" 1061:, and, in some cases, associated 6600: 913: 898: 566: 473:three prime untranslated regions 325: 324: 211: 210: 41: 5678:Archaeal transcription factor B 5179:Post-translational modification 4775: 4748: 4699: 4642: 4612: 4553: 4286: 4274: 4235: 4176: 4135: 4084: 4049: 4014: 3965: 3908: 3859: 3740: 3705: 3662: 3603: 3562: 3505: 3444: 465:five prime untranslated regions 6437:Last universal common ancestor 6032:Defective interfering particle 4755:Clark, David P. (2005-06-24). 3418:Trends in Biochemical Sciences 1901: 1877:Clark, David P. (2005-06-24). 1787: 1768: 1739:from precursor messenger RNA ( 1168: 538:Transcription is divided into 523: 1: 6573:Clonally transmissible cancer 6009:Satellite-like nucleic acids 4161:10.1016/s1097-2765(04)00234-5 4035:10.1016/S0167-4781(02)00456-6 3718:. CRC Press. pp. 231–6. 1978:Molecular Biology of the Gene 1781: 1261: 1116: 930:general transcription factors 889: 685:general transcription factors 467:(5'UTR); the sequence after ( 446: 4903:at the Niels Bohr Institute. 4879:at the Niels Bohr Institute. 4070:10.1016/j.biochi.2007.05.007 3683:10.1016/0092-8674(94)90242-9 3588:10.1016/j.molcel.2005.10.011 3430:10.1016/0968-0004(91)90164-Q 1821:10.1016/0014-5793(89)80886-5 1424:polynucleotide phosphorylase 558:Setting up for transcription 441:RNA dependent RNA polymerase 7: 4248:Annual Review of Biophysics 3715:Cell Biology by the Numbers 1666: 1129:One strand of the DNA, the 586:. The specific problem is: 486:(U) in all instances where 10: 6649: 6129:Class II or DNA transposon 6124:Class I or retrotransposon 5354:Transcriptional regulation 4724:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.050 4454:"Cancer genome landscapes" 4320:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101536 3990:10.1093/genetics/165.2.457 3941:10.1038/s41586-021-03538-8 2943:10.1038/s41467-019-11905-3 2710:10.1016/j.gene.2004.02.043 2367:10.1016/j.cell.2018.01.029 2317:10.1016/j.cell.2017.11.008 1591: 1395: 1373: 1314: 1217:nucleotide excision repair 1172: 815: 679:that are located near the 527: 18: 6499: 6442:Earliest known life forms 6427: 6340: 6316:Repeated sequences in DNA 6208: 6090: 6079: 6052: 6024: 5974: 5963: 5936: 5925: 5870: 5799: 5721: 5686: 5660: 5585: 5551:Transcription coregulator 5543: 5520: 5497: 5487:Histone acetyltransferase 5457:Histone methyltransferase 5435:Histone-modifying enzymes 5433: 5426: 5361: 5352: 5282: 5191: 5156: 5130: 5121: 5079: 5053: 5027: 5018: 4956: 4894:Center for Models of Life 4870:Center for Models of Life 4667:10.1038/s41592-020-0797-9 3455:, Nickels BE (May 2009). 3282:10.1038/s41386-020-0780-2 3235:10.1016/j.jmb.2019.09.006 2221:10.1038/s41576-019-0128-0 2173:10.1038/s41593-020-0634-6 2077:10.3389/fcell.2020.592164 2027:10.1038/s41580-018-0028-8 1980:(7th ed.). Pearson. 1743:) to make messenger RNA ( 768:(see Figure). 5-mC is an 681:transcription start sites 643:DNA region of its target 6289:Endogenous viral element 6107:Horizontal gene transfer 5240:sequestration (P-bodies) 4761:. Elsevier. p. 63. 3357:Boutard, Magali (2016). 3046:10.1177/1073858417707457 2996:10.1186/gb-2009-10-4-r41 2398:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1761: 1544:Transcriptional bursting 1450:eukaryotic transcription 1446:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1159:homologous recombination 1107:stochastic release model 945:transcription start site 940:"transcription bubble". 773:occur in groups, called 534:Eukaryotic transcription 5986:dsDNA satellite virus ( 5652:Internal control region 5218:Gene regulatory network 4815:Nature Reviews Genetics 4782:Kolesnikova IN (2000). 4478:10.1126/science.1235122 4417:Genes & Development 4411:Bird A (January 2002). 4379:10.1073/pnas.0510310103 4210:10.1073/pnas.2207581119 3834:10.1073/pnas.1602764113 3773:10.1126/science.1172926 3637:10.1073/pnas.0401493101 3538:10.1126/science.1131398 3481:10.1126/science.1169237 3270:Neuropsychopharmacology 3189:10.15252/embj.201797038 3139:10.1074/jbc.M109.089433 2780:Bird A (January 2002). 2419:10.1073/pnas.1804663115 1857:. Thomson Brooks/Cole. 1556:, the most quantitative 1538:: by incorporating RNA 1456:Measuring and detecting 1382:transcription factories 1376:Transcription factories 1370:Transcription factories 1341:mutations and 33 to 66 1292:bacterial transcription 1099:obligate release model. 