Tokamak - Knowledge

1579: 2971: 1934:, which began its design work in 1973. This decision was made both for theoretical reasons as well as practical; because the force is larger on the inside edge of the torus, there is a large net force pressing inward on the entire reactor. The D-shape also had the advantage of reducing the net force, as well as making the supported inside edge flatter so it was easier to support. Code exploring the general layout noticed that a non-circular shape would slowly drift vertically, which led to the addition of an active feedback system to hold it in the center. Once JET had selected this layout, the 7676: 1494: 1697: 1043: 8039: 7919: 226: 1462:, or PLT. PLT was designed specifically to "give a clear indication whether the tokamak concept plus auxiliary heating can form a basis for a future fusion reactor". PLT was an enormous success, continually raising its internal temperature until it hit 60 million Celsius (8,000 eV, eight times T-3's record) in 1978. This is a key point in the development of the tokamak; fusion reactions become self-sustaining at temperatures between 50 and 100 million Celsius, PLT demonstrated that this was technically achievable. 8341: 7544: 822:, a cylinder with magnets wrapped around the outside. The combined fields of the magnets create a set of parallel magnetic lines running down the length of the cylinder. This arrangement prevents the particles from moving sideways to the wall of the cylinder, but it does not prevent them from running out the end. The obvious solution to this problem is to bend the cylinder around into a donut shape, or torus, so that the lines form a series of continual rings. In this arrangement, the particles circle endlessly. 8507: 7815: 7000: 6978: 73: 877: 1436: 8548: 8312: 8172: 7931: 945: 1738:. A plasma in a solenoid will spiral about the lines of field running down its center, preventing motion towards the sides. However, this does not prevent motion towards the ends. The obvious solution is to bend the solenoid around into a circle, forming a torus. However, it was demonstrated that such an arrangement is not uniform; for purely geometric reasons, the field on the outside edge of the torus is lower than on the inside edge. This asymmetry causes the electrons and ions to 8575: 8404: 8353: 8295: 8255: 8214: 8160: 7977: 7556: 2693: 7768: 8014: 1099:(To be clear, Electrical current in coils wrapping around the torus produces a toroidal magnetic field inside the torus; a pulsed magnetic field through the hole in the torus induces the axial current in the torus which has a poloidal magnetic field surrounding it; there may also be rings of current above and below the torus that create additional poloidal magnetic field. The combined magnetic fields form a helical magnetic structure inside the torus.) 2160: 7895: 7780: 7756: 8113: 3050: 109: 6989: 1828:, is caused by the wide range of particle energies in a tokamak – much of the fuel is hot, but a certain percentage is much cooler. Due to the high twist of the fields in the tokamak, particles following their lines of force rapidly move towards the inner edge and then outer. As they move inward they are subject to increasing magnetic fields due to the smaller radius concentrating the field. The low-energy particles in the fuel will 8495: 7803: 7644: 8079: 7856: 1239:. By this time two additional tokamak designs had been completed, TM-2 in 1965, and T-4 in 1968. Results from T-3 had continued to improve, and similar results were coming from early tests of the new reactors. At the meeting, the Soviet delegation announced that T-3 was producing electron temperatures of 1000 eV (equivalent to 10 million degrees Celsius) and that confinement time was at least 50 times the Bohm limit. 32: 7627: 8536: 8519: 8243: 7907: 7839: 3036: 8202: 7873: 627: 8472: 8101: 8051: 7732: 7715: 2024:

major disruption the current drops again, the "current quench". The initial increase in current is not seen in the VDE, and the thermal and current quench occurs at the same time. In both cases, the thermal and electrical load of the plasma is rapidly deposited on the reactor vessel, which has to be able to handle these loads. ITER is designed to handle 2600 of these events over its lifetime.

1196:. In the post-war era he continued working with plasmas in magnetic fields. Using basic theory, one would expect the plasma to diffuse across the lines of force at a rate inversely proportional to the square of the strength of the field, meaning that small increases in force would greatly improve confinement. But based on their experiments, Bohm developed an empirical formula, now known as 2035:, it is possible the brief increase in current during a major disruption will cross a critical threshold. This occurs when the current produces a force on the electrons that is higher than the frictional forces of the collisions between particles in the plasma. In this event, electrons can be rapidly accelerated to relativistic velocities, creating so-called "runaway electrons" in the 2247: 1753:. In such a field any single particle will find itself at the outside edge where it will drift one way, say up, and then as it follows its magnetic line around the torus it will find itself on the inside edge, where it will drift the other way. This cancellation is not perfect, but calculations showed it was enough to allow the fuel to remain in the reactor for a useful time. 2395: 1556:

as expected. A host of new instabilities appeared, along with a number of more practical problems that continued to interfere with their performance. On top of this, dangerous "excursions" of the plasma hitting with the walls of the reactor were evident in both TFTR and JET. Even when working perfectly, plasma confinement at fusion temperatures, the so-called "

1232:, Artsimovich reported that their systems were surpassing the Bohm limit by 10 times. Spitzer, reviewing the presentations, suggested that the Bohm limit may still apply; the results were within the range of experimental error of results seen on the stellarators, and the temperature measurements, based on the magnetic fields, were simply not trustworthy. 1455:(ATC) began operation in May 1972, followed shortly thereafter by a neutral-beam equipped Ormak. Both demonstrated significant problems, but PPPL leapt past Oak Ridge by fitting beam injectors to ATC and provided clear evidence of successful heating in 1973. This success "scooped" Oak Ridge, who fell from favour within the Washington Steering Committee. 1477:. Hirsch felt that the program could not be sustained at its current funding levels without demonstrating tangible results. He began to reformulate the entire program. What had once been a lab-led effort of mostly scientific exploration was now a Washington-led effort to build a working power-producing reactor. This was given a boost by the 837:. However, this initial proposal ignored a fundamental problem; when arranged along a straight solenoid, the external magnets are evenly spaced, but when bent around into a torus, they are closer together on the inside of the ring than the outside. This leads to uneven forces that cause the particles to drift away from their magnetic lines. 1177:

internal magnetic fields) that could operate in the steady state rather than the pulses of the induction system that produced the axial current. Kurchatov began asking Yavlinskii to change their T-3 design to a stellarator, but they convinced him that the current provided a useful second role in heating, something the stellarator lacked.

2001:. This allows a properly designed reactor to generate some of the internal current needed to twist the magnetic field lines without having to supply it from an external source. This has a number of advantages, and modern designs all attempt to generate as much of their total current through the bootstrap process as possible. 2139:

similar in concept, is used to separately accelerate electrons to the same energy. The much lighter mass of the electrons makes this device much smaller than its ion counterpart. The two beams then intersect, where the ions and electrons recombine into neutral atoms, allowing them to travel through the magnetic fields.

2189:) outside the torus. If the waves have the correct frequency (or wavelength) and polarization, their energy can be transferred to the charged particles in the plasma, which in turn collide with other plasma particles, thus increasing the temperature of the bulk plasma. Various techniques exist including 2100:

temperature of heated plasma rises, the resistance decreases and ohmic heating becomes less effective. It appears that the maximum plasma temperature attainable by ohmic heating in a tokamak is 20–30 million degrees Celsius. To obtain still higher temperatures, additional heating methods must be used.

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The neutron flux is reduced significantly at a purpose-built neutron shield boundary that surrounds the tokamak in all directions. Shield materials vary but are generally materials made of atoms which are close to the size of neutrons because these work best to absorb the neutron and its energy. Good

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The heating caused by the induced current is called ohmic (or resistive) heating; it is the same kind of heating that occurs in an electric light bulb or in an electric heater. The heat generated depends on the resistance of the plasma and the amount of electric current running through it. But as the

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This was not the first time this sort of arrangement had been considered, although for entirely different reasons. The safety factor varies across the axis of the machine; for purely geometrical reasons, it is always smaller at the inside edge of the plasma closest to the machine's center because the

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The tokamak is essentially identical to the z-pinch concept in its physical layout. Its key innovation was the realization that the instabilities that were causing the pinch to lose its plasma could be controlled. The issue was how "twisty" the fields were; fields that caused the particles to transit

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At the time of the show, the stellarator had suffered a long string of minor problems that were just being solved. Solving these revealed that the diffusion rate of the plasma was much faster than theory predicted. Similar problems were seen in all the contemporary designs, for one reason or another.

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T-1 began operation at the end of 1958. It demonstrated very high energy losses through radiation. This was traced to impurities in the plasma due to the vacuum system causing outgassing from the container materials. In order to explore solutions to this problem, another small device was constructed,

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for comment. Sakharov noted that "the author formulates a very important and not necessarily hopeless problem", and found his main concern in the arrangement was that the plasma would hit the electrode wires, and that "wide meshes and a thin current-carrying part which will have to reflect almost all

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The current is induced by continually increasing the current through an electromagnetic winding linked with the plasma torus: the plasma can be viewed as the secondary winding of a transformer. This is inherently a pulsed process because there is a limit to the current through the primary (there are

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When the plasma touches the vessel walls it undergoes rapid cooling, or "thermal quenching". In the major disruption case, this is normally accompanied by a brief increase in plasma current as the plasma concentrates. Quenching ultimately causes the plasma confinement to break up. In the case of the

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When reactors moved to the D-shaped plasmas it was quickly noted that the escaping particle flux of the plasma could be shaped as well. Over time, this led to the idea of using the fields to create an internal divertor that flings the heavier elements out of the fuel, typically towards the bottom of

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design which ran an electrical current through the plasma to create a second magnetic field to the same end. Both demonstrated improved confinement times compared to a simple torus, but both also demonstrated a variety of effects that caused the plasma to be lost from the reactors at rates that were

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When the members of the Atomic Energy Commissions' Fusion Steering Committee met again in June 1969, they had "tokamak proposals coming out of our ears". The only major lab working on a toroidal design that was not proposing a tokamak was Princeton, who refused to consider it in spite of their Model

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The British team, nicknamed "The Culham Five", arrived late in 1968. After a lengthy installation and calibration process, the team measured the temperatures over a period of many experimental runs. Initial results were available by August 1969; the Soviets were correct, their results were accurate.

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But by the early 1960s, with all of the various designs leaking plasma at a prodigious rate, Spitzer himself concluded that the Bohm scaling was an inherent quality of plasmas, and that magnetic confinement would not work. The entire field descended into what became known as "the doldrums", a period

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If Bohm's formula was correct, there was no hope one could build a fusion reactor based on magnetic confinement. To confine the plasma at the temperatures needed for fusion, the magnetic field would have to be orders of magnitude greater than any known magnet. Spitzer ascribed the difference between

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Following this criterion, design began on a new reactor, T-1, which today is known as the first real tokamak. T-1 used both stronger external magnetic fields and a reduced current compared to stabilized pinch machines like ZETA. The success of the T-1 resulted in its recognition as the first working

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In 1955, with the linear approaches still subject to instability, the first toroidal device was built in the USSR. TMP was a classic pinch machine, similar to models in the UK and US of the same era. The vacuum chamber was made of ceramic, and the spectra of the discharges showed silica, meaning the

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Turbomolecular or diffusion pumps allow for particles to be evacuated from the bulk volume and cryogenic pumps, consisting of a liquid helium-cooled surface, serve to effectively control the density throughout the discharge by providing an energy sink for condensation to occur. When done correctly,

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In the early 1970s, studies at Princeton into the use of high-power superconducting magnets in future tokamak designs examined the layout of the magnets. They noticed that the arrangement of the main toroidal coils meant that there was significantly more tension between the magnets on the inside of

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and proposed reforming the organization. "... The two leaders emphasized the potential importance of the work aimed at utilizing controlled thermonuclear fusion for peaceful purposes and, in this connection, advocated the widest practicable development of international cooperation in obtaining this

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TFTR won the construction race and began operation in 1982, followed shortly by JET in 1983 and JT-60 in 1985. JET quickly took the lead in critical experiments, moving from test gases to deuterium and increasingly powerful "shots". But it soon became clear that none of the new systems were working

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Experiments on the Symmetric Tokamak began in May 1970, and by early the next year they had confirmed the Soviet results and then surpassed them. The stellarator was abandoned, and PPPL turned its considerable expertise to the problem of heating the plasma. Two concepts seemed to hold promise. PPPL

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Watching the debate take place, Gottlieb had a change of heart. There was no point moving forward with the tokamak if the Soviet electron temperature measurements were not accurate, so he formulated a plan to either prove or disprove their results. While swimming in the pool during the lunch break,

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below the torus. This was as opposed to traditional designs that used electric current windings on the outside. They felt the single block would produce a much more uniform field. It would also have the advantage of allowing the torus to have a smaller major radius, lacking the need to route cables

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These results were at least 10 times that of any other machine. If correct, they represented an enormous leap for the fusion community. Spitzer remained skeptical, noting that the temperature measurements were still based on the indirect calculations from the magnetic properties of the plasma. Many

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In contrast to the other designs, the experimental tokamaks appeared to be progressing well, so well that a minor theoretical problem was now a real concern. In the presence of gravity, there is a small pressure gradient in the plasma, formerly small enough to ignore but now becoming something that

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The "star" of the show was a large model of Spitzer's stellarator, which immediately caught the attention of the Soviets. In contrast to their designs, the stellarator produced the required twisted paths in the plasma without driving a current through it, using a series of external coils (producing

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and Stanislav Braginskii examined the news reports and attempted to figure out how it worked. One possibility they considered was the use of weak "frozen in" fields, but rejected this, believing the fields would not last long enough. They then concluded ZETA was essentially identical to the devices

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stabilized pinch machine was being built at the far end of the former runway. ZETA was, by far, the largest and most powerful fusion machine to date. Supported by experiments on earlier designs that had been modified to include stabilization, ZETA intended to produce low levels of fusion reactions.

