696:. The DLSM can then be used to visualize terrain, drape remote sensing images, quantify ecological properties of a surface or extract land surface objects. The contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a DLSM. A DLSM implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area, i.e. that the map represents a complete surface. Digital Land Surface Models should not be confused with Digital Surface Models, which can be surfaces of the canopy, buildings and similar objects. For example, in the case of surface models produces using the lidar technology, one can have several surfaces – starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth. The difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures (height of trees etc.).
794:
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62:
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Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form the basis for much derived topographic work. Digital
Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and
720:
As with field notes, remote sensing data (aerial and satellite photography, for example), is raw and uninterpreted. It may contain holes (due to cloud cover for example) or inconsistencies (due to the timing of specific image captures). Most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of
847:
of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines the area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new
510:
Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or
360:
after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be
American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the "Topographical Bureau of the Army", formed during the
885:
and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).
964:
In mathematics the concept of topography is used to indicate the patterns or general organization of features on a map or as a term referring to the pattern in which variables (or their values) are distributed in a space.
565:
Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly they have become more and more a part of
518:
In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the
Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as
624:
can exploit other information on the scene known a priori (for example, symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three-dimensional co-ordinates starting from one only position of the camera).
685:, land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models. In civil engineering and entertainment businesses, the most representations of land surface employ some variant of TIN models. In
439:
There are a variety of approaches to studying topography. Which method(s) to use depends on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys.
665:
anging), a remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers.
608:
images (or more) taken starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight. In this technique, the common points are identified on each
582:
imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land-use information more clearly. Images can be in visible colours and in other spectrum.
620:) which determines the relative three-dimensional position of the point. Known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values. More sophisticated
772:
private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps.
704:
Topographic survey information is historically based upon the notes of surveyors. They may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources (for example,
407:
may be made for a variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information about
881:(GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial
768:
While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps."
523:
data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis.
373:
in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard.
712:
mapping). While of historical interest, these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve.
1233:
356:, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were the
530:(or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only recording of relief, but identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover.
1091:
689:, land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals – the smooth (spatially correlated) and the rough (noise) signal.
779:. The latter is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features.
392:
An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal
692:
In practice, surveyors first sample heights in an area, then use these to produce a
Digital Land Surface Model in the form of a
1099:
637:
mapping is one of the major techniques of generating
Digital Elevation Models (see below). Similar techniques are applied in
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45:
This article is about the study of Earth's surface shape and features. For discussion of land surfaces themselves, see
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In the 20th century, the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where
341:, "writing"). In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, what is now largely called '
105:
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83:
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345:'. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense.
765:, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest.
909:
79:
50:
17:
616:) can be built from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of its rays (
400:. Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field.
189:
94:
1230:
1160:
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207:. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or
357:
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These maps show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water,
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246:
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are experts in topography. They study and describe the surface features of a place or region.
758:. The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps."
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In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States,
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272:). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a
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contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on.
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268:. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (
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is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area.
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in a broader sense is used, particularly in medical fields such as
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and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only
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Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by
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Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or
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is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the
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in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the
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features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. In the
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to determine the terrain of the ocean floor. In recent years,
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of Earth without liquid water with 20× elevation exaggeration
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Topography has been applied to different science fields. In
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of an object are determined by the measurements made in two
1218:
Charting the Inland Seas: A History of the U.S. Lake Survey
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1307:
1176:"Revolutionary Cartography and the Cassini Map of France"
890:
reconstitute a sight in synthesized images of the ground,
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Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the
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Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or
352:(beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called
922:
discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for
893:
determine a trajectory of overflight of the ground,
681:) mathematical models. In the most applications in
86:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
673:Terrain is commonly modelled either using vector (
721:remotely sensed data in its compilation process.
1443:
775:Topographic mapping should not be confused with
1200:Topographical Engineers – History and Personnel
550:
628:
1266:
1086:West, Terry R.; Shakoor, Abdul (2018-03-19).
903:
782:
668:
1231:National Geographic Trails Illustrated Maps
1085:
1273:
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411:and surface features is essential for the
203:is the study of the forms and features of
1116:"US Topo—Topographic Maps for the Nation"
1090:(2nd ed.). Waveland Press. pp.
472:position of points and the distances and
146:Learn how and when to remove this message
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172:
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859:
823:The digital elevation model (DEM) is a
14:
1444:
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708:delineation may be derived from local
238:, topography often means specifically
1254:
1143:For example, see the websites of the
578:systems. False-color and non-visible
1229:See for example the publications of
972:
839:) of all or part of the Earth (or a
84:adding citations to reliable sources
55:
848:satellite or other remotely sensed
754:topographic maps show relief using
498:global navigation satellite systems
27:Study of the forms of land surfaces
24:
699:
25:
1473:
1173:
585:
533:
396:such as latitude, longitude, and
1423:
1412:
1411:
976:
507:, the great Italian astronomer.
367:Corps of Topographical Engineers
60:
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442:
71:needs additional citations for
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1088:Geology Applied to Engineering
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896:calculate surfaces or volumes,
675:triangulated irregular network
302:Topographic map § History
184:illustrates topography of the
13:
1:
1072:
879:geographic information system
434:
387:
348:Detailed military surveys in
278:cartographic relief depiction
1149:London Topographical Society
551:Passive sensor methodologies
295:
7:
1132:Online Etymology Dictionary
1020:
910:Topography (disambiguation)
899:trace topographic profiles,
831:dataset of the topography (
629:Active sensor methodologies
51:Topography (disambiguation)
10:
1478:
1220:, Arthur M. Woodford, 1991
1007:
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904:Topography in other fields
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783:Digital elevation modeling
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190:New York metropolitan area
44:
29:
1407:
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1326:
1288:
1280:
1161:Oxford English Dictionary
959:superficial human anatomy
669:Forms of topographic data
505:Giovanni Domenico Cassini
214:Topography is a field of
264:; this is also known as
30:Not to be confused with
1180:New York Public Library
1145:Victoria County History
1032:Digital elevation model
944:atomic force microscopy
799:Sierra Nevada Mountains
789:Digital elevation model
470:three-dimensional space
1336:History of cartography
1037:Fall line (topography)
874:
820:
805:
747:
683:environmental sciences
612:. A line of sight (or
526:The original American
500:(GNSS) are also used.