990:transcription factors: 866:DNA methyltransferasess 673:cis-regulatory elements 530:Bacterial transcription 6544:Helper dependent virus 5860:Biological dark matter 5223:cis-regulatory element 4588:10.1038/emboj.2012.288 4097:Nucleic Acids Research 2518:10.1101/gad.308619.117 1735:– process of removing 1589: 1504:RNase protection assay 1472: 1270:against, for example, 1251: 1240: 1126: 821: 745: 665: 6304:Endogenous retrovirus 6277:Origin of replication 5993:ssDNA satellite virus 5983:ssRNA satellite virus 5745:Intrinsic termination 5510:DNA methyltransferase 3363:Nature Communications 2457:Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2015:Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 1756:Translation (biology) 1616:reverse transcriptase 1594:Reverse transcription 1587:reverse transcription 1584: 1577:Reverse transcription 1530:In situ hybridization 1486:Run-off transcription 1463: 1311:Endogenous inhibitors 1249: 1238: 1175:Terminator (genetics) 1124: 1048:preinitiation complex 826:transcription factors 816:Further information: 797: 743: 702:transcription factors 657:transcription factors 635: 528:Further information: 388:Both DNA and RNA are 311:Personalized medicine 305:Personalized medicine 168:Quantitative genetics 163:Mendelian inheritance 6248:Secondary chromosome 6243:Extrachromosomal DNA 6119:Transposable element 5522:Chromatin remodeling 5245:alternative splicing 5235:Post-transcriptional 5061:Transcription factor 4649:Wu, T (April 2020). 3320:. La Trobe eBureau. 2567:10.1093/emboj/cdg028 1002:. In eukaryotes, in 651:(mRNA) synthesis by 597:improve this section 582:to meet Knowledge's 457:regulatory sequences 412:RNA strand called a 231:Branches of genetics 6484:Model lipid bilayer 6326:Interspersed repeat 5479:Histone deacetylase 5469:Histone demethylase 5453:Histone methylation 5169:Transfer RNA (tRNA) 4528:10.1155/2014/820248 4470:2013Sci...339.1546V 4370:2006PNAS..103.1412S 4311:2020iSci...23j1536D 4201:2022PNAS..11907581M 4195:(32): e2207581119. 4110:10.1093/nar/gkaa904 4103:(20): 11762–11772. 3933:2021Natur.594..283O 3872:Nat Struct Mol Biol 3825:2016PNAS..11312733F 3819:(45): 12733–12738. 3765:2009Sci...325..626H 3628:2004PNAS..101.7572M 3530:2006Sci...314.1139R 3473:2009Sci...324..927G 3384:10.1038/ncomms13783 3375:2016NatCo...713783B 2935:2019NatCo..10.3892S 2749:10.1093/nar/gkaa223 2616:10.1093/nar/gkaa671 2410:2018PNAS..115E7222G 2064:Front Cell Dev Biol 1812:1989FEBSL.252...42K 1723:Long non-coding RNA 1612:reverse transcribed 1570:Single cell RNA-Seq 1465:Electron micrograph 1430:. RNA synthesis by 1304:histone methylation 1272:pathogenic bacteria 1211:. In bacteria, the 1081:abortive initiation 590:Regulatory sequence 201:Genetic engineering 158:Population genetics 29:Part of a series on 6633:Cellular processes 5794:organic structures 5283:Influential people 5262:Post-translational 5081:Post-transcription 4912:2021-04-14 at the 4899:2011-08-09 at the 4888:2011-08-26 at the 4875:2011-08-09 at the 4864:2011-07-22 at the 4430:10.1101/gad.947102 2799:10.1101/gad.947102 2665:10.1093/nar/gkw124 2311:(7): 1573–88.e28. 1590: 1473: 1300:8-hydroxyquinoline 1252: 1241: 1137:are replaced with 1127: 1038:of archaeal TFE), 1030:of archaeal TBP), 1018:of archaeal TFB), 875:produced from the 822: 746: 666: 414:primary transcript 173:Molecular genetics 132:History and topics 6628:Molecular biology 6588: 6587: 6529:Non-cellular life 6336: 6335: 6075: 6074: 6048: 6047: 6002:ssRNA satellite ( 5758: 5757: 5713:RNA polymerase II 5581: 5580: 5539: 5538: 5303: 5302: 5187: 5186: 5117: 5116: 4993:Special transfers 4768:978-0-08-045421-4 4758:Molecular Biology 4464:(6127): 1546–58. 3884:10.1038/nsmb.2796 3725:978-1-317-23069-4 3524:(5802): 1139–43. 3335:978-0-6484681-9-6 2845:10.2217/epi.15.39 2737:Nucleic Acids Res 2653:Nucleic Acids Res 2604:Nucleic Acids Res 1987:978-0-321-76243-6 1894:978-0-08-045421-4 1880:Molecular Biology 1623:complementary DNA 1442:Roger D. Kornberg 1290:, which inhibits 1004:RNA polymerase II 966:, RNA polymerase 951:and an extending 932:binding to a DNA 653:RNA polymerase II 625: 624: 617: 588:Duplication with 584:quality standards 575:This section may 500:Okazaki fragments 437:viral replication 368: 367: 95:Genetic variation 6640: 6605: 6604: 6596: 6265:Gene duplication 6088: 6087: 6084:self-replication 5972: 5971: 5934: 5933: 5792:Self-replicating 5785: 5778: 5771: 5762: 5761: 5635:Response element 5618:Response element 5431: 5430: 5359: 5358: 5330: 5323: 5316: 5307: 5306: 5128: 5127: 5025: 5024: 4943: 4936: 4929: 4920: 4919: 4847: 4846: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4801: 4799: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4735: 4703: 4697: 4696: 4678: 4646: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4624:Nobel Foundation 4620:"Chemistry 2006" 4616: 4610: 4609: 4599: 4581: 4566:The EMBO Journal 4557: 4551: 4550: 4540: 4530: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4489: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4432: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4391: 4381: 4349: 4343: 4342: 4332: 4322: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4271: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4222: 4212: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4163: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4122: 4112: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4001: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3952: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3895: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3846: 3836: 3804: 3795: 3794: 3784: 3744: 3738: 3737: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3649: 3639: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3590: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3549: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3492: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3396: 3386: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3313: 3304: 3303: 3293: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3200: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3151: 3141: 3132:(34): 26114–20. 