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Although dismissed by nuclear researchers, the widespread news coverage meant politicians were suddenly aware of, and receptive to, fusion research. In the UK, Thomson was suddenly granted considerable funding. Over the next months, two projects based on the pinch system were up and running. In the

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is tiny; most of the particles in the accelerator will scatter off the fuel, not fuse with it. These scatterings cause the particles to lose energy to the point where they can no longer undergo fusion. The energy put into these particles is thus lost, and it is easy to demonstrate this is much more

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dismissed them out of hand after noting potential problems in their system for measuring temperatures. A second set of results was published in 1968, this time claiming performance far in advance of any other machine. When these were also met skeptically, the Soviets invited British scientists from

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This form of heating has no inherent energy (temperature) limitation, in contrast to the ohmic method, but its rate is limited to the current in the injectors. Ion source extraction voltages are typically on the order of 50–100 kV, and high voltage, negative ion sources (-1 MV) are being developed

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A gas can be heated by sudden compression. In the same way, the temperature of a plasma is increased if it is compressed rapidly by increasing the confining magnetic field. In a tokamak, this compression is achieved simply by moving the plasma into a region of higher magnetic field (i.e., radially

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Densities over the Greenwald limit, a bound depending on the plasma current and the minor radius, typically leads to disruptions. It has been exceeded up to factors of 10, but it remains an important concept describing the phenomenology of the transition of the plasma flow, which still needs to be

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had been developing multipole reactors, and submitted a concept based on these ideas. This was a tokamak that would have a non-circular plasma cross-section; the same math that suggested a lower aspect-ratio would improve performance also suggested that a C or D-shaped plasma would do the same. He

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had originally entered the fusion field with studies for reactor fueling systems, but branched out into a mirror program of their own. By the mid-1960s, their DCX designs were running out of ideas, offering nothing that the similar program at the more prestigious and politically powerful Livermore

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Once the idea of using the pinch effect for confinement had been proposed, a much simpler solution became evident. Instead of a large toroid, one could simply induce the current into a linear tube, which could cause the plasma within to collapse down into a filament. This had a huge advantage; the

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Once the neutral beam enters the tokamak, interactions with the main plasma ions occur. This has two effects. One is that the injected atoms re-ionize and become charged, thereby becoming trapped inside the reactor and adding to the fuel mass. The other is that the process of being ionized occurs

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The high energy atoms originate as ions in an arc chamber before being extracted through a high voltage grid set. The term "ion source" is used to generally mean the assembly consisting of a set of electron emitting filaments, an arc chamber volume, and a set of extraction grids. A second device,

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The occurrence of major disruptions in running tokamaks has always been rather high, of the order of a few percent of the total numbers of the shots. In currently operated tokamaks, the damage is often large but rarely dramatic. In the ITER tokamak, it is expected that the occurrence of a limited

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In the case of the tokamak, this self-heating process is maximized if the alpha particles remain in the fuel long enough to guarantee they will collide with the fuel. As the alphas are electrically charged, they are subject to the same fields that are confining the fuel plasma. The amount of time

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demanded that they check everything before concluding fusion had occurred, and during these checks, they found that the neutrons were not from fusion at all. This same linear arrangement had also occurred to researchers in the UK and US, and their machines showed the same behaviour. But the great

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By October, Sakharov and Tamm had completed a much more detailed consideration of their original proposal, calling for a device with a major radius (of the torus as a whole) of 12 metres (39 ft) and a minor radius (the interior of the cylinder) of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). The proposal

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centre, Sakharov suggested two possible solutions to this problem. One was to suspend a current-carrying ring in the centre of the torus. The current in the ring would produce a magnetic field that would mix with the one from the magnets on the outside. The resulting field would be twisted into a

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calculated the reaction would be self-sustaining at about 50,000,000 K; at that temperature, the rate that energy is given off by the reactions is high enough that they heat the surrounding fuel rapidly enough to maintain the temperature against losses to the environment, continuing the reaction.

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Once freed, the neutron has a relatively short half-life of about 10 minutes before it decays into a proton and electron with the emission of energy. When the time comes to actually try to make electricity from a tokamak-based reactor, some of the neutrons produced in the fusion process would be

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While neutral beam injection is used primarily for plasma heating, it can also be used as a diagnostic tool and in feedback control by making a pulsed beam consisting of a string of brief 2–10 ms beam blips. Deuterium is a primary fuel for neutral beam heating systems and hydrogen and helium are

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metal is used as a sort of limiter; the particles hit it and are rapidly cooled, remaining in the lithium. This internal pool is much easier to cool, due to its location, and although some lithium atoms are released into the plasma, its very low mass makes it a much smaller problem than even the

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off this increasing field and begin to travel backwards through the fuel, colliding with the higher energy nuclei and scattering them out of the plasma. This process causes fuel to be lost from the reactor, although this process is slow enough that a practical reactor is still well within reach.

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Through the mid-1980s the reasons for many of these problems became clear, and various solutions were offered. However, these would significantly increase the size and complexity of the machines. A follow-on design incorporating these changes would be both enormous and vastly more expensive than

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By this time, Soviet researchers had decided to build a larger toroidal machine along the lines suggested by Sakharov. In particular, their design considered one important point found in Kruskal's and Shafranov's works; if the helical path of the particles made them circulate around the plasma's

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These experiments, especially PLT, put the US far in the lead in tokamak research. This is due largely to budget; a tokamak cost about $ 500,000 and the US annual fusion budget was around $ 25 million at that time. They could afford to explore all of the promising methods of heating, ultimately

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The Standing Committee noted that this system could be complete in six months, while Ormak would take a year. It was only a short time later that the confidential results from the Culham Five were released. When they met again in October, the Standing Committee released funding for all of these

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in a fusion plasma are at very high temperatures, and have correspondingly large velocities. In order to maintain the fusion process, particles from the hot plasma must be confined in the central region, or the plasma will rapidly cool. Magnetic confinement fusion devices exploit the fact that

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magnets for the first time, Doublet proved to be a success and led to almost all future designs adopting this "shaped plasma" approach. It appeared all that was needed to build a power-producing reactor was to put all of these design concepts into a single machine, one that would be capable of

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As the idea was further developed, it was realized that a current in the plasma could create a field that was strong enough to confine the plasma as well, removing the need for the external coils. At this point, the Soviet researchers had re-invented the pinch system being developed in the UK,

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The first tokamak was built in 1954, and for over a decade this technology existed only in the USSR. In 1968 the electronic plasma temperature of 1 keV was reached on the tokamak T-3, built at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy under the leadership of academician L. A. Artsimovich.

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Plasma discharges within the tokamak's vacuum chamber consist of energized ions and atoms. The energy from these particles eventually reaches the inner wall of the chamber through radiation, collisions, or lack of confinement. The heat from the particles is removed via conduction through the

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Sakharov revisited his original toroidal concepts and came to a slightly different conclusion about how to stabilize the plasma. The layout would be the same as the stabilized pinch concept, but the role of the two fields would be reversed. Instead of weak externally induced magnetic fields

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One idea that came from these studies became known as the "stabilized pinch". This concept added additional coils to the outside of the chamber, which created a magnetic field that would be present in the plasma before the pinch discharge. In most concepts, the externally induced field was

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When the problem is considered even more closely, the need for a vertical (parallel to the axis of rotation) component of the magnetic field arises. The Lorentz force of the toroidal plasma current in the vertical field provides the inward force that holds the plasma torus in equilibrium.

1324:(PPPL), home of Spitzer's stellarator, were building variations on the multipole design. While moderately successful on their own, T-3 greatly outperformed either machine. Bishop was concerned that the multipoles were redundant and thought the US should consider a tokamak of its own. 1046:

Khrushchev (roughly centred, bald), Kurchatov (to the right, bearded), and Bulganin (to the right, white-haired) visited Harwell on 26 April 1956. Cockcroft stands across from them (in glasses), while a presenter points to mockups of various materials being tested in the newly opened

1030:, it penetrated only the outer areas of the plasma. When the pinch discharge occurred and the plasma quickly contracted, this field became "frozen in" to the resulting filament, creating a strong field in its outer layers. In the US, this was known as "giving the plasma a backbone". 2042:

When confinement finally breaks down, these runaway electrons follow the path of least resistance and impact the side of the reactor. These can reach 12 megaamps of current deposited in a small area, well beyond the capabilities of any mechanical solution. In one famous case, the

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plasma was not perfectly confined by magnetic field and hitting the walls of the chamber. Two smaller machines followed, using copper shells. The conductive shells were intended to help stabilize the plasma, but were not completely successful in any of the machines that tried it.

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providing stabilization and a strong pinch current responsible for confinement, in the new layout, the external field would be much more powerful in order to provide the majority of confinement, while the current would be much smaller and responsible for the stabilizing effect.

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of greater than 10 keV (over 100 million degrees Celsius). In current tokamak (and other) magnetic fusion experiments, insufficient fusion energy is produced to maintain the plasma temperature, and constant external heating must be supplied. Chinese researchers set up the

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One serious problem remained. Because the electrical current in the plasma was much lower and produced much less compression than a pinch machine, this meant the temperature of the plasma was limited to the resistive heating rate of the current. First proposed in 1950,

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the Bohm and classical diffusion rates to turbulence in the plasma, and believed the steady fields of the stellarator would not suffer from this problem. Various experiments at that time suggested the Bohm rate did not apply, and that the classical formula was correct.

3359:. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion Research Held by the International Atomic Energy Agency at Novosibirsk, 1–7 August 1968. Vol. 1 (Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion Research. ed.). 1972:, a small ring of light metal that projected into the chamber so that the plasma would hit it before hitting the walls. This eroded the limiter and caused its atoms to mix with the fuel, but these lighter materials cause less disruption than the wall materials. 1059:

With progress apparently stalled, in 1955, Kurchatov called an All Union conference of Soviet researchers with the ultimate aim of opening up fusion research within the USSR. In April 1956, Kurchatov travelled to the UK as part of a widely publicized visit by

2016:. There are two primary mechanisms. In one, the "vertical displacement event" (VDE), the entire plasma moves vertically until it touches the upper or lower section of the vacuum chamber. In the other, the "major disruption", long wavelength, non-axisymmetric 2051:

number of major disruptions will definitively damage the chamber with no possibility to restore the device. The development of systems to counter the effects of runaway electrons is considered a must-have piece of technology for the operational level ITER.

1821:, is strongly suppressed by the tokamak layout, a side-effect of the high safety factors of tokamaks. The lack of kinks allowed the tokamak to operate at much higher temperatures than previous machines, and this allowed a host of new phenomena to appear. 1217:

had to be addressed. This led to the addition of yet another set of coils in 1962, which produced a vertical magnetic field that offset these effects. These were a success, and by the mid-1960s the machines began to show signs that they were beating the

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C stellarator being just about perfect for such a conversion. They continued to offer a long list of reasons why the Model C should not be converted. When these were questioned, a furious debate broke out about whether the Soviet results were reliable.

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of a plasma was reduced as the temperature increased, meaning the heating rate of the plasma would slow as the devices improved and temperatures were pressed higher. Calculations demonstrated that the resulting maximum temperatures while staying within

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Some indication of the importance given to Lavrentiev's letter can be seen in the speed with which it was processed; the letter was received by the Central Committee on 29 July, Sakharov sent his review in on 18 August, by October, Sakharov and

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One problem seen in all fusion reactors is that the presence of heavier elements causes energy to be lost at an increased rate, cooling the plasma. During the very earliest development of fusion power, a solution to this problem was found, the

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effort (originally known as the "Breakeven Plasma Test Facility"). In the US, Hirsch began formulating plans for a similar design, skipping over proposals for another stepping-stone design directly to a tritium-burning one. This emerged as the

900:. Scientists around the world were excited by the announcement, but soon concluded it was not true; simple calculations showed that his experimental setup could not produce enough energy to heat the fusion fuel to the needed temperatures. 1529:(TFTR), run directly from Washington and not linked to any specific lab. Originally favouring Oak Ridge as the host, Hirsch moved it to PPPL after others convinced him they would work the hardest on it because they had the most to lose. 1151:

began plans to build a similar machine known as Alpha. Only a few months later, in May, the ZETA team issued a release stating they had not achieved fusion, and that they had been misled by erroneous measures of the plasma temperature.

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the curvature where they were closer together. Considering this, they noted that the tensional forces within the magnets would be evened out if they were shaped like a D, rather than an O. This became known as the "Princeton D-coil".

815:. As the particles are moving at high speed, their resulting paths look like a helix. If one arranges a magnetic field so lines of force are parallel and close together, the particles orbiting adjacent lines may collide, and fuse. 849:

helix, so that any given particle would find itself repeatedly on the outside, then inside, of the torus. The drifts caused by the uneven fields are in opposite directions on the inside and outside, so over the course of multiple

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Magnetic compression was an area of research in the early "tokamak stampede", and was the purpose of one major design, the ATC. The concept has not been widely used since then, although a somewhat similar concept is part of the

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Instead, these machines demonstrated new problems that limited their performance. Solving these would require a much larger and more expensive machine, beyond the abilities of any one country. After an initial agreement between

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candidate materials include those with much hydrogen, such as water and plastics. Boron atoms are also good absorbers of neutrons. Thus, concrete and polyethylene doped with boron make inexpensive neutron shielding materials.

1072:, where he shocked the hosts by presenting a detailed historical overview of the Soviet fusion efforts. He took time to note, in particular, the neutrons seen in early machines and warned that neutrons did not mean fusion. 1840:

against a multimodal dynamic model to measure and forecast such instabilities based on signals from multiple diagnostics and actuators at 25 millisecond intervals. This forecast was used to reduce tearing instabilities in

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Another problem seen in all fusion designs is the heat load that the plasma places on the wall of the confinement vessel. There are materials that can handle this load, but they are generally undesirable and expensive

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as a promising technique in 1945. After several failed attempts to gain funding, he gave up and asked two graduate students, Stanley (Stan) W. Cousins and Alan Alfred Ware (1924–2010), to build a device out of surplus

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Since the plasma is an electrical conductor, it is possible to heat the plasma by inducing a current through it; the induced current that provides most of the poloidal field is also a major source of initial heating.