455:
371:U.S. Geological Survey
280:techniques, including
197:
170:
49:. For other uses, see
1341:List of cartographers
1121:. USGS. October 2013.
869:
811:
796:
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458:Further information:
451:A surveying point in
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176:
162:A topographic map of
161:
990:adding missing items
860:Topological modeling
677:or TIN) or gridded (
478:leveling instruments
80:improve this article
1164:– "Ordnance Survey"
1047:Global Relief Model
725:Topographic mapping
716:Remote sensing data
528:topographic surveys
476:between them using
365:, which became the
1236:2006-11-16 at the
1205:2014-09-26 at the
988:; you can help by
940:tissue engineering
932:corneal topography
875:
821:
818:topography of Mars
812:3D rendering of a
806:
748:
745:elevation modeling
557:Aerial photography
456:
242:, even though the
230:, artificial, and
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1438:
1174:Baena, Victoria.
1101:978-1-4786-3722-6
1057:Marine topography
1006:
1005:
600:of the points in
561:Satellite imagery
421:civil engineering
405:topographic study
394:coordinate system
314:and continued in
286:hypsometric tints
220:planetary science
156:
155:
148:
130:
16:(Redirected from
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1354:Animated mapping
1331:Early world maps
1303:Geovisualization
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1134:– etymonline.com
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568:geovisualization
354:Ordnance Surveys
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249:record not just
247:topographic maps
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1207:Wayback Machine
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1008:Main category:
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841:telluric planet
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731:Topographic map
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331:, "place") and
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1374:Linguistic map
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908:Main article:
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545:Remote sensing
540:Remote sensing
538:Main article:
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534:Remote sensing
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312:ancient Greece
310:originated in
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290:relief shading
266:geomorphometry
196:at its center.
164:Stowe, Vermont
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984:This list is
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955:human anatomy
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928:ophthalmology
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924:brain mapping
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91:Find sources:
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69:This article
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19:
1430:Portal:Atlas
1428:
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1389:Thematic map
1369:Geologic map
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1213:
1195:
1183:. Retrieved
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1110:
1087:
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1015:Topographers
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1013:
1010:Topographers
994:
969:Topographers
963:
952:
920:neuroimaging
916:neuroscience
913:
876:
871:STL 3D model
822:
797:Relief map:
774:
770:
767:
763:forest cover
760:
749:
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719:
703:
691:
679:raster image
672:
662:
658:
654:
650:
632:
606:photographic
598:co-ordinates
595:
564:
543:
525:
517:
509:
502:
486:dumpy levels
467:
443:Field survey
438:
425:public works
417:construction
402:
391:
375:
358:Cassini maps
347:
338:
328:
316:ancient Rome
307:
305:
255:
239:
213:
200:
199:
142:
136:January 2021
133:
123:
116:
109:
102:
95:"Topography"
90:
78:Please help
73:verification
70:
1452:Cartography
1399:Weather map
1293:Cartography
1052:Hypsography
1027:Cartography
639:bathymetric
490:clinometers
482:theodolites
429:reclamation
363:War of 1812
226:, but also
179:false-color
18:Topographic
1462:Topography
1446:Categories
1318:Topography
1073:References
986:incomplete
837:bathymetry
833:hypsometry
633:Satellite
622:algorithms
570:, whether
496:and other
435:Techniques
431:projects.
388:Objectives
308:topography
300:See also:
216:geoscience
201:Topography
186:urban core
106:newspapers
40:tomography
36:typography
1457:Geography
1359:Cartogram
1298:Geography
1244:products.
1067:Orography
883:modelling
739:A map of
710:cadastral
657:etection
460:Surveying
382:neurology
306:The term
296:Etymology
262:landforms
251:elevation
211:in maps.
209:depiction
194:Manhattan
1234:Archived
1203:Archived
1021:See also
997:May 2021
706:boundary
521:USGS DEM
515:-based.
480:such as
413:planning
398:altitude
339:-graphia
232:cultural
32:topology
1242:DeLorme
1185:16 June
843:). The
835:and/or
829:digital
827:-based
580:spectra
464:Geodesy
453:Germany
409:terrain
378:mapping
350:Britain
334:-γραφία
258:terrain
228:natural
192:, with
188:of the
120:scholar
47:Terrain
1098:
936:cornea
918:, the
856:data.
845:pixels
825:raster
743:using
741:Europe
474:angles
288:, and
240:relief
224:relief
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93:
1282:Atlas
1119:(PDF)
938:. In
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854:sonar
850:radar
803:Spain
647:LIDAR
643:sonar
635:RADAR
610:image
427:, or
329:topos
324:τόπος
320:Greek
177:This
166:with
127:JSTOR
113:books
38:, or
1240:and
1187:2024
1147:and
1096:ISBN
752:USGS
653:ght
572:maps
559:and
488:and
462:and
415:and
244:USGS
218:and
99:news
1308:Map
1092:545
992:.
953:In
852:or
814:DEM
694:TIN
661:nd
614:ray
576:GIS
574:or
513:GIS
494:GPS
274:map
270:DEM
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