3117: 3111: 3110: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3057: 3025: 3019: 3018: 3008: 2998: 2974: 2965: 2964: 2954: 2914: 2901: 2900: 2864: 2858: 2857: 2847: 2823: 2812: 2811: 2801: 2777: 2771: 2770: 2760: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2676: 2644: 2638: 2637: 2627: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2578: 2546: 2540: 2539: 2529: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2480: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2431: 2421: 2404:(30): E7222–30. 2389: 2380: 2379: 2369: 2345: 2339: 2338: 2328: 2296: 2290: 2289: 2279: 2247: 2241: 2240: 2204: 2195: 2194: 2184: 2152: 2143: 2142: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2089: 2079: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2038: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1973: 1954: 1953: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1913:www.sci.sdsu.edu 1905: 1899: 1898: 1874: 1865: 1851: 1842: 1841: 1823: 1791: 1775: 1772: 1434:was established 1209:replication fork 1103:stochastic model 955:(or a short RNA 917: 902: 873:protein isoforms 754:5-methylcytosine 620: 613: 609: 606: 600: 570: 569: 562: 360: 353: 346: 333: 328: 327: 223:Medical genetics 219: 214: 213: 45: 26: 25: 6648: 6647: 6643: 6642: 6641: 6639: 6638: 6637: 6623:Gene expression 6613: 6612: 6611: 6599: 6591: 6589: 6584: 6534:Synthetic virus 6522:Artificial cell 6495: 6423: 6332: 6221:RNA replication 6216:DNA replication 6204: 6195:Group II intron 6093: 6083: 6071: 6062:Mammalian prion 6044: 6020: 5999:dsRNA satellite 5996:ssDNA satellite 5966: 5959: 5928: 5921: 5866: 5795: 5789: 5759: 5754: 5729: 5723: 5717: 5682: 5656: 5577: 5535: 5516: 5499:DNA methylation 5493: 5437: 5422: 5348: 5334: 5304: 5299: 5278: 5213:Transcriptional 5183: 5152: 5113: 5104:Polyadenylation 5075: 5049: 5014: 5008:Protein→Protein 4959: 4952: 4950:Gene expression 4947: 4914:Wayback Machine 4901:Wayback Machine 4890:Wayback Machine 4877:Wayback Machine 4866:Wayback Machine 4855: 4850: 4827:10.1038/nrg2763 4811: 4807: 4797: 4795: 4780: 4776: 4769: 4753: 4749: 4704: 4700: 4647: 4643: 4633: 4631: 4618: 4617: 4613: 4579:10.1.1.919.1919 4572:(23): 4404–14. 4558: 4554: 4507: 4503: 4450: 4446: 4409: 4405: 4350: 4346: 4291: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4240: 4236: 4181: 4177: 4140: 4136: 4089: 4085: 4064:(10): 1177–82. 4054: 4050: 4019: 4015: 3970: 3966: 3927:(7862): 283–8. 3913: 3909: 3864: 3860: 3805: 3798: 3759:(5940): 626–8. 3745: 3741: 3726: 3710: 3706: 3667: 3663: 3608: 3604: 3567: 3563: 3510: 3506: 3467:(5929): 927–8. 3449: 3445: 3414: 3410: 3355: 3351: 3336: 3314: 3307: 3276:(12): 2120–30. 3262: 3258: 3229:(24): 5063–74. 3218: 3214: 3183:(23): 3421–34. 3169: 3165: 3118: 3114: 3091:10.1038/nn.3151 3075: 3071: 3026: 3022: 2975: 2968: 2915: 2904: 2881:10.1038/nrg2538 2869:Nat. Rev. Genet 2865: 2861: 2824: 2815: 2778: 2774: 2743:(10): 5306–17. 2729: 2725: 2694: 2690: 2659:(11): 5123–32. 2645: 2641: 2610:(17): 9550–70. 2596: 2592: 2547: 2543: 2498: 2494: 2469:10.1038/nrm3951 2449: 2445: 2390: 2383: 2346: 2342: 2297: 2293: 2268:10.1038/nrg3458 2248: 2244: 2205: 2198: 2153: 2146: 2123:10.1038/nrg3207 2107: 2103: 2056: 2052: 2021:(10): 621–637. 2007: 2003: 1988: 1974: 1957: 1950: 1936: 1932: 1922: 1920: 1907: 1906: 1902: 1895: 1887:. p. 134. 1875: 1868: 1852: 1845: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1778: 1773: 1769: 1764: 1751:Transcriptomics 1718:Gene regulation 1703:gene expression 1698:gene regulation 1669: 1606:, the cause of 1596: 1579: 1524:DNA microarrays 1480:G-Less Cassette 1458: 1398: 1378: 1372: 1319: 1313: 1264: 1256:polyadenylation 1233: 1198:polyadenylation 1177: 1171: 1131:template strand 1119: 1077: 1075:Promoter escape 926: 925: 924: 923: 922: 918: 909: 908: 907: 903: 892: 820: 781:DNA methylation 738: 661:phosphorylation 630: 621: 610: 604: 601: 594: 571: 567: 560: 544:promoter escape 536: 526: 480:DNA replication 453:coding sequence 449: 431:is composed of 383:non-coding RNAs 364: 323: 316: 315: 306: 298: 297: 296: 295: 244: 236: 235: 227: 205: 186: 178: 177: 133: 125: 124: 111: 110: 109: 53: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6646: 6636: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6610: 6609: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6582: 6577: 6576: 6575: 6570: 6560: 6554: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6541: 