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which was most common in the toroidal machines. Groups in all three countries began studying the formation of these instabilities and potential ways to address them. Important contributions to the field were made by

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The proposal to use controlled thermonuclear fusion for industrial purposes and a specific scheme using thermal insulation of high-temperature plasma by an electric field was first formulated by the Soviet physicist

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Tokamak magnetic field and current. Shown is the toroidal field and the coils (blue) that produce it, the plasma current (red) and the poloidal field created by it, and the resulting twisted field when these are

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of the Scientific Research Institute of Electrophysical Apparatus stormed into Kurchatov's study with a magazine containing a story about Richter's work, demanding to know why they were beaten by the Argentines.

1418:

his plan, to which Furth replied: "well, maybe you're right." After lunch, the various teams presented their designs, at which point Gottlieb presented his idea for a "stellarator-tokamak" based on the Model C.

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in September 1958, the Soviet delegation released many papers covering their fusion research. Among them was a set of initial results on their toroidal machines, which at that point had shown nothing of note.

1906:

they spend in the fuel can be maximized by ensuring their orbit in the field remains within the plasma. It can be demonstrated that this occurs when the electrical current in the plasma is about 3 MA.

1247:, and that the Soviets were measuring only those extremely energetic electrons and not the bulk temperature. The Soviets countered with several arguments suggesting the temperature they were measuring was 1444:

proposed using magnetic compression, a pinch-like technique to compress a warm plasma to raise its temperature, but providing that compression through magnets rather than current. Oak Ridge suggested

2447: 1504:

By the late-1970s, tokamaks had reached all the conditions needed for a practical fusion reactor; in 1978 PLT had demonstrated ignition temperatures, the next year the Soviet T-7 successfully used

1300:> 1 would be limited to the low millions of degrees. Artsimovich had been quick to point this out in Novosibirsk, stating that future progress would require new heating methods to be developed. 1136:

in 1958. Yavlinskii was already preparing the design of an even larger model, later built as T-3. With the apparently successful ZETA announcement, Yavlinskii's concept was viewed very favourably.

1331:

of Princeton was exasperated, asking "Do you think that this committee can out-think the scientists?" With the major labs demanding they control their own research, one lab found itself left out.

434:, continue to be used to investigate performance parameters and other issues. As of 2024, JET remains the record holder for fusion output, with 69 MJ of energy output over a 5-second period. 1605:

Some thought of an international reactor design had been ongoing since June 1973 under the name INTOR, for INternational TOkamak Reactor. This was originally started through an agreement between

1275:, in what is still considered a major political manoeuvre on Artsimovich's part, British physicists were allowed to visit the Kurchatov Institute, the heart of the Soviet nuclear bomb effort. 351:(Nicol Peacock et al.) to the USSR with their equipment. Measurements on the T-3 confirmed the results, spurring a worldwide stampede of tokamak construction. It had been demonstrated that a 1516:

During the 1970s, four major second-generation proposals were funded worldwide. The Soviets continued their development lineage with the T-15, while a pan-European effort was developing the

1992:, or H-mode, which operated stably at higher temperatures and pressures. Operating in the H-mode, which can also be seen in stellarators, is now a major design goal of the tokamak design. 678:

To maintain fusion and produce net energy output, the bulk of the fuel must be raised to high temperatures so its atoms are constantly colliding at high speed; this gives rise to the name

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in the 2010s opened a promising pathway to building the higher field magnets required to achieve ITER-like levels of energy gain in a compact device. To leverage this new technology, the

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This was apparently a great success, and in January 1958, they announced the fusion had been achieved in ZETA based on the release of neutrons and measurements of the plasma temperature.

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In January 1951, Kurchatov arranged a meeting at LIPAN to consider Sakharov's concepts. They found widespread interest and support, and in February a report on the topic was forwarded to

2651:

2017: KTM – this is an experimental thermonuclear facility for research and testing of materials under energy load conditions close to ITER and future energy fusion reactors, Kazakhstan

1927:

would be to shape the magnetic fields so that the plasma only filled the outer half of the torus, shaped like a D or C when viewed end-on, instead of the normal circular cross section.

1863:, the point where the energy being released by the fusion reactions is equal to the amount of energy being used to maintain the reaction. The ratio of output to input energy is denoted 1544:

and became the world's biggest and most committed private investor in fusion technology, ultimately putting $ 20 million of his own money into Bussard's Compact Tokamak. Funding by the

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Sakharov's concern about the electrodes led him to consider using magnetic confinement instead of electrostatic. In the case of a magnetic field, the particles will circle around the

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Seo, Jaemin; Kim, SangKyeun; Jalalvand, Azarakhsh; Conlin, Rory; Rothstein, Andrew; Abbate, Joseph; Erickson, Keith; Wai, Josiah; Shousha, Ricardo; Kolemen, Egemen (February 2024).

2004:

By the early 1990s, the combination of these features and others collectively gave rise to the "advanced tokamak" concept. This forms the basis of modern research, including ITER.

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inward). Since plasma compression brings the ions closer together, the process has the additional benefit of facilitating attainment of the required density for a fusion reactor.

2746: 2087:(EAST) in 2006, which can supposedly sustain a plasma temperature of 100 million degree Celsius for initiating fusion between hydrogen atoms, according to a November 2018 test. 1452: 912:

concept. Jim Tuck had returned to the UK briefly and saw Thomson's pinch machines. When he returned to Los Alamos he also received $ 50,000 directly from the Los Alamos budget.

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Neutral-beam injection involves the introduction of high energy (rapidly moving) atoms or molecules into an ohmically heated, magnetically confined plasma within the tokamak.

1586:(ITER) the largest tokamak in the world, which began construction in 2013 and is projected to begin full operation in 2035. It is intended as a demonstration that a practical 1774:

inside and out more than once per orbit around the long axis torus were much more stable than devices that had less twist. This ratio of twists to orbits became known as the

3208: 6324: 2631: 1313: 765: 6133:

Zheng, Jinxing; Liu, Xufeng; Song, Yuntao; Wan, Yuanxi; et al. (2013). "Concept design of CFETR superconducting magnet system based on different maintenance ports".

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Peacock, N. J.; Robinson, D. C.; Forrest, M. J.; Wilcock, P. D.; Sannikov, V. V. (1969). "Measurement of the Electron Temperature by Thomson Scattering in Tokamak T3".

2422:(H-1 National Plasma Fusion Research Facility) based on the H-1 Heliac device built by Australia National University's plasma physics group and in operation since 1992 1395: 1378:. Instead of Ormak's toroidal transformer, Alcator used traditional ring-shaped magnetic field coils but required them to be much smaller than existing designs. MIT's 1128:

tokamak. For his work on "powerful impulse discharges in a gas, to obtain unusually high temperatures needed for thermonuclear processes", Yavlinskii was awarded the

2735: 1403: 2214:. Being electrically neutral and relatively tiny, the neutrons are not affected by the magnetic fields nor are they stopped much by the surrounding vacuum chamber. 335:

modified the scheme by proposing a theoretical basis for a thermonuclear reactor, where the plasma would have the shape of a torus and be held by a magnetic field.

1968:. When such materials are sputtered in collisions with hot ions, their atoms mix with the fuel and rapidly cool it. A solution used on most tokamak designs is the 1344: 1120:> 1. This path is controlled by the relative strengths of the externally induced magnetic field compared to the field created by the internal current. To have 5266: 663:

of various fusion reactions, and determined that the deuterium–deuterium reaction occurred at a lower energy than other reactions, peaking at about 100,000

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In the aftermath of ZETA, the UK teams began the development of new plasma diagnostic tools to provide more accurate measurements. Among these was the use of a

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After much study, it was found that some of the released neutrons were produced by instabilities in the plasma. There were two common types of instability, the

1002:

secrecy surrounding the type of research meant that none of the groups were aware that others were also working on it, let alone having the identical problem.

5549: 5395:

von Goeler, S.; Stodiek, W.; Sauthoff, N. (1974). "Studies of internal disruptions and m= 1 oscillations in tokamak discharges with soft – x-ray techniques".

1960:

designs, where it is easy to integrate into the magnetic windings. However, designing a divertor for a tokamak proved to be a very difficult design problem.

1817:

While the tokamak addresses the issue of plasma stability in a gross sense, plasmas are also subject to a number of dynamic instabilities. One of these, the

1424: 5360:

Thornton, A. J.; Gibsonb, K. J.; Harrisona, J. R.; Kirka, A.; et al. (2011). "Disruption mitigation studies on the Mega Amp Spherical Tokamak (MAST)".

386:

By the mid-1970s, dozens of tokamaks were in use around the world. By the late 1970s, these machines had reached all of the conditions needed for practical

7991: 1923:= 2 might still be less than 1 in certain areas. In the 1970s, it was suggested that one way to counteract this and produce a design with a higher average 5843: 2992:; 2000 MW, continuous operation, connected to power grid. Planned successor to ITER; construction to begin in 2040 according to EUROfusion 2018 timetable. 1532:

The excitement was so widespread that several commercial ventures to produce commercial tokamaks began around this time. Best known among these, in 1978,

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read the Huemul story, realized it was false, and set about designing a machine that would work. In May he was awarded $ 50,000 to begin research on his

6756: 1347:, that had several novel features. Primary among them was the way the external field was created in a single large copper block, fed power from a large 5201: 1448:, small particle accelerators that would shoot fuel atoms through the surrounding magnetic field where they would collide with the plasma and heat it. 1279:

The team phoned the results home to Culham, who then passed them along in a confidential phone call to Washington. The final results were published in

2724:, Australia National University's plasma physics group built a device to explore toroidal configurations, independently discovering the tokamak layout 2104:

also other limitations on long pulses). Tokamaks must therefore either operate for short periods or rely on other means of heating and current drive.

6817: 4029: 2819: 1439:

Overhead view of the Princeton Large Torus in 1975. PLT set numerous records and demonstrated that the temperatures needed for fusion were possible.

6418: 6099: 2278: 1629: 1583: 430:(ITER) effort emerged and remains the primary international effort to develop practical fusion power. Many smaller designs, and offshoots like the 427: 6296: 2430: 1312:, one of the leaders of the US fusion program. One of the few other devices to show clear evidence of beating the Bohm limit at that time was the 7824: 7636: 3561: 3127:

was unknown at the time. Their work created tritium, but they did not separate it chemically to demonstrate its existence. This was performed by

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Hurst, N. C.; Chapman, B. E.; Sarff, J. S.; Almagri, A. F.; McCollam, K. J.; Den Hartog, D. J.; Flahavan, J. B.; Forest, C. B. (29 July 2024).

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1979–1998: MT-1 Tokamak, Budapest, Hungary (Built at the Kurchatov Institute, Russia, transported to Hungary in 1979, rebuilt as MT-1M in 1991)

2078:

are introduced. However, in the startup of a reactor, either initially or after a temporary shutdown, the plasma will have to be heated to its

1995:

Finally, it was noted that when the plasma had a non-uniform density it would give rise to internal electrical currents. This is known as the

808:. Unlike electrically neutral atoms, a plasma is electrically conductive, and can, therefore, be manipulated by electrical or magnetic fields. 618:, the author of the first toroidal system, proposed replacing "-mag" with "-mak" for euphony. Later, this name was borrowed by many languages. 342:

By the mid-1960s, the tokamak designs began to show greatly improved performance. The initial results were released in 1965, but were ignored;

4907: 7685: 3789:"Role played by O. A. Lavrent'ev in the formulation of the problem and the initiation of research into controlled nuclear fusion in the USSR" 2535: 2084: 1643:

It has been known for a long time that stronger field magnets would enable high energy gain in a much smaller tokamak, with concepts such as

949: 237:

in San Diego, which has been used in research since it was completed in the late 1980s. The characteristic torus-shaped chamber is clad with

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in November 1969. The results of this announcement have been described as a "veritable stampede" of tokamak construction around the world.

1267:. This technique was well known and respected in the fusion community; Artsimovich had publicly called it "brilliant". Artsimovich invited 8122: 5811: 1894:. These can collide with the fuel nuclei in the plasma and heat it, reducing the amount of external heat needed. At some point, known as 3730: 1875:

of more than one is needed for the reactor to generate net energy, but for practical reasons, it is desirable for it to be much higher.

784:

incident nuclei back into the reactor. In all likelihood, this requirement is incompatible with the mechanical strength of the device."

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At the same time these experiments were demonstrating problems, much of the impetus for the US's massive funding disappeared; in 1986

1143:

later in January. To Shafranov's surprise, the system did use the "frozen in" field concept. He remained sceptical, but a team at the

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absorbed by a liquid metal blanket and their kinetic energy would be used in heat transfer processes to ultimately turn a generator.

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De Villiers, J. A. M.; Hayzen, A. J.; Omahony, J. R.; Roberts, D. E.; Sherwell, D. (1979). "Tokoloshe - the South African Tokamak".

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The joint EU/Japan JT-60SA reactor achieved first plasma on October 23, 2023, after a two-year delay caused by an electrical short.

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K-DEMO in South Korea; 2200–3000 MW, a net electric generation on the order of 500 MW is planned; construction is targeted by 2037.

2312: 3222: 2206:

chamber's inner wall to a water-cooling system, where the heated water proceeds to an external cooling system through convection.