6531: 6526: 6525: 6524: 6519: 6509: 6503: 6501: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6491: 6486: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6457: 6456: 6455: 6444: 6439: 6433: 6431: 6425: 6424: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6415: 6414: 6409: 6401: 6399:Kappa organism 6396: 6395: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6357: 6346: 6344: 6338: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6330: 6329: 6328: 6323: 6313: 6312: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6270:Non-coding DNA 6267: 6262: 6252: 6251: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6225: 6224: 6223: 6212: 6210: 6206: 6205: 6203: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6190:Group I intron 6187: 6182: 6181: 6180: 6170: 6169: 6168: 6165: 6156: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6133: 6132: 6131: 6126: 6116: 6115: 6114: 6112:Genomic island 6109: 6098: 6096: 6092:Mobile genetic 6085: 6077: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6070: 6069: 6064: 6058: 6056: 6050: 6049: 6046: 6045: 6043: 6042: 6041: 6040: 6037: 6028: 6026: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6017: 6016: 6013: 6007: 6000: 5997: 5994: 5991: 5984: 5980: 5978: 5969: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5957: 5950: 5942: 5940: 5931: 5923: 5922: 5920: 5919: 5917:dsDNA-RT virus 5914: 5912:ssRNA-RT virus 5909: 5907:(−)ssRNA virus 5904: 5902:(+)ssRNA virus 5899: 5894: 5889: 5888: 5887: 5876: 5874: 5868: 5867: 5865: 5864: 5863: 5862: 5857: 5847:Incertae sedis 5843: 5842: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5816: 5811: 5805: 5803: 5797: 5796: 5788: 5787: 5780: 5773: 5765: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5736: 5734: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5715: 5709:RNA polymerase 5703: 5697:RNA polymerase 5690: 5688: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5664: 5662: 5658: 5657: 5655: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5638: 5637: 5632: 5622: 5621: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5582: 5579: 5578: 5576: 5575: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5547: 5545: 5541: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5534: 5533: 5527: 5525: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5512: 5504: 5502: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5491: 5490: 5489: 5484: 5471: 5466: 5465: 5464: 5449: 5447: 5428: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5420: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5403: 5402: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5365: 5363: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5333: 5332: 5325: 5318: 5310: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5297: 5292: 5290:François Jacob 5286: 5284: 5280: 5279: 5277: 5276: 5275: 5274: 5269: 5259: 5254: 5253: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5232: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5220: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5197: 5195: 5189: 5188: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5160: 5158: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5134: 5132: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5085: 5083: 5077: 5076: 5074: 5073: 5068: 5066:RNA polymerase 5063: 5057: 5055: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5031: 5029: 5022: 5016: 5015: 5013: 5012: 5011: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4990: 4989: 4988: 4970: 4964: 4962: 4954: 4953: 4946: 4945: 4938: 4931: 4923: 4917: 4916: 4904: 4880: 4854: 4853:External links 4851: 4849: 4848: 4805: 4790:(in Russian). 4774: 4767: 4747: 4698: 4661:(5): 515–523. 4655:Nature Methods 4641: 4611: 4552: 4501: 4444: 4403: 4344: 4285: 4273: 4254:(1): 337–352. 4234: 4175: 4148:Molecular Cell 4134: 4083: 4048: 4029:(2): 251–260. 4013: 3964: 3907: 3858: 3796: 3739: 3724: 3704: 3661: 3622:(20): 7572–7. 3602: 3575:Molecular Cell 3561: 3504: 3443: 3408: 3349: 3334: 3305: 3256: 3212: 3163: 3112: 3069: 3040:(2): 171–185. 3034:Neuroscientist 3020: 2966: 2902: 2859: 2838:(6): 1051–73. 2813: 2772: 2723: 2688: 2639: 2590: 2541: 2492: 2443: 2381: 2360:(4): 650–665. 2340: 2291: 2242: 2215:(8): 437–455. 2196: 2167:(6): 707–717. 2144: 2101: 2050: 2001: 1986: 1955: 1948: 1930: 1900: 1893: 1866: 1863:978-0495317142 1843: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1678:Cell (biology) 1675: 1668: 1665: 1627:ribonuclease H 1592:Main article: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1567: 1564:transcriptomes 1557: 1547: 1533: 1527: 1521: 1515: 1501: 1495: 1492:Nuclear run-on 1489: 1483: 1457: 1454: 1432:RNA polymerase 1402:François Jacob 1397: 1394: 1374:Main article: 1371: 1368: 1329:with numerous 1315:Main article: 1312: 1309: 1296:RNA polymerase 1276:antibacterials 1263: 1260: 1232: 1229: 1173:Main article: 1170: 1167: 1118: 1115: 1088:DNA scrunching 1076: 1073: 919: 912: 911: 910: 904: 897: 896: 895: 894: 893: 891: 888: 812:non-coding DNA 737: 734: 629: 626: 623: 622: 605:September 2021 574: 572: 565: 559: 556: 525: 522: 478:As opposed to 448: 445: 433:negative-sense 366: 365: 363: 362: 355: 348: 340: 337: 336: 335: 334: 318: 317: 314: 313: 307: 304: 303: 300: 299: 294: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 271:Immunogenetics 268: 263: 258: 253: 247: 246: 245: 242: 241: 238: 237: 234: 233: 226: 225: 220: 203: 198: 196:DNA sequencing 193: 187: 184: 183: 180: 179: 176: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 145: 140: 134: 131: 130: 127: 126: 123: 122: 117: 108: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 56: 55: 54: 52:Key components 51: 50: 47: 46: 38: 37: 31: 30: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6645: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6618: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6597: 6594: 6581: 6578: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6565: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6553: 6552:Nanobacterium 6549: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6536: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6517:Cell division 6515: 6514: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6504: 6502: 6498: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6434: 6432: 6430: 6426: 6420: 6417: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6369: 6368: 6365: 6361: 6360:Hydrogenosome 6358: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6351: 6350:Mitochondrion 6348: 6347: 6345: 6343: 6342:Endosymbiosis 6339: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6321:Tandem repeat 6319: 6318: 6317: 6314: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6279: 6278: 6275: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6256: 6253: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6230: 6229: 6226: 6222: 6219: 6218: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6209:Other aspects 6207: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6174: 6171: 6166: 6164: 6160: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6138: 6137: 6134: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6121: 6120: 6117: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6095: 6089: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6059: 6057: 6055: 6051: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6033: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6023: 6014: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6001: 5998: 5995: 5992: 5989: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5954:Avsunviroidae 5951: 5949: 5948: 5947:Pospiviroidae 5944: 5943: 5941: 5939: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5924: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5873: 5869: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5855: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5821: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5802: 5801:Cellular life 5798: 5793: 5786: 5781: 5779: 5774: 5772: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5727: 5720: 5714: 5710: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5665: 5663: 5659: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5626: 5623: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5594: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5584: 5574: 5571: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5542: 5532: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5519: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5496: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5463: 5460: 5459: 5458: 5454: 5451: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5441: 5436: 5432: 5429: 5425: 5417: 5416:trp repressor 5414: 5412: 5411:lac repressor 5409: 5408: 5407: 5404: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5337:Transcription 5331: 5326: 5324: 5319: 5317: 5312: 5311: 5308: 5296: 5295:Jacques Monod 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5264: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5257:Translational 5255: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5237: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5215: 5214: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5199: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5190: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5155: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5120: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5058: 5056: 5052: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5020:Transcription 5017: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4973:Central dogma 4971: 4969: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4955: 4951: 4944: 4939: 4937: 4932: 4930: 4925: 4924: 4921: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4881: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4821:(5): 319–30. 