8006: 7945: 6321: 4157: 3487: 2998:, also known as "China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor"; 200 MW; Next generation Chinese fusion reactor, is a new tokamak device. 2036: 920: 740:

equipment. This was successfully operated in 1948, but showed no clear evidence of fusion and failed to gain the interest of the

2383: 2020:

instabilities cause the plasma to be forced into non-symmetrical shapes, often squeezed into the top and bottom of the chamber.

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T-2. This used an internal liner of corrugated metal that was baked at 550 °C (1,022 °F) to cook off trapped gasses.

1096:

circumference more rapidly than they circulated the long axis of the torus, the kink instability would be strongly suppressed.

4268: 7680: 6810: 6623: 6527: 6508: 6489: 6439: 6399: 6378: 6355: 3596: 3393: 3337: 3012: 2939: 2697: 2513: 1938:

Doublet III team redesigned that machine into the D-IIID with a D-shaped cross-section, and it was selected for the Japanese

1898:, this internal self-heating is enough to keep the reaction going without any external heating, corresponding to an infinite 1367: 1988:, they noticed that certain arrangements of the fields and plasma parameters would sometimes enter what is now known as the 1882:. That is because some of the energy being given off by the fusion reactions of the most common fusion fuel, a 50-50 mix of 3016: 2543: 2319:, Canada; its predecessor, STOR1-M built in 1983, was used for the first demonstration of alternating current in a tokamak. 2271: 1659: 741: 5781: 1188:

From the first studies of controlled fusion, there was a problem lurking in the background. During the Manhattan Project,

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would result in the temperature rising dramatically, more than enough for fusion. With this development, only Golovin and

7592: 5985: 4452:"The Valleys boy who broached the Iron Curtain to convince the USA that Russian Cold War nuclear fusion claims were true" 3213: 2484: 2477: 2399: 1374:

was at MIT at the time, and following the same concepts as Postma's team, came up with his own low-aspect-ratio concept,

1321: 7923: 3245:

The role of O. A. Lavrentiev in raising the issue and initiating research on controlled thermonuclear fusion in the USSR

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had completed the first detailed study of a fusion reactor, and they had asked for funding to build it in January 1951.

7409: 6909: 6025: 3302: 3218: 2773: 2669: 2602: 1655: 1248: 1225: 6703: 5710:"Investigation of Plasma Equilibrium in the Saskatchewan Torus-Modified (STOR-M) during Alternating Current Operation" 5263: 4451: 1745:

The solution is to shape the lines so they do not simply run around the torus, but twist around like the stripes on a

1635:

Design work began in 1988, and since that time the ITER reactor has been the primary tokamak design effort worldwide.

857:, the opposite drifts would cancel out. Alternately, he suggested using an external magnet to induce a current in the 173: 7086: 6982: 5764: 2676: 1402:

was proposing a relatively simple tokamak to explore heating the plasma through deliberately induced turbulence, the

210: 192: 59: 6072: 3410: 3081: 2070:

In an operating fusion reactor, part of the energy generated will serve to maintain the plasma temperature as fresh

145: 7940: 7366: 6803: 5556: 4948: 2888: 1379: 1124:> 1, the external magnets must be much more powerful, or alternatively, the internal current has to be reduced. 371:

had attempted this, but demonstrated serious instabilities. It was the development of the concept now known as the

3440:

Peacock N. J.; et al. (1969). "Measurement of the Electron Temperature by Thomson Scattering in Tokamak T3".

3247: 8606: 8448: 7582: 6664: 3749: 1578: 1229: 352: 348: 2986:, France; 500 MW; construction began in 2010, first plasma expected in 2025. Expected fully operational by 2035. 7996: 5840: 4994: 3613: 2231: 1776: 1104: 372: 152: 130: 8127: 7935: 7843: 6135: 2924: 2790: 2753: 2739: 2620: 2342: 2044: 1685:

is also planning on building a net-energy tokamak using HTS magnets, but with the spherical tokamak variant.

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formed a small group in early 1969 to consider the tokamak. They came up with a new design, later christened

1332: 383:

was always greater than 1, the tokamaks strongly suppressed the instabilities which plagued earlier designs.

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for ITER. The ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility in Padova will be the first ITER facility to start operation.

1667: 1628:

The next year, an agreement was signed between the US, Soviet Union, European Union and Japan, creating the

1108:. The ratio of the number of times the particle orbits the major axis compared to the minor axis is denoted 379:

in mathematical notation) that guided tokamak development; by arranging the reactor so this critical factor

8423: 8362: 7270: 6853: 2190: 1427:, intended to simply verify the Soviet results, while the others would explore ways to go well beyond T-3. 6634: 4040: 3023:. Expected to achieve energy gain in 2026 with a fraction of ITERs size by utilizing high magnetic fields. 2270:

since the early 1960s but renamed to Castor in 1977 and moved to IPP CAS, Prague. In 2007 moved to FNSPE,

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Set of hyperfrequency tubes (84 GHz and 118 GHz) for plasma heating by electron cyclotron waves on the

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through impacts with the rest of the fuel, and these impacts deposit energy in that fuel, heating it.

1878:

Once breakeven is reached, further improvements in confinement generally lead to a rapidly increasing

1696: 8357: 8206: 7520: 7124: 6714: 3488:"I didn't let my soul be lazy. To the 95th anniversary of the birth of Academician L. A. Artsimovich" 3041: 2989: 1956:

that would cause the heavier elements to be flung out of the reactor. This was initially part of the

1859: 1675: 395: 6589: 398:

equal to 1) now in sight, a new series of machines were designed that would run on a fusion fuel of

141: 8274: 8176: 7882: 7371: 6993: 6921: 3589:

Ionizing radiation: radioecology, physics, technology, protection: textbook for university students

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When he raised the issue at a December 1968 meeting, directors of the labs refused to consider it.

977:, but this would not heat the plasma to fusion temperatures. However, as the plasma collapsed, the 126: 45: 20: 5653:"DIII-D research advancing the physics basis for optimizing the tokamak approach to fusion energy" 4904: 8584: 8330: 8259: 8218: 7986: 7358: 7243: 7218: 7174: 6827: 2194: 2172: 1185:

machines in both the US and USSR all demonstrated problems that limited their confinement times.

928:

immediately contacted Beria with a proposal to set up a separate fusion research laboratory with

671: 391: 119: 6656: 5431: 2412: 8145: 7525: 7292: 7238: 7223: 6584: 2562: 2130: 2039:. These retain their energy even as the current quench is occurring on the bulk of the plasma. 1837: 1825: 1445: 1048: 6466: 5959: 5819: 5652: 4958: 4553: 4005: 3381:

Modelling of global impurity transport in tokamaks in the presence of non-axisymmetric effects

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is possible, and will produce 500 megawatts of power. Blue human figure at bottom shows scale.

896:, had succeeded in producing fusion at a laboratory scale as part of what is now known as the 8181: 7877: 7597: 7459: 7442: 7024: 6952: 5311: 3759: 3734: 3020: 2763: 2488: 2079: 2047:

had a major disruption where the runaway electrons burned a hole through the vacuum chamber.

1989: 1557: 1493: 1459: 1292: 1076: 660: 659:

nuclei into metal foil containing deuterium or other atoms. This allowed them to measure the

6450: 881: 700:. In 1944, Fermi gave a talk on the physics of fusion in the context of a then-hypothetical 8191: 8060: 7807: 7302: 7233: 7186: 7163: 7134: 6863: 6576: 6259: 6179: 6144: 5940: 5721: 5664: 5404: 5369: 5326: 5216: 5071: 4933: 4587: 4518: 4359: 3674: 3625: 3449: 3070: 2808: 2801: 2017: 2012:

Tokamaks are subject to events known as "disruptions" that cause confinement to be lost in

1931: 1617: 1517: 1497: 1019: 1015: 728: 652: 407: 5511: 5480: 3515: 2364:; in operation since 2008, previously operated from 1989 to 1999 in Culham, United Kingdom 8: 8001: 7464: 6962: 6221: 3128: 3064: 2881: 2714: 2598: 2437: 2282: 2267: 1599: 1288: 925: 356: 6598: 6580: 6272: 6263: 6247: 6183: 6148: 5944: 5725: 5709: 5668: 5408: 5373: 5338: 5330: 5220: 5100: 5075: 5059: 4868: 4591: 4522: 4363: 3678: 3629: 3453: 1625:

source of energy, which is essentially inexhaustible, for the benefit for all mankind."

1271:, the head of Culham, to use their devices on the Soviet reactors. At the height of the 1042: 86:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

8646: 8083: 7829: 7784: 7653: 7565: 7297: 6942: 6602: 6367: 6195: 5873: 5737: 5690: 5342: 5312:"Pellet Fuelling, ELM Pacing and Disruption Mitigation Technology Development for ITER" 5124: 4534: 3811: 3465: 3102: 2849: 2176: 1602:

was over, and funding for advanced energy sources had been slashed in the early 1980s.

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was the world leader in magnet design and they were confident they could build them.

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By this time a much larger design based on beam heating was under construction, the

225: 8651: 8511: 8247: 8088: 7719: 7577: 7399: 7275: 7144: 7129: 6858: 6771: 6594: 6537: 6414: 6267: 6187: 6152: 5865: 5729: 5680: 5672: 5527: 5523: 5496: 5492: 5443: 5412: 5377: 5334: 5224: 5095: 5079: 4595: 4538: 4526: 4509: 4367: 3803: 3682: 3633: 3469: 3457: 3096: 3090: 2913: 2856: 2502: 2338: 2055: 1842: 1818: 1470: 1083: 1068:. He offered to give a talk at Atomic Energy Research Establishment, at the former 1065: 858: 805: 451: 297: 285: 252: 230: 6795: 5381: 4925: 1765:

which did so through a mechanical arrangement, twisting the entire torus, and the

1560:", continued to be far below what would be needed for a practical reactor design. 868:, who oversaw the atomic efforts in the USSR. For a time, nothing was heard back. 8428: 8232: 8093: 7819: 7760: 7724: 7570: 7280: 7228: 7114: 6726: 6697: 6693: 6660: 6479: 6389: 6345: 6328: 5847: 5768: 5270: 4911: 3546: 3483: 3306: 3269:"The Soviet Magnetic Confinement Fusion Program: An International future (SW 90-" 3251: 3004: 2899: 2612: 2498: 2466: 2353: 2305: 2027:

For modern high-energy devices, where plasma currents are on the order of 15 mega

1935: 1829: 1671: 1610: 1505: 1478: 1386: 1182: 1165: 1144: 998: 982: 929: 865: 845: 780: 753: 615: 447: 328: 324: 315:. The tokamak concept is currently one of the leading candidates for a practical 234: 5461: 5416: 4923: 4243: 3788: 3144:

The system Lavrentiev described is very similar to the concept now known as the

2860: 8345: 7911: 7119: 7071: 7063: 5789: 5676: 5310:

Baylor, L. R.; Combs, S. K.; Foust, C. R.; Jernigan, T.C.; et al. (2009).

5083: 4244:"В. Д. Шафранов "К истории исследований по управляемому термоядерному синтезу"" 3085: 3076: 2877: 2655: 2641: 2361: 2263: 2118: 1985: 1891: 1739: 1682: 1613:, but had been moving slowly since its first real meeting on 23 November 1978. 1587: 1541: 1218: 1197: 1148: 953: 897: 893: 830: 829:, and by the end of October 1950 the two had written a proposal and sent it to 812: 724: 713: 680: 587: 316: 293: 6744: 6732: 6561: 6297:"MIT energy startup homes in on fusion, with plans for 47-acre site in Devens" 6170:

Song, Yun Tao; et al. (2014). "Concept Design of CFETR Tokamak Machine".

6000: 4761: 2058:, or sawteeth, which do not generally result in termination of the discharge. 1200:, that suggested the rate was linear with the magnetic force, not its square. 876: 590:. It originally sounded like "tokamag" ("токамаг") — an acronym of the words « 8625: 8579: 8413: 8367: 7860: 7631: 7560: 7389: 7181: 7109: 6896: 6759:

Information on conditions necessary for nuclear reaction in a tokamak reactor

6281: 6191: 5535: 5155: 5091: 5060:"Avoiding fusion plasma tearing instability with deep reinforcement learning" 4941: 3132: 3055: 2935: 2845: 2587: 2509: 2441: 2408: 1728: 1670:

in 2021 to demonstrate the necessary 20 Tesla magnetic field needed to build

1606: 1595: 1564:

either JET or TFTR. A new period of pessimism descended on the fusion field.

1435: 1390: 1340: 944: 933: 905: 773: 717: 709: 701: 640: 419: 343: 309: 6033: 4226: 3299: 2181:

High-frequency electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillators (often by

1761:

The two first solutions to making a design with the required twist were the

969:

although they had come to this design from a very different starting point.

889: 861:

itself, instead of a separate metal ring, which would have the same effect.

696:, the first practical way to reach these temperatures was created, using an 8552: 8540: 8443: 8164: 7211: 7201: 7047: 5862:

Passive-stabilization-of-MHD-instabilities at high βn in the HBT-EP Tokamak

5733: 5109: 4599: 4159:

The possibility of producing thermonuclear reactions in a gaseous discharge

3686: 3638: 2290: 1965: 1533: 1415: 1354: 916: 834: 833:, the director of the atomic bomb project within the USSR, and his deputy, 804:

in atoms dissociate, resulting in a fluid of nuclei and electrons known as

732: 685: 664: 644: 583: 387: 312: 51: 5761: 3209:"Major next steps for fusion energy based on the spherical tokamak design" 2517: 2455: 8453: 8418: 8408: 8055: 7959: 7319: 7307: 7285: 6873: 6700:, including the DIII-D National Fusion Facility, an experimental tokamak. 6541: 6076: 5685: 3418: 2917: 2827: 2692: 2616: 2013: 1957: 1762: 1746: 1371: 1348: 1236: 1129: 1069: 1027: 909: 772:

to ignite a fusion fuel, and then went on to describe a system that used

769: 723:

The first attempts to build a practical fusion machine took place in the

697: 368: 6047: 4849: 4571:

Cohen, Robert S.; Spitzer, Lyman Jr.; McR. Routly, Paul (October 1950).