4820: 4816: 4809: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4770: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4751: 4743: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4718:(2): 216–26. 4717: 4713: 4709: 4702: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4615: 4607: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4556: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4448: 4440: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4364:(5): 1412–7. 4363: 4359: 4355: 4348: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4305:(9): 101536. 4304: 4300: 4296: 4289: 4282: 4277: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4238: 4230: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4179: 4171: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4154:(3): 375–85. 4153: 4149: 4145: 4138: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4017: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3984:(2): 457–66. 3983: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3878:(4): 366–74. 3877: 3873: 3869: 3862: 3854: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3803: 3801: 3792: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3743: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3721: 3717: 3716: 3708: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3677:(1): 145–56. 3676: 3672: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3606: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3581:(3): 357–66. 3580: 3576: 3572: 3565: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3424:(11): 402–8. 3423: 3419: 3412: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3331: 3327: 3326:10.26826/1017 3323: 3319: 3312: 3310: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3216: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3167: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3085:(8): 1111–3. 3084: 3080: 3073: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2973: 2971: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2875:(4): 252–63. 2874: 2870: 2863: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2809: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2776: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2692: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2643: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2594: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2561:(2): 281–91. 2560: 2556: 2552: 2545: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2496: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2463:(3): 155–66. 2462: 2458: 2454: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2388: 2386: 2377: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2295: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2262:(4): 288–95. 2261: 2257: 2256:Nat Rev Genet 2253: 2246: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2209:Nat Rev Genet 2203: 2201: 2192: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2151: 2149: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2117:(9): 613–26. 2116: 2112: 2111:Nat Rev Genet 2105: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2054: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2005: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1983: 1979: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1951: 1949:0-7167-8724-5 1945: 1941: 1934: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1909:"DNA Strands" 1904: 1896: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1881: 1873: 1871: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1848: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1806:(1–2): 42–6. 1805: 1801: 1797: 1790: 1786: 1771: 1767: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1728:Missense mRNA 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1683:Cell division 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1664: 1662: 1661: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1624: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1595: 1588: 1583: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1551: 1550:Northern blot 1548: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1470: 1469:ribosomal RNA 1466: 1462: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1444:won the 2006 1443: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1406:Jacques Monod 1403: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1377: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1318: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1259: 1257: 1248: 1244: 1237: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1193: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1176: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1155: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1123: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1105:known as the 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1084: 1082: 1072: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 988: 984: 980: 975: 973: 969: 965: 960: 958: 954: 950: 946: 941: 937: 935: 931: 916: 901: 887: 884: 880: 878: 874: 871: 867: 862: 859: 855: 851: 846: 841: 838: 834: 830: 827: 819: 813: 809: 805: 801: 796: 792: 790: 786: 782: 778: 776: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 742: 733: 731: 730:enhancer RNAs 726: 724: 720: 716: 710: 706: 703: 699: 695: 691: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 662: 658: 654: 650: 649:messenger RNA 646: 642: 638: 634: 619: 616: 608: 598: 593: 591: 585: 581: 580: 573: 564: 563: 555: 553: 549: 545: 541: 535: 531: 521: 518: 516: 515:coding strand 512: 507: 505: 501: 496: 491: 489: 485: 481: 476: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 444: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 417: 415: 411: 407: 403: 402:complementary 399: 395: 391: 390:nucleic acids 386: 384: 380: 379:messenger RNA 376: 372: 371:Transcription 361: 356: 354: 349: 347: 342: 341: 339: 338: 332: 322: 321: 320: 319: 312: 309: 308: 302: 301: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 240: 239: 232: 229: 228: 224: 221: 217: 208: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 188: 182: 181: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 153: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 135: 129: 128: 121: 118: 116: 113: 112: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 76: 73: 71: 68: 66: 63: 61: 58: 57: 49: 48: 44: 40: 39: 36: 33: 32: 28: 27: 22: 21:Transcription 6539:Viral vector 6382:Gerontoplast 6309:Transpoviron 6081:Nucleic acid 6067:Fungal prion 5965:Helper-virus 5952: 5945: 5852: 5845: 5272:irreversible 5157:Key elements 5054:Key elements 5019: 4968:Genetic code 4958:Introduction 4818: 4814: 4808: 4798:February 20, 4796:. Retrieved 4788:Dissertation 4787: 4777: 4757: 4750: 4715: 4711: 4701: 4658: 4654: 4644: 4632:. Retrieved 4623: 4614: 4569: 4565: 4555: 4518: 4514: 4504: 4461: 4457: 4447: 4420: 4416: 4406: 4361: 4357: 4347: 4302: 4298: 4288: 4276: 4251: 4247: 4237: 4192: 4188: 4178: 4151: 4147: 4137: 4100: 4096: 4086: 4061: 4057: 4051: 4026: 4022: 4016: 3981: 3977: 3967: 3924: 3920: 3910: 3875: 3871: 3861: 3816: 3812: 3756: 3752: 3742: 3714: 3707: 3674: 3670: 3664: 3619: 3615: 3605: 3578: 3574: 3564: 3521: 3517: 3507: 3464: 3460: 3451:Goldman SR, 3446: 3421: 3417: 3411: 3366: 3362: 3352: 3317: 3273: 3269: 3259: 3226: 3222: 3215: 3180: 3176: 3166: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3082: 3079:Nat Neurosci 3078: 3072: 3037: 3033: 3023: 2986: 2982: 2926: 2922: 2872: 2868: 2862: 2835: 2831: 2789: 2785: 2775: 2740: 2736: 2726: 2701: 2697: 2691: 2656: 2652: 2642: 2607: 2603: 2593: 2558: 2554: 2544: 2512:(1): 42–57. 2509: 2505: 2495: 2460: 2456: 2446: 2401: 2397: 2357: 2353: 2343: 2308: 2304: 2294: 2259: 2255: 2245: 2212: 2208: 2164: 2161:Nat Neurosci 2160: 2114: 2110: 2104: 2067: 2063: 2053: 2018: 2014: 2004: 1977: 1940:Biochemistry 1939: 1933: 1921:. Retrieved 1912: 1903: 1879: 1854: 1803: 1800:FEBS Letters 1799: 1789: 1770: 1658: 1655: 1644: 1620: 1611: 1597: 1474: 1440: 1435: 1428:genetic code 1417: 1410:Severo Ochoa 1399: 1379: 1320: 1265: 1253: 1242: 1202: 1194: 1185:hairpin loop 1178: 1156: 1152: 1143: 1130: 1128: 1111: 1106: 1098: 1095:sigma factor 1092: 1085: 1078: 1071: 1067:corepressors 1063:coactivators 1052: 976: 972:sigma factor 961: 944: 942: 938: 927: 885: 881: 876: 863: 844: 842: 831: 823: 804:human genome 779: 760:form of the 756:(5-mC) is a 747: 727: 711: 707: 675:, including 667: 636: 611: 602: 595:Please help 587: 576: 551: 547: 543: 539: 537: 519: 510: 508: 492: 477: 456: 452: 450: 418: 410:antiparallel 392:, which use 387: 370: 369: 291:Quantitative 261:Cytogenetics 256:Conservation 138:Introduction 6563:Cancer cell 6429:Abiogenesis 6377:Chromoplast 6372:Chloroplast 6155:Degradative 5897:dsRNA virus 5892:ssDNA virus 5885:Giant virus 5880:dsDNA virus 5722:Termination 5598:Pribnow box 5566:Corepressor 5561:Coactivator 5362:prokaryotic 5123:Translation 4960:to genetics 4423:(1): 6–21. 3126:J Biol Chem 2983:Genome Biol 2929:(1): 3892. 2832:Epigenomics 2792:(1): 6–21. 1708:Epigenetics 1536:MS2 tagging 1386:euchromatin 1284:antifungals 1268:antibiotics 1169:Termination 1154:structure. 1147:nucleosomes 861:promoters. 858:demethylate 854:TET enzymes 789:CpG islands 775:CpG islands 599:if you can. 552:termination 548:elongation, 524:Major steps 429:RNA viruses 398:nucleotides 6617:Categories 6471:Proteinoid 6466:Coacervate 6419:Nitroplast 6412:Trophosome 6407:Bacteriome 6392:Apicoplast 6387:Leucoplast 6228:Chromosome 6146:Resistance 5854:Parakaryon 5750:Rho factor 5740:Terminator 5731:eukaryotic 5706:eukaryotic 5687:Elongation 5673:Eukaryotic 5661:Initiation 5444:nucleosome 5427:eukaryotic 5399:gal operon 5394:ara operon 5389:Gua Operon 5384:gab operon 5379:trp operon 5374:lac operon 5345:Eukaryotic 5267:reversible 5230:lac operon 5206:imprinting 5201:Epigenetic 5193:Regulation 5148:Eukaryotic 5094:5' capping 5045:Eukaryotic 4521:: 820248. 