4470: 4189: 4095: 3910: 1644: 1358:, which the Soviets had already suggested would produce better results. 932:

as director. Only days later, on 5 May, the proposal had been signed by

776:

fields to contain a hot plasma in a steady state for energy production.

8438: 6765:

Engineering Problems In The Design Of Controlled Thermonuclear Reactors

6670: 5286:

Dealing with the Risk and Consequences of Disruptions in Large Tokamaks

4887: 3665:

Alvarez, Luis; Cornog, Robert (1939). "Helium and Hydrogen of Mass 3".

3244: 2974:

ITER, currently under construction, will be the largest tokamak by far.

2606: 2323: 1545: 1235:

The next major international fusion meeting was held in August 1968 in

1189: 884:(right). Richter's claims sparked off fusion research around the world. 720:

driving a metal foil infused with deuterium, although without success.

6723:

Extensive list of current and historic tokamaks from around the world.

5228: 4572: 4371: 2159: 1919:

long axis is shorter there. That means that a machine with an average

19:

This article is about the fusion reaction device. For other uses, see

16:

Magnetic confinement device used to produce thermonuclear fusion power

8476: 8117: 7614: 7334: 7253: 7248: 7191: 6868: 6542:"On the history of the research into controlled thermonuclear fusion" 5869: 4530: 3461: 2983: 2331: 2301: 2071: 1883: 1836:

Another instability is tearing instability. In 2024 researchers used

1750: 1549: 1268: 826: 789: 656: 599: 399: 332: 6775: 5708:

Singh, A.K.; Morelli, J.; Xiao, C.; Mitarai, O.; Hirose, A. (2006).

4905:

Joint Soviet-United States Statement on the Summit Meeting in Geneva

2777: 2054:

A large amplitude of the central current density can also result in

1857:

One of the first goals for any controlled fusion device is to reach

1704: 108: 8528: 7746: 7422: 6957: 6369:

Fusion: Science, Politics, and the Invention of a New Energy Source

6107:. 2nd IAEA DEMO Programme Workshop. Vienna, Austria. Archived from 3385: 3329: 2717:, Moscow, Russia (formerly Soviet Union); T-4 in operation in 1968. 2372: 2186: 2182: 1948: 1942:

design as well. This layout has been largely universal since then.

1930:

One of the first machines to incorporate a D-shaped plasma was the

1735: 1723: 1272: 842:

Laboratory of Measuring Instruments of the USSR Academy of Sciences

819: 801: 761: 757: 238: 4350:

Spitzer, L. (1960). "Particle Diffusion across a Magnetic Field".

3698: 3696: 8316: 7887: 7339: 7312: 7139: 6926: 6717:– fans of the biggest tokamak planned to be built in near future. 6026:"MIT Plasma Science & Fusion Center: research>alcator>" 5611: 5481:"Tokamak Plasmas with Density up to 10 Times the Greenwald Limit" 4924:

Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (October 1992).

3124: 3049: 2906: 2834: 2558: 2528: 2346: 2211: 2075: 1977: 1887: 1766: 1510: 1375: 1193: 994: 962: 403: 364: 5984:

Ramos J, de Urquijo J, Meléndez L, Muñoz C, et al. (1983).

3516:"Nuclear fusion: new record brings dream of clean energy closer" 1308:

One of the people attending the Novosibirsk meeting in 1968 was

1263:

to directly measure the temperature of the bulk electrons using

684:

due to the high temperatures needed to bring it about. In 1944,

626: 7899: 7865: 7707: 6347:

Nuclear Fusion: Half a Century of Magnetic Confinement Research

5930: 3693: 3360: 2928: 2892: 2812: 2786:

1980–1990: Tokoloshe Tokamak, Atomic Energy Board, South Africa

2680: 2659: 2645: 2572: 2387: 2379: 2357: 2297: 2286: 2259: 2028: 1169: 5891: 961:

suggested the system could produce 100 grams (3.5 oz) of

670:

Accelerator-based fusion is not practical because the reactor

8499: 8105: 8043: 8018: 7772: 7736: 7702: 7697: 7447: 7417: 6947: 6904: 5359: 4930:

Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Science and Public Affairs

4506: 3145: 2995: 2958: 2841: 2666: 2583: 2568: 2539: 2524: 2459: 2419: 2258:

1960s: TM1-MH (since 1977 as Castor; since 2007 as Golem) in

1939: 1521: 1260: 854: 850: 737: 360: 301: 6686: 5983: 5582: 3646: 3321: 2852:, Japan; (Being upgraded 2015–2018 to Super, Advanced model) 2632:

Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran

2563:

https://www.triam.kyushu-u.ac.jp/QUEST_HP/suben/history.html

1192:

had been part of the team working on isotopic separation of

985:

continued considering the more static toroidal arrangement.

766:

Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

7690: 7515: 7206: 4318: 4316: 4169: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4030:"Introduction to Kink Modes – the Kruskal- Shafranov Limit" 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3770: 3768: 3414: 3364: 2979: 2950: 2865: 2797: 2635: 2624: 2591: 2576: 2547: 2197:

heating. This energy is usually transferred by microwaves.

2032: 1573: 871: 267: 261: 6720: 5264:

Runaway Electrons in Tokamaks and Their Mitigation in ITER

4777: 4775: 4693: 4691: 4689: 4652: 4650: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4410: 4408: 4395: 4393: 3612:

Oliphant, Mark; Harteck, Paul; Rutherford, Ernest (1934).

2494: 2246: 2210:

the fusion reactions produce large amounts of high energy

1488: 1466:

discovering neutral beams to be among the most effective.

1336:

did not. This made them highly receptive to new concepts.

6498: 6098:

Gao, X.; et al. (CFETR team) (17–20 December 2013).

5394: 4819: 4817: 4333: 4331: 3892: 3890: 3839: 3837: 3713: 3711: 3611: 3587:

A.Y.Pogosov; V.A.Dubkovsky (2013). Pogosov A. Yu. (ed.).

3356:

Experimental studies on Tokamak installations (CN-24/B-1)

1719: 1385:

During 1969, two additional groups entered the field. At

1139:

Details of ZETA became public in a series of articles in

965:

a day, or breed 10 kilograms (22 lb) of U233 a day.

273: 6653: 6246:

Kim, K.; Im, K.; Kim, H.C.; Oh, S.; et al. (2015).

5841:

Fusion Research: Australian Connections, Past and Future

5478: 5309: 5157:

Bending free toroidal shells for tokamak fusion reactors

4888:"INTOR: The international fusion reactor that never was" 4313: 4130: 4118: 3969: 3866: 3849: 3822: 3765: 3586: 3093:, and triple product, needed for break-even and ignition 675:

energy than the resulting fusion reactions can release.

7046: 6248:"Design concept of K-DEMO for near-term implementation" 5707: 5039: 5027: 5017: 5015: 4829: 4804: 4802: 4787: 4772: 4739: 4727: 4715: 4703: 4686: 4674: 4662: 4647: 4635: 4623: 4606: 4570: 4481: 4432: 4420: 4405: 4390: 4378: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4297: 2394: 1473:

took over the Directorate of fusion development in the

1423:

proposals. The Model C's new configuration, soon named

5650: 5200:

Kruger, S. E.; Schnack, D. D.; Sovinec, C. R. (2005).

4850:"Penthouse founder had invested his fortune in fusion" 4814: 4328: 4190:"Which was the first 'tokamak' – or was it 'tokomag'?" 4106: 4096:"Which was the first 'tokamak' – or was it 'tokomag'?" 3957: 3945: 3933: 3921: 3887: 3834: 3708: 3564:(1999). "Prospects of screw magnetic systems for TC". 6792:

Nuclear fusion and the promise of a brighter tomorrow

5850:

B. D. Blackwell, M.J. Hole, J. Howard and J. O'Connor

5509: 5202:"Dynamics of the Major Disruption of a DIII-D Plasma" 5176: 5164: 5135: 5057: 4207: 4058: 2700:

Plasma Science and Fusion Center, in about 1982–1983.

1087:

they had been studying, with strong external fields.

414:(TFTR), had the explicit goal of reaching breakeven. 276: 264: 233:, an experimental tokamak fusion reactor operated by 6741:

Section View Video of a small scale tokamak concept.

5510:

Gates, D. A.; Delgado-Aparicio, L. (20 April 2012).

5199: 5012: 4932:. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.: 4799: 4294: 4282: 3614:"Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen" 3031: 1678:

as ITER but with only ~1/40th ITER's plasma volume.

1009:

that was seen primarily in linear machines, and the

704:. However, some thought had already been given to a 258: 8602:

International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

6825: 6753:

Fly Through Video of a small scale tokamak concept.

4070: 1805:. This increases stability by orders of magnitude. 1727:charged particles in a magnetic field experience a 1159: 1116:stated that the kink will be suppressed as long as 973:current in the plasma would heat it through normal 651:were the first to achieve fusion on Earth, using a 270: 255: 133:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6427: 6366: 5160:(Technical report). Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 4995:"World's largest tokamak fusion reactor powers up" 3911:"'Proyecto Huemul': the prank that started it all" 993:On 4 July 1952, Nikolai Filippov's group measured 5604:"Tokamak Department, Institute of Plasma Physics" 5292:. MFE Roadmapping in the ITER Era. Archived from 5154:Gray, W.H.; Stoddart, W.C.T.; Akin, J.E. (1977). 2696:The control room of the Alcator C tokamak at the 2090: 8623: 6729:Overview video of a small scale tokamak concept. 6048:"China's HT-7 retires after 11,800 plasma shots" 5153: 2672:and the Southwestern Institute of Physics, China 2242:(in chronological order of start of operations) 1731:and follow helical paths along the field lines. 1630:International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor 1584:International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor 1181:The stellarator, various pinch concepts and the 1037: 952:, with visible light radiation dominated by the 630:A USSR stamp, 1987: Tokamak thermonuclear system 428:International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor 390:, although not at the same time nor in a single 6391:A Piece of the Sun: The Quest for Fusion Energy 6132: 4573:"The Electrical Conductivity of an Ionized Gas" 3591:. Odessa: Science and Technology. p. 343. 3482: 3352: 2884:, Moscow, Russia (formerly Soviet Union); 10 MW 2824:Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares 2731:reopens as the Symmetric Tokamak in May at PPPL 1620:in November 1985, Reagan raised the issue with 1481:, which led to greatly increased research into 7162: 6477: 6322:Nuclear fusion power inches closer to reality. 4181: 4175: 3702: 3652: 3377: 3123:D–T fusion occurs at even lower energies, but 2871:Institut national de la recherche scientifique 2866:Institut de recherche en électricité du Québec 1734:The simplest magnetic confinement system is a 1243:concluded they were due to an effect known as 1228:Conference on fusion at the UK's newly opened 308:devices being developed to produce controlled 7062: 7032: 6811: 6562:"Tokamak foundation in USSR/Russia 1950–1990" 5259: 5257: 5255: 5253: 4227:"К столетию со дня рождения Н. А. Явлинского" 3664: 3560: 3439: 3408: 2085:Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak 1848: 1742:, and eventually hit the walls of the torus. 1430: 549: 531: 486: 464: 455: 4564: 4023: 4021: 4019: 3200: 2458:, Brazil; this tokamak was transferred from 997:being released from a linear pinch machine. 6762: 6473:. Vol. 82, no. 1156. p. 627. 6343: 4954: 4869:"Radio Address to the Nation on Oil Prices" 4756: 4754: 1660:MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center (PSFC) 1352:through the donut hole, leading to a lower 768:. The letter outlined the idea of using an 60:Learn how and when to remove these messages 8632:Science and technology in the Soviet Union 7039: 7025: 6988: 6818: 6804: 6663:– site from the UK fusion research centre 6549:Journal of the Russian Academy of Sciences 6245: 6239: 5755: 5512:"Origin of Tokamak Density Limit Scalings" 5250: 5195: 5193: 5191: 4089: 4087: 4085: 3786: 2154: 892:announced that a former German scientist, 6770:(Report). Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 6588: 6536: 6499:Nishikawa, K. & Wakatani, M. (2000). 6467:"Fusion Research – the temperature rises" 6448: 6271: 6215:"Status of design and strategy for CFETR" 5684: 5651:Fenstermacher, M.E.; et al. (2022). 5429: 5099: 4554:"Fusion research - the temperature rises" 4322: 4213: 4155: 4143: 4124: 4064: 4016: 4006:"Can we master the thermonuclear plasma?" 3999: 3997: 3995: 3986: 3881: 3860: 3828: 3774: 3637: 3493:Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences 3206: 2236: 2232:List of fusion experiments § Tokamak 2151:sometimes used for selected experiments. 2124: 1674:, a device designed to achieve a similar 1361: 1102:Today this basic concept is known as the 1026:relatively weak, and because a plasma is 582:The term "tokamak" was coined in 1957 by 304:. The tokamak is one of several types of 296:generated by external magnets to confine 211:Learn how and when to remove this message 193:Learn how and when to remove this message 6464: 6364: 6018: 5977: 5884: 5580: 5122: 5033: 4835: 4823: 4793: 4781: 4751: 4745: 4733: 4721: 4709: 4697: 4680: 4668: 4656: 4641: 4629: 4617: 4494: 4438: 4426: 4414: 4399: 4384: 4337: 4112: 3963: 3951: 3939: 3927: 3896: 3843: 3717: 2969: 2691: 2393: 2245: 2225: 2158: 1984:As machines began to explore this newly 1703: 1695: 1577: 1492: 1434: 1211: 1041: 943: 875: 872:Richter and the birth of fusion research 800:When heated to fusion temperatures, the 625: 224: 6559: 6478:McCracken, Garry; Stott, Peter (2012). 6344:Braams, C.M. & Stott, P.E. (2002). 6073:"ITER & Beyond. The Phases of ITER" 5804: 5779: 5598: 5596: 5188: 4808: 4551: 4349: 4307: 4082: 2107: 2037:relativistic runaway electron avalanche 1489:1980s: great hope, great disappointment 795: 300:in the shape of an axially symmetrical 8624: 6632: 6613: 6560:Smirnov, Vladimir (30 December 2009). 6517: 6425: 6411:Fusion Research, Volume 1 – Principles 6294: 5960:"Pioneering JET delivers final plasma" 5957: 5853: 5574: 5282: 5182: 5170: 5141: 5045: 5021: 4992: 4885: 4866: 4847: 4500: 4468: 4288: 4093: 3992: 3908: 3755: 2687: 2326:, but renamed to WEST in 2016, at the 1656:high temperature superconductors (HTS) 1638: 1548:led to this effort being known as the 1339:After a considerable internal debate, 1022:in the US, and Shafranov in the USSR. 888:On 25 March 1951, Argentine President 747: 7020: 6799: 6790:Observer Newspaper Article on Tokomak 6430:Fusion: the search for endless energy 6408: 6387: 6331:The Washington Post, August 26, 2022. 5859: 5834: 4076: 4003: 3566:Achievements of the Physical Sciences 3353:L.A.Artsimovich; et al. (1969). 3322:Garry McCracken, Peter Stott (2015). 3157:Although one source says "late 1957". 3013:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2514:National Institute for Space Research 2200: 2007: 1976:the reactor. There, a pool of liquid 1500:(JET), in operation from 1983 to 2023 6451:"Hydrodynamic Stability of a Plasma" 6169: 5773: 5593: 5436:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 5432:"Density limits in toroidal plasmas" 3082:Dimensionless parameters in tokamaks 2544:Hefei Institutes of Physical Science 2384:Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear 2272:Czech Technical University in Prague 1909: 825:Sakharov discussed the concept with 742:Atomic Energy Research Establishment 292:) is a device which uses a powerful 131:adding citations to reliable sources 102: 66: 25: 6679:– site on tokamaks from the French 6350:. Institute of Physics Publishing. 6172:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 6097: 5430:Greenwald, Martin (1 August 2002). 5125:"Deep learning fusion breakthrough" 4926:"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists" 4886:Arnoux, Robert (15 December 2008). 3214:Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory 2480:; in operation since the late 1990s 1756: 1366:In early 1969, Artsimovich visited 1322:Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory 241:to help withstand the extreme heat. 13: 6614:Wesson, John; et al. (2004). 6481:Fusion: The Energy of the Universe 6212: 5283:Wurden, G. A. (9 September 2011). 4848:Arnoux, Robert (25 October 2010). 4471:"Off to Russia with a thermometer" 4187: 4094:Arnoux, Robert (27 October 2008). 4027: 3909:Arnoux, Robert (26 October 2011). 3411:"Off to Russia with a thermometer" 3325:Fusion: The Energy of the Universe 3219:United States Department of Energy 3207:Greenwald, John (24 August 2016). 2670:China National Nuclear Corporation 2603:Costa Rica Institute of Technology 1666:successfully built and tested the 1226:International Atomic Energy Agency 1075:Unknown to Kurchatov, the British 14: 8663: 6709:Fusion and Plasma Physics Seminar 6647: 6465:Kenward, Michael (24 May 1979b). 5958:Crepaz, Leah (20 December 2023). 5273:, S. Putvinski, ITER Organization 4993:Szondy, David (5 December 2023). 4469:Arnoux, Robert (9 October 2009). 4156:Kurchatov, Igor (26 April 1956). 2594:member); upgraded from the JT-60. 2065: 1981:lightest metals used previously. 1867:, and breakeven corresponds to a 1664:Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS) 1090: 818:Such a field can be created in a 41:This article has multiple issues. 8573: 8546: 8534: 8517: 8505: 8493: 8470: 8402: 8351: 8339: 8310: 8293: 8253: 8241: 8212: 8200: 8170: 8158: 8111: 8099: 8077: 8049: 8037: 8012: 7975: 7929: 7917: 7905: 7893: 7871: 7854: 7837: 7813: 7801: 7778: 7766: 7754: 7730: 7713: 7674: 7642: 7625: 7554: 7542: 6999: 6998: 6987: 6977: 6976: 6518:Raeder, J.; et al. (1986). 6314: 6288: 6206: 6163: 6126: 6091: 6065: 6040: 5951: 5933:South African Journal of Science 5924: 5902: 5701: 5644: 5618: 5542: 5503: 5472: 5454: 5423: 5388: 5353: 5303: 5276: 5147: 4867:Reagan, Ronald (19 April 1986). 4552:Kenward, Michael (24 May 1979). 4269:"ОТЦЫ И ДЕДЫ ТЕРМОЯДЕРНОЙ ЭПОХИ" 3618:Proceedings of the Royal Society 3409:Robert Arnoux (9 October 2009). 3048: 3034: 3017:Plasma Science and Fusion Center 3011:(CFS) in collaboration with the 2855:1987–1999: Tokamak de Varennes; 2427:Tokamak à configuration variable 2252:Tokamak à Configuration Variable 2165:Tokamak à Configuration Variable 1798:, while the tokamak operates at 1713: 1668:Toroidal Field Model Coil (TFMC) 1380:Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory 1160:Atoms for Peace and the doldrums 956:line emitting 656 nm light. 394:. With the goal of breakeven (a 359:that wind around the torus in a 251: 107: 71: 30: 8607:ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility 6337: 6157:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2013.06.008 5964:Culham Centre for Fusion Energy 5714:Contributions to Plasma Physics 5116: 5051: 4986: 4964: 4917: 4914:Ronald Reagan. 21 November 1985 4898: 4879: 4873:The American Presidency Project 4860: 4841: 4545: 4462: 4444: 4343: 4261: 4236: 4219: 4149: 4004:Adams, John (31 January 1963). 3902: 3808:10.1070/PU2001v044n08ABEH000910 3780: 3723: 3658: 3605: 3580: 3554: 3534: 3508: 3476: 3433: 3151: 3138: 3117: 2478:University of Wisconsin–Madison 1812: 1784:. Previous devices operated at 1654:The commercial availability of 1230:Culham Centre for Fusion Energy 915:Similar events occurred in the 349:Culham Centre for Fusion Energy 118:needs additional citations for 49:or discuss these issues on the 6704:General Atomics DIII-D Program 6633:Wesson, John (November 1999). 6434:. Cambridge University Press. 6101:Update on CFETR Concept Design 5528:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.165004 5497:10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.055101 3402: 3371: 3346: 3315: 3290: 3261: 3237: 3175: 3067:, a tokamak plasma instability 2091:Ohmic heating ~ inductive mode 1649:Compact Ignition Tokamak (CIT) 1254: 988: 634: 406:. These machines, notably the 327:in a mid-1950 paper. In 1951, 1: 6673:– various that relate to ITER 6599:10.1088/0029-5515/50/1/014003 6273:10.1088/0029-5515/55/5/053027 6136:Fusion Engineering and Design 5892:"Pegasus Toroidal Experiment" 5382:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2010.10.029 5339:10.1088/0029-5515/49/8/085013 5123:Ate-a-Pi (26 February 2024). 3164: 2905:1994–2001: HL-1M Tokamak, in 2863:and used by researchers from 2791:University of Texas at Austin 2769:1978–1987: Alcator C, MIT, US 2759:1973–1979: Alcator A, MIT, US 2754:Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses 2747:Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor 2740:University of Texas at Austin 2621:Institute for Plasma Research 2343:Institute for Plasma Research 2304:, United States; operated by 2045:Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses 1509:running with the radioactive 1475:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 1453:Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor 1400:University of Texas at Austin 1303: 1038:Steps toward declassification 7271:Field-reversed configuration 6854:Field-reversed configuration 6365:Bromberg, Joan Lisa (1982). 6295:Chesto, Jon (3 March 2021). 6213:Ye, Minyou (26 March 2013). 5999:(4): 551–592. Archived from 5986:"Diseño del Tokamak Novillo" 5550:"Neutral Beam Test Facility" 3417:Newsline 102. Archived from 3388:: Unigrafia Oy. p. 19. 3169: 2833:1984–1992: HL-1 Tokamak, in 2191:electron cyclotron resonance 2167:(TCV). Courtesy of SPC-EPFL. 1700:Magnetic fields in a tokamak 1651:being proposed decades ago. 939: 853:around the long axis of the 437: 229:The reaction chamber of the 7: 6618:. Oxford University Press. 5417:10.1103/physrevlett.33.1201 3574:Russian Academy of Sciences 3027: 3009:Commonwealth Fusion Systems 2982:, international project in 2955:Institute of Plasma Physics 2902:, in Culham, United Kingdom 2474:Pegasus Toroidal Experiment 1527:Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor 880:Ronald Richter (left) with 586:, a student of academician 550: 487: 412:Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor 10: 8668: 5448:10.1088/0741-3335/44/8/201 5084:10.1038/s41586-024-07024-9 4176:McCracken & Stott 2012 3703:McCracken & Stott 2012 3653:McCracken & Stott 2012 2965: 2317:University of Saskatchewan 2229: 2170: 2128: 1571: 1520:(JET) and Japan began the 1431:Heating: US takes the lead 621: 18: 8597: 8565: 8485: 8462: 8394: 8387: 8376: 8329: 8285: 8231: 8190: 8153: 8144: 8069: 8027: 7967: 7958: 7793: 7664: 7534: 7508: 7499: 7488: 7477: 7435: 7408: 7380: 7357: 7261: 7173: 7153: 7125:Fusion energy gain factor 7055: 6971: 6935: 6887: 6844: 6834: 6522:. John Wiley & Sons. 6520:Controlled Nuclear Fusion 6458:Reviews of Plasma Physics 6409:Dolan, Thomas J. (1982). 