3734:1105558425 3453:Ebright RH 3223:J Mol Biol 2989:(4): R41. 2923:Nat Commun 2070:: 592164. 1996:0321762436 1782:References 1647:telomerase 1585:Scheme of 1540:stem loops 1352:epigenetic 1343:hitchhiker 1335:methylated 1327:CpG island 1325:contain a 1288:rifampicin 1262:Inhibitors 1163:cell cycle 1117:Elongation 1059:repressors 1055:activators 987:homologous 983:eukaryotes 968:holoenzyme 890:Initiation 798:Schematic 770:epigenetic 758:methylated 698:insulators 669:Setting up 540:initiation 504:RNA primer 469:downstream 447:Background 406:polymerase 394:base pairs 385:(ncRNAs). 286:Population 266:Ecological 191:Geneticist 105:Amino acid 85:Nucleotide 60:Chromosome 6480:Research 6461:Protocell 6200:Retrozyme 6159:Virulence 6141:Fertility 5988:Virophage 5976:Satellite 5967:dependent 5819:Eukaryota 5726:bacterial 5694:bacterial 5668:Bacterial 5642:Insulator 5586:Promotion 5556:Activator 5406:Repressor 5341:Bacterial 5138:Bacterial 5035:Bacterial 4693:214810294 4634:March 29, 4574:CiteSeerX 4058:Biochimie 3369:: 13783. 3344:258899183 3251:204832601 2786:Genes Dev 2704:: 143–9. 2506:Genes Dev 2237:152283312 2139:205485256 1636:apoptosis 1632:integrase 1602:(such as 1508:ChIP-Chip 1390:HeLa cell 1356:microRNAs 1331:CpG sites 1323:promoters 818:Karyotype 808:G banding 800:karyogram 750:CpG sites 694:silencers 690:enhancers 495:antisense 475:(3'UTR). 281:Molecular 276:Microbial 251:Classical 152:molecular 148:Evolution 6507:Organism 6500:See also 6476:Sulphobe 6453:Ribozyme 6448:RNA life 6355:Mitosome 6299:Prophage 6294:Provirus 6282:Replicon 6238:Circular 6185:Phagemid 6102:Mobilome 6094:elements 6004:Virusoid 5927:Subviral 5839:Protista 5824:Animalia 5809:Bacteria 5647:Silencer 5625:Enhancer 5613:CAAT box 5603:TATA box 5593:Promoter 5250:microRNA 5164:Ribosome 5143:Archaeal 5099:Splicing 5071:Promoter 5040:Archaeal 4984: → 4980: → 4910:Archived 4897:Archived 4886:Archived 4873:Archived 4862:Archived 4843:19224032 4835:20351727 4792:Archived 4742:18957198 4685:32251394 4628:Archived 4606:23103767 4547:24616890 4496:23539594 4439:11782440 4398:16432200 4339:33083765 4299:iScience 4268:18573085 4229:35917344 4170:15125840 4129:33068413 4078:17629387 4043:12213656 4008:14573461 3978:Genetics 3959:33981036 3902:24658350 3853:27791062 3791:19644123 3699:24602504 3656:15136722 3597:16285918 3556:17110577 3499:19443781 3403:27982035 3300:32726795 3243:31634469 3207:29074627 3158:20547484 3107:10590208 3099:22751036 3064:28513272 3015:19374776 2961:31467272 2889:19274049 2854:25927341 2808:11782440 2767:32338759 2718:15177689 2683:26932361 2634:32810208 2585:12514134 2536:29378788 2487:25693131 2438:29987030 2376:29425488 2335:29224777 2286:23503198 2229:31086298 2191:32451484 2131:22868264 2096:33102493 2045:29946135 1917:Archived 1885:Elsevier 1838:36482110 1741:pre-mRNA 1733:Splicing 1667:See also 1651:telomere 1436:in vitro 1419:in vitro 1135:thymines 1036:ortholog 1028:ortholog 1026:, is an 1016:ortholog 964:bacteria 934:promoter 766:cytosine 723:Mediator 641:promoter 577:require 461:upstream 427:of many 421:virology 377:produce 375:proteins 331:Category 216:template 207:Genomics 185:Research 90:Mutation 80:Heredity 35:Genetics 6607:Biology 6489:Jeewanu 6403:Organs 6367:Plastid 6167:Cryptic 6136:Plasmid 5834:Plantae 5814:Archaea 5573:Inducer 5440:histone 5003:RNA→DNA 4998:RNA→RNA 4986:Protein 4733:3118044 4676:7205578 4597:3512387 4538:3926391 4487:3749880 4466:Bibcode 4458:Science 4389:1345710 4366:Bibcode 4330:7509213 4307:Bibcode 4220:9371683 4197:Bibcode 4120:7672476 3999:1462770 3950:8855348 3929:Bibcode 3893:4300393 3844:5111697 3821:Bibcode 3782:2775800 3761:Bibcode 3753:Science 3691:8156590 3624:Bibcode 3547:2754787 3526:Bibcode 3518:Science 3490:2718712 3469:Bibcode 3461:Science 3438:1776168 3394:5171806 3371:Bibcode 3291:7547096 3198:5709737 3149:2924014 3055:5846851 3006:2688932 2952:6715719 2931:Bibcode 2897:3207586 2758:7261191 2674:4914085 2625:7515708 2527:5828394 2478:4963239 2429:6065035 2406:Bibcode 2326:5785279 2277:4445073 2182:7558717 2087:7554316 2036:6205604 1830:2759231 1808:Bibcode 1737:introns 1660:in vivo 1640:T cells 1600:viruses 1560:RNA-Seq 1554:RNA-Seq 1498:KAS-seq 1396:History 1225:mitosis 1139:uracils 1113:known. 979:archaea 579:cleanup 488:thymine 143:History 115:Outline 6593:Portal 6580:Virome 6558:Nanobe 6255:Genome 6233:Linear 6178:Fosmid 6173:Cosmid 5938:Viroid 5929:agents 5369:Operon 4841: 4833: 4765: 4740: 4730: 4691: 4683: 4673: 4604: 4594: 4576: 4545: 4535: 4494: 4484: 4437: 4396: 4386: 4337: 4327: 4266: 4227: 4217: 4168: 4127: 4117: 4076: 4041: 4006: 3996: 3957: 3947: 3921:Nature 3900: 3890: 3851: 3841: 3789: 3779: 3732: 3722: 3697: 3689: 3654: 3647:419647 3644: 3595: 3554: 3544: 3497: 3487: 3436: 3401: 3391: 3342: 3332: 3298: 3288: 3249: 3241: 3205: 3195: 3177:EMBO J 3156: 3146: 3105: 3097: 3062: 3052: 3013: 3003: 2959: 2949: 2895: 2887: 2852: 2806: 2765: 2755: 2716: 2681: 2671: 2632: 2622: 2583: 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