5812:"Centro de Fusão Nuclear" 3787:Bondarenko, B.D. (2001). 3500:(10): 940. Archived from 3250:12 September 2017 at the 3183:"DOE Explains...Tokamaks" 3042:Nuclear technology portal 2756:(TFR), near Paris, France 2436:1993: HBT-EP Tokamak, at 1691: 716:had attempted such using 532: 465: 456: 396:fusion energy gain factor 353:stable plasma equilibrium 289: 80:This article needs to be 6994:List of nuclear reactors 6983:Nuclear fission reactors 6715:Unofficial ITER fan club 6642:. JET Joint Undertaking. 6192:10.1109/TPS.2014.2299277 5767:15 November 2012 at the 5677:10.1088/1741-4326/ac2ff2 4165:(Speech). UKAEA Harwell. 3305:13 November 2013 at the 3110: 2789:1980–2004: TEXT/TEXT-U, 2766:begins operation at PPPL 2749:begins operation at PPPL 1398:. Meanwhile, a group at 1251:, and the debate raged. 764:, wrote a letter to the 562:sial'nym magnitnym polem 544:сиальным магнитным полем 460:, an acronym of either: 21:Tokamak (disambiguation) 7050:, processes and devices 6757:LAP Tokamak Development 6721:All-the-Worlds-Tokamaks 6659:28 October 2020 at the 5780:EMazzitelli, Giuseppe. 5516:Physical Review Letters 5485:Physical Review Letters 5397:Physical Review Letters 4955:Braams & Stott 2002 3378:Juho Miettunen (2015). 3330:Elsevier Academic Press 3105:, an MIT tokamak design 3073:, an alternative design 2736:Texas Turbulent Tokamak 2452:University of São Paulo 2195:ion cyclotron resonance 2173:Radio frequency heating 2155:Radio-frequency heating 1722:and negatively charged 1582:Cutaway diagram of the 1567: 1404:Texas Turbulent Tokamak 1114:Kruskal-Shafranov Limit 779:The letter was sent to 6828:nuclear fusion reactor 6692:4 October 2009 at the 6671:Int'l Tokamak research 6449:Kadomtsev, B. (1966). 6426:Herman, Robin (1990). 6388:Clery, Daniel (2014). 6327:27 August 2022 at the 5734:10.1002/ctpp.200610077 4600:10.1103/PhysRev.80.230 4257:(8): 877. August 2001. 4251:Успехи Физических Наук 3731:"UTPhysicsHistorySite" 3687:10.1103/PhysRev.56.613 3639:10.1098/rspa.1934.0077 3097:Fusion power § Records 2975: 2859:, Canada; operated by 2701: 2403: 2254: 2237:Currently in operation 2168: 2131:Neutral beam injection 2125:Neutral-beam injection 1952:, essentially a large 1838:reinforcement learning 1740:drift across the field 1710: 1701: 1591: 1501: 1446:neutral beam injection 1440: 1394:called the new design 1362:Tokamak race in the US 1208:of intense pessimism. 1164:As part of the second 1052: 957: 885: 760:sergeant stationed on 631: 426:in November 1985, the 242: 5860:Gates, David (1993). 5846:13 March 2018 at the 3021:Devens, Massachusetts 2973: 2914:UCLA Electric Tokamak 2764:Princeton Large Torus 2695: 2489:Princeton, New Jersey 2397: 2274:and renamed to Golem. 2249: 2226:Experimental tokamaks 2162: 2080:operating temperature 2018:magnetohydrodynamical 1990:high-confinement mode 1707: 1699: 1581: 1558:fusion triple product 1496: 1460:Princeton Large Torus 1438: 1293:electrical resistance 1212:Progress in the 1960s 1045: 947: 879: 840:During visits to the 661:nuclear cross section 629: 228: 7187:Triple-alpha process 7135:Magnetohydrodynamics 7087:List of technologies 6864:Reversed field pinch 6763:A. P. Frass (1973). 6079:on 22 September 2012 5614:on 1 September 2015. 5269:8 March 2021 at the 4910:7 March 2016 at the 3300:"An ocean of energy" 3225:on 19 September 2021 3071:Reversed-field pinch 2809:Joint European Torus 2802:Princeton University 2597:2012: Medusa CR, in 2465:14 July 2017 at the 2398:Outside view of the 2308:since the late 1980s 2108:Magnetic compression 2056:internal disruptions 1890:, is in the form of 1518:Joint European Torus 1498:Joint European Torus 1469:During this period, 1020:Martin Schwarzschild 1016:Martin David Kruskal 844:(LIPAN), the Soviet 796:Magnetic confinement 729:George Paget Thomson 653:particle accelerator 408:Joint European Torus 357:magnetic field lines 306:magnetic confinement 127:improve this article 8265:Lockheed Martin CFR 7219:Proton–proton chain 7082:List of experiments 6581:2010NucFu..50a4003S 6503:. Springer-Verlag. 6460:. pp. 153–199. 6264:2015NucFu..55e3027K 6227:on 25 November 2015 6184:2014ITPS...42..503S 6149:2013FusED..88.2960Z 5945:1979SAJSc..75..155D 5912:. Pprc.srbiau.ac.ir 5786:www.fusione.enea.it 5726:2006CoPP...46..773S 5669:2022NucFu..62d2024F 5632:on 17 February 2013 5583:"GOLEM @ FJFI.CVUT" 5409:1974PhRvL..33.1201V 5374:2011JNuM..415S.836M 5331:2009NucFu..49h5013B 5299:on 5 November 2015. 5238:on 27 February 2013 5221:2005PhPl...12e6113K 5076:2024Natur.626..746S 4592:1950PhRv...80..230C 4523:1969Natur.224..488P 4364:1960PhFl....3..659S 4012:. pp. 222–225. 3679:1939PhRv...56..613A 3630:1934RSPSA.144..692O 3504:on 22 October 2020. 3454:1969Natur.224..488P 3367:. pp. 157–173. 3065:Edge-localized mode 2882:Kurchatov Institute 2715:Kurchatov Institute 2688:Previously operated 2460:Swiss Plasma Center 2438:Columbia University 2289:, Russia (formerly 2283:Kurchatov Institute 2268:Kurchatov Institute 2193:heating (ECRH) and 1718:Positively charged 1639:High Field Tokamaks 1600:1970s energy crisis 1425:Symmetrical Tokamak 1289:Spitzer resistivity 1224:At the 1965 Second 748:Lavrentiev's letter 708:fusion device, and 578:ial magnetic field. 363:. Devices like the 7298:Dense plasma focus 7005:Nuclear technology 6943:Dense plasma focus 6636:The Science of JET 6484:. Academic Press. 6413:. Pergamon Press. 5782:"ENEA-Fusion: FTU" 5626:"History of Golem" 5562:on 10 October 2016 4458:. 3 November 2011. 4046:on 28 January 2018 3311:"Around the world" 3278:on 5 November 2010 3103:ARC fusion reactor 3084:in the article on 2976: 2850:Ibaraki Prefecture 2702: 2640:2015: ST25-HTS at 2404: 2266:. In operation in 2255: 2201:Particle inventory 2177:Dielectric heating 2169: 2008:Plasma disruptions 1824:One of these, the 1711: 1702: 1592: 1538:Penthouse Magazine 1502: 1483:alternative energy 1441: 1329:Melvin B. Gottlieb 1318:Lawrence Livermore 1310:Amasa Stone Bishop 1265:Thomson scattering 1053: 958: 886: 882:Juan Domingo Perón 632: 347:the laboratory in 243: 8637:Soviet inventions 8619: 8618: 8615: 8614: 8593: 8592: 8561: 8560: 8512:Asterix IV (PALS) 8325: 8324: 8227: 8226: 8140: 8139: 7954: 7953: 7473: 7472: 7431: 7430: 7390:Bubble (acoustic) 7372:Magnetized target 7349:Toroidal solenoid 7105: 7104: 7014: 7013: 6922:Magnetized-target 6625:978-0-19-850922-6 6538:Shafranov, Vitaly 6529:978-0-471-10312-7 6510:978-3-540-65285-4 6491:978-0-12-384657-0 6441:978-0-521-38373-8 6401:978-1-4683-1041-2 6380:978-0-262-02180-7 6357:978-0-7503-0705-5 6143:(11): 2960–2966. 5792:on 4 January 2019 5462:"Greenwald limit" 5229:10.1063/1.1873872 5070:(8000): 746–751. 5048:, pp. 15–18. 4974:. 24 October 2023 4517:(5218): 488–490. 4372:10.1063/1.1706104 4352:Physics of Fluids 3705:, pp. 36–38. 3598:978-966-1552-27-1 3522:. 8 February 2024 3448:(5218): 488–490. 3395:978-952-60-6189-4 3339:978-0-12-481851-4 3007:a development of 2243: 1998:bootstrap current 1954:mass spectrometer 1910:Advanced tokamaks 1770:not sustainable. 1622:Mikhail Gorbachev 1513:in its fuel mix. 1245:runaway electrons 1062:Nikita Khrushchev 979:adiabatic process 975:resistive heating 731:had selected the 694:Manhattan Project 649:Ernest Rutherford 432:spherical tokamak 424:Mikhail Gorbachev 221: 220: 213: 203: 202: 195: 177: 101: 100: 64: 8659: 8578: 8577: 8576: 8551: 8550: 8549: 8539: 8538: 8537: 8522: 8521: 8520: 8510: 8509: 8508: 8498: 8497: 8496: 8475: 8474: 8473: 8407: 8406: 8405: 8392: 8391: 8385: 8384: 8356: 8355: 8354: 8344: 8343: 8342: 8331:Magneto-inertial 8315: 8314: 8313: 8298: 8297: 8296: 8258: 8257: 8256: 8246: 8245: 8244: 8217: 8216: 8215: 8205: 8204: 8203: 8175: 8174: 8173: 8163: 8162: 8161: 8151: 8150: 8131: 8116: 8115: 8114: 8104: 8103: 8102: 8089:Wendelstein 7-AS 8082: 8081: 8080: 8054: 8053: 8052: 8042: 8041: 8040: 8017: 8016: 8015: 7980: 7979: 7978: 7965: 7964: 7934: 7933: 7932: 7922: 7921: 7920: 7910: 7909: 7908: 7898: 7897: 7896: 7876: 7875: 7874: 7859: 7858: 7857: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7833: 7818: 7817: 7816: 7806: 7805: 7804: 7783: 7782: 7781: 7771: 7770: 7769: 7759: 7758: 7757: 7750: 7735: 7734: 7733: 7718: 7717: 7716: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7657: 7647: 7646: 7645: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7583:Electric Tokamak 7559: 7558: 7557: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7506: 7505: 7497: 7496: 7486: 7485: 7367:Magnetized liner 7359:Magneto-inertial 7276:Levitated dipole 7171: 7170: 7160: 7159: 7130:Lawson criterion 7060: 7059: 7041: 7034: 7027: 7018: 7017: 7002: 7001: 6991: 6990: 6980: 6979: 6900: 6859:Levitated dipole 6820: 6813: 6806: 6797: 6796: 6786: 6784: 6782: 6769: 6747: 6735: 6643: 6641: 6629: 6610: 6592: 6566: 6556: 6546: 6533: 6514: 6495: 6474: 6461: 6455: 6445: 6433: 6422: 6405: 6384: 6372: 6361: 6332: 6320:Verma, Pranshu. 6318: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6292: 6286: 6285: 6275: 6243: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6232: 6226: 6220:. Archived from 6219: 6210: 6204: 6203: 6167: 6161: 6160: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6114:on 30 March 2019 6113: 6106: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6084: 6075:. Archived from 6069: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6044: 6038: 6037: 6032:. Archived from 6022: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6011: 6006:on 8 August 2016 6005: 5990: 5981: 5975: 5974: 5972: 5970: 5955: 5949: 5948: 5928: 5922: 5921: 5919: 5917: 5906: 5900: 5899: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5870:10.2172/10104897 5857: 5851: 5838: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5818:. Archived from 5808: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5788:. Archived from 5777: 5771: 5759: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5748: 5705: 5699: 5698: 5688: 5648: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5628:. Archived from 5622: 5616: 5615: 5610:. Archived from 5600: 5591: 5590: 5578: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5561: 5555:. Archived from 5554: 5546: 5540: 5539: 5507: 5501: 5500: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5368:(1): S836–S840. 5357: 5351: 5350: 5316: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5291: 5280: 5274: 5261: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5237: 5231:. Archived from 5206: 5197: 5186: 5180: 5174: 5168: 5162: 5161: 5151: 5145: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5103: 5055: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5005: 4990: 4984: 4983: 4981: 4979: 4968: 4962: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4921: 4915: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4883: 4877: 4876: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4845: 4839: 4833: 4827: 4821: 4812: 4806: 4797: 4791: 4785: 4779: 4770: 4769: 4758: 4749: 4743: 4737: 4731: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4604: 4603: 4577: 4568: 4562: 4561: 4549: 4543: 4542: 4531:10.1038/224488a0 4504: 4498: 4492: 4479: 4478: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4448: 4442: 4436: 4430: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4403: 4397: 4388: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4347: 4341: 4335: 4326: 4320: 4311: 4305: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4248: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4223: 4217: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4188:Arnoux, Robert. 4185: 4179: 4173: 4167: 4166: 4164: 4153: 4147: 4141: 4128: 4122: 4116: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4091: 4080: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4045: 4039:. Archived from 4034: 4025: 4014: 4013: 4001: 3990: 3984: 3967: 3961: 3955: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3931: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3906: 3900: 3894: 3885: 3879: 3864: 3858: 3847: 3841: 3832: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3793: 3784: 3778: 3772: 3763: 3753: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3733:. Archived from 3727: 3721: 3715: 3706: 3700: 3691: 3690: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3641: 3624:(853): 692–703. 3609: 3603: 3602: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3480: 3474: 3473: 3462:10.1038/224488a0 3437: 3431: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3319: 3313: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3274:. Archived from 3273: 3265: 3259: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3221:. Archived from 3204: 3198: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3179: 3158: 3155: 3149: 3142: 3136: 3121: 3091:Lawson criterion 3058: 3053: 3052: 3044: 3039: 3038: 3037: 2931:, United Kingdom 2895:, United Kingdom 2815:, United Kingdom 2683:, United Kingdom 2662:, United Kingdom 2648:, United Kingdom 2503:Saint Petersburg 2241: 1819:kink instability 1804: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1757:Tokamak solution 1681:British startup 1662:and MIT spinout 1291:stated that the 1084:Vitaly Shafranov 1066:Nikolai Bulganin 919:. In mid-April, 846:nuclear research 667:(100 keV). 564: 546: 545: 505: 483: 482: 459: 458: 291: 283: 282: 279: 278: 275: 272: 269: 266: 263: 260: 257: 216: 209: 198: 191: 187: 184: 178: 176: 135: 111: 103: 96: 93: 87: 75: 74: 67: 56: 34: 33: 26: 8667: 8666: 8662: 8661: 8660: 8658: 8657: 8656: 8622: 8621: 8620: 8611: 8589: 8574: 8572: 8557: 8547: 8545: 8535: 8533: 8518: 8516: 8506: 8504: 8494: 8492: 8481: 8471: 8469: 8458: 8403: 8401: 8379: 8372: 8352: 8350: 8340: 8338: 8321: 8311: 8309: 8294: 8292: 8281: 8254: 8252: 8242: 8240: 8223: 8213: 8211: 8201: 8199: 8186: 8171: 8169: 8159: 8157: 8136: 8125: 8112: 8110: 8100: 8098: 8094:Wendelstein 7-X 8078: 8076: 8065: 8050: 8048: 8038: 8036: 8029: 8023: 8013: 8011: 7976: 7974: 7950: 7930: 7928: 7918: 7916: 7906: 7904: 7894: 7892: 7872: 7870: 7855: 7853: 7838: 7836: 7827: 7814: 7812: 7802: 7800: 7789: 7779: 7777: 7767: 7765: 7755: 7753: 7744: 7731: 7729: 7714: 7712: 7675: 7673: 7666: 7660: 7651: 7643: 7641: 7626: 7624: 7555: 7553: 7543: 7541: 7530: 7491: 7480: 7469: 7427: 7404: 7376: 7353: 7281:Magnetic mirror 7257: 7244:Silicon-burning 7229:Lithium burning 7166: 7155: 7149: 7115:Nuclear reactor 7101: 7051: 7045: 7015: 7010: 7009: 6967: 6931: 6898: 6883: 6840: 6830: 6824: 6780: 6778: 6776:10.2172/4547512 6767: 6745: 6733: 6698:General Atomics 6694:Wayback Machine 6687:Fusion Programs 6661:Wayback Machine 6650: 6639: 6626: 6590:10.1.1.361.8023 6564: 6544: 6530: 6511: 6492: 6453: 6442: 6402: 6381: 6358: 6340: 6335: 6329:Wayback Machine 6319: 6315: 6305: 6303: 6301:BostonGlobe.com 6293: 6289: 6244: 6240: 6230: 6228: 6224: 6217: 6211: 6207: 6168: 6164: 6131: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6104: 6096: 6092: 6082: 6080: 6071: 6070: 6066: 6056: 6054: 6046: 6045: 6041: 6036:on 9 July 2015. 6024: 6023: 6019: 6009: 6007: 6003: 5988: 5982: 5978: 5968: 5966: 5956: 5952: 5929: 5925: 5915: 5913: 5908: 5907: 5903: 5890: 5889: 5885: 5858: 5854: 5848:Wayback Machine 5839: 5835: 5825: 5823: 5822:on 7 March 2010 5810: 5809: 5805: 5795: 5793: 5778: 5774: 5769:Wayback Machine 5760: 5756: 5746: 5744: 5706: 5702: 5649: 5645: 5635: 5633: 5624: 5623: 5619: 5602: 5601: 5594: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5563: 5559: 5552: 5548: 5547: 5543: 5508: 5504: 5477: 5473: 5460: 5459: 5455: 5428: 5424: 5393: 5389: 5358: 5354: 5314: 5308: 5304: 5296: 5289: 5281: 5277: 5271:Wayback Machine 5262: 5251: 5241: 5239: 5235: 5204: 5198: 5189: 5181: 5177: 5169: 5165: 5152: 5148: 5140: 5136: 5121: 5117: 5056: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5013: 5003: 5001: 4991: 4987: 4977: 4975: 4970: 4969: 4965: 4953: 4949: 4922: 4918: 4912:Wayback Machine 4903: 4899: 4884: 4880: 4865: 4861: 4846: 4842: 4834: 4830: 4822: 4815: 4807: 4800: 4792: 4788: 4780: 4773: 4760: 4759: 4752: 4744: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4720: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4687: 4679: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4655: 4648: 4640: 4636: 4628: 4624: 4616: 4607: 4580:Physical Review 4575: 4569: 4565: 4550: 4546: 4505: 4501: 4493: 4482: 4477:. No. 102. 4467: 4463: 4450: 4449: 4445: 4437: 4433: 4425: 4421: 4413: 4406: 4398: 4391: 4383: 4379: 4348: 4344: 4336: 4329: 4321: 4314: 4306: 4295: 4287: 4283: 4273: 4271: 4267: 4266: 4262: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4229: 4225: 4224: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4198: 4196: 4186: 4182: 4174: 4170: 4162: 4154: 4150: 4142: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4092: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4063: 4059: 4049: 4047: 4043: 4032: 4028:Cowley, Steve. 4026: 4017: 4002: 3993: 3985: 3970: 3962: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3938: 3934: 3926: 3922: 3907: 3903: 3895: 3888: 3880: 3867: 3859: 3850: 3842: 3835: 3827: 3823: 3791: 3785: 3781: 3773: 3766: 3754: 3750: 3740: 3738: 3729: 3728: 3724: 3716: 3709: 3701: 3694: 3667:Physical Review 3663: 3659: 3651: 3647: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3585: 3581: 3559: 3555: 3547:Merriam-Webster 3540: 3539: 3535: 3525: 3523: 3514: 3513: 3509: 3484:Evgeny Velikhov 3481: 3477: 3438: 3434: 3424: 3422: 3407: 3403: 3396: 3376: 3372: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3332:. p. 167. 3320: 3316: 3307:Wayback Machine 3295: 3291: 3281: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3266: 3262: 3252:Wayback Machine 3243:B.D.Bondarenko 3242: 3238: 3228: 3226: 3205: 3201: 3191: 3189: 3181: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3143: 3139: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3054: 3047: 3040: 3035: 3033: 3030: 2968: 2869:(IREQ) and the 2820:Novillo Tokamak 2690: 2575:, South Korea ( 2499:Ioffe Institute 2467:Wayback Machine 2306:General Atomics 2239: 2234: 2228: 2203: 2179: 2157: 2133: 2127: 2110: 2093: 2068: 2010: 1936:General Atomics 1912: 1892:alpha particles 1855: 1815: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1759: 1716: 1694: 1641: 1611:Leonid Brezhnev 1576: 1570: 1536:, publisher of 1506:superconducting 1491: 1479:1973 oil crisis 1433: 1387:General Atomics 1364: 1306: 1257: 1214: 1183:magnetic mirror 1166:Atoms for Peace 1162: 1145:Ioffe Institute 1093: 1040: 999:Lev Artsimovich 991: 983:Natan Yavlinsky 942: 930:Lev Artsimovich 874: 866:Lavrentiy Beria 798: 781:Andrei Sakharov 754:Oleg Lavrentiev 750: 637: 624: 616:Natan Yavlinsky 448:transliteration 440: 329:Andrei Sakharov 325:Oleg Lavrentiev 254: 250: 235:General Atomics 217: 206: 205: 204: 199: 188: 182: 179: 136: 134: 124: 112: 97: 91: 88: 85: 76: 72: 35: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8665: 8655: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8617: 8616: 8613: 8612: 8610: 8609: 8604: 8598: 8595: 8594: 8591: 8590: 8588: 8587: 8582: 8569: 8567: 8563: 8562: 8559: 8558: 8556: 8555: 8543: 8531: 8526: 8514: 8502: 8489: 8487: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8479: 8466: 8464: 8460: 8459: 8457: 8456: 8451: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8398: 8396: 8389: 8382: 8374: 8373: 8371: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8348: 8335: 8333: 8327: 8326: 8323: 8322: 8320: 8319: 8307: 8302: 8289: 8287: 8283: 8282: 8280: 8279: 8278: 8277: 8267: 8262: 8250: 8237: 8235: 8229: 8228: 8225: 8224: 8222: 8221: 8209: 8196: 8194: 8188: 8187: 8185: 8184: 8179: 8167: 8154: 8148: 8142: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8135: 8134: 8133: 8132: 8108: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8073: 8071: 8067: 8066: 8064: 8063: 8058: 8046: 8033: 8031: 8025: 8024: 8022: 8021: 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7971: 7969: 7962: 7956: 7955: 7952: 7951: 7949: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7926: 7914: 7902: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7868: 7863: 7851: 7846: 7834: 7822: 7810: 7797: 7795: 7791: 7790: 7788: 7787: 7775: 7763: 7751: 7739: 7727: 7722: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7694: 7693: 7683: 7670: 7668: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7658: 7639: 7634: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7606: 7605: 7600: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7574: 7573: 7563: 7551: 7538: 7536: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7512: 7510: 7503: 7494: 7483: 7475: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7467: 7462: 7460:Muon-catalyzed 7457: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7443:Colliding beam 7439: 7437: 7433: 7432: 7429: 7428: 7426: 7425: 7420: 7414: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7386: 7384: 7378: 7377: 7375: 7374: 7369: 7363: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7351: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7343: 7342: 7332: 7322: 7317: 7316: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7303:Reversed field 7300: 7290: 7289: 7288: 7278: 7273: 7267: 7265: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7239:Oxygen-burning 7236: 7231: 7226: 7224:Carbon-burning 7221: 7216: 7215: 7214: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7177: 7168: 7157: 7151: 7150: 7148: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7120:Atomic nucleus 7117: 7112: 7106: 7103: 7102: 7100: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7072:Burning plasma 7068: 7066: 7064:Nuclear fusion 7057: 7053: 7052: 7044: 7043: 7036: 7029: 7021: 7012: 7011: 7008: 7007: 6996: 6985: 6973: 6972: 6969: 6968: 6966: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6953:Muon-catalyzed 6950: 6945: 6939: 6937: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6913: 6912: 6902: 6893: 6891: 6885: 6884: 6882: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6850: 6848: 6842: 6841: 6835: 6832: 6831: 6823: 6822: 6815: 6808: 6800: 6794: 6793: 6787: 6760: 6754: 6742: 6730: 6724: 6718: 6712: 6706: 6701: 6684: 6677:Plasma Science 6674: 6668: 6649: 6648:External links 6646: 6645: 6644: 6630: 6624: 6611: 6569:Nuclear Fusion 6557: 6534: 6528: 6515: 6509: 6501:Plasma Physics 6496: 6490: 6475: 6462: 6446: 6440: 6423: 6406: 6400: 6385: 6379: 6362: 6356: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6333: 6313: 6287: 6252:Nuclear Fusion 6238: 6205: 6178:(3): 503–509. 6162: 6125: 6090: 6064: 6039: 6017: 5995:(in Spanish). 5993:Rev. Mex. Fís. 5976: 5950: 5923: 5901: 5883: 5852: 5833: 5803: 5772: 5754: 5700: 5657:Nuclear Fusion 5643: 5617: 5592: 5581:Vojtěch Kusý. 5573: 5541: 5502: 5471: 5453: 5442:(8): R27–R53. 5422: 5387: 5362:J. Nucl. Mater 5352: 5302: 5275: 5249: 5187: 5175: 5163: 5146: 5134: 5115: 5050: 5038: 5036:, p. 627. 5026: 5011: 4985: 4972:"Inauguration" 4963: 4947: 4916: 4897: 4878: 4859: 4840: 4838:, p. 215. 4828: 4813: 4798: 4796:, p. 175. 4786: 4784:, p. 173. 4771: 4750: 4748:, p. 212. 4738: 4736:, p. 171. 4726: 4724:, p. 169. 4714: 4712:, p. 168. 4702: 4700:, p. 165. 4685: 4683:, p. 164. 4673: 4671:, p. 159. 4661: 4659:, p. 158. 4646: 4644:, p. 154. 4634: 4632:, p. 152. 4622: 4620:, p. 161. 4605: 4586:(2): 230–238. 4563: 4544: 4499: 4497:, p. 167. 4480: 4461: 4443: 4441:, p. 172. 4431: 4429:, p. 166. 4419: 4417:, p. 151. 4404: 4402:, p. 153. 4389: 4387:, p. 130. 4377: 4342: 4327: 4325:, p. 842. 4323:Shafranov 2001 4312: 4293: 4281: 4260: 4235: 4218: 4214:Shafranov 2001 4206: 4180: 4168: 4148: 4146:, p. 841. 4144:Shafranov 2001 4129: 4127:, p. 240. 4125:Shafranov 2001 4117: 4105: 4081: 4069: 4065:Kadomtsev 1966 4057: 4015: 3991: 3989:, p. 840. 3987:Shafranov 2001 3968: 3956: 3944: 3932: 3920: 3901: 3886: 3884:, p. 839. 3882:Shafranov 2001 3865: 3863:, p. 838. 3861:Shafranov 2001 3848: 3833: 3831:, p. 837. 3829:Shafranov 2001 3821: 3779: 3777:, p. 873. 3775:Shafranov 2001 3764: 3748: 3737:on 29 May 2022 3722: 3707: 3692: 3657: 3645: 3604: 3597: 3579: 3568:(in Russian). 3553: 3550:. 6 July 2023. 3533: 3507: 3475: 3432: 3421:on 8 July 2019 3401: 3394: 3384:(PhD thesis). 3370: 3345: 3338: 3314: 3289: 3260: 3236: 3199: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3159: 3150: 3137: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3106: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3086:Plasma scaling 3079: 3077:Ball-pen probe 3074: 3068: 3061: 3060: 3059: 3045: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3024: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2962: 2947: 2932: 2921: 2910: 2903: 2896: 2885: 2874: 2853: 2838: 2831: 2816: 2805: 2794: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2770: 2767: 2760: 2757: 2750: 2743: 2732: 2725: 2718: 2689: 2686: 2685: 2684: 2673: 2663: 2656:Tokamak Energy 2654:2018: ST40 at 2652: 2649: 2642:Tokamak Energy 2638: 2628: 2609: 2595: 2580: 2565: 2551: 2532: 2521: 2506: 2491: 2481: 2470: 2469:in Switzerland 2444: 2434: 2429:(TCV), at the 2423: 2416: 2392: 2391: 2376: 2365: 2362:Czech Republic 2350: 2335: 2320: 2309: 2294: 2275: 2264:Czech Republic 2238: 2235: 2227: 2224: 2202: 2199: 2156: 2153: 2126: 2123: 2119:General Fusion 2109: 2106: 2092: 2089: 2067: 2066:Plasma heating 2064: 2009: 2006: 1911: 1908: 1854: 1853:, and ignition 1847: 1814: 1811: 1758: 1755: 1715: 1712: 1693: 1690: 1683:Tokamak Energy 1640: 1637: 1632:organization. 1588:fusion reactor 1572:Main article: 1569: 1566: 1542:Robert Bussard 1490: 1487: 1432: 1429: 1363: 1360: 1316:concept. Both 1305: 1302: 1256: 1253: 1213: 1210: 1198:Bohm diffusion 1161: 1158: 1149:St. Petersberg 1092: 1091:First tokamaks 1089: 1039: 1036: 990: 987: 954:hydrogen alpha 948:Red plasma in 941: 938: 921:Dmitri Efremov 898:Huemul Project 894:Ronald Richter 873: 870: 831:Igor Kurchatov 813:lines of force 797: 794: 749: 746: 725:United Kingdom 718:shaped charges 714:Stanislaw Ulam 636: 633: 623: 620: 614:нитная»), but 588:Igor Kurchatov 580: 579: 565: 547: 525: 524: 506: 484: 439: 436: 317:fusion reactor 294:magnetic field 219: 218: 201: 200: 115: 113: 106: 99: 98: 79: 77: 70: 65: 39: 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8664: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8629: 8627: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8599: 8596: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8571: 8570: 8568: 8564: 8554: 8544: 8542: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8515: 8513: 8503: 8501: 8491: 8490: 8488: 8484: 8478: 8468: 8467: 8465: 8461: 8455: 8452: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8400: 8399: 8397: 8393: 8390: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8375: 8369: 8368:Fusion Engine 8366: 8364: 8363:FRX-L – FRCHX 8361: 8359: 8349: 8347: 8337: 8336: 8334: 8332: 8328: 8318: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8291: 8290: 8288: 8284: 8276: 8273: 8272: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8251: 8249: 8239: 8238: 8236: 8234: 8230: 8220: 8210: 8208: 8198: 8197: 8195: 8193: 8189: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8168: 8166: 8156: 8155: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8143: 8129: 8124: 8121: 8120: 8119: 8109: 8107: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8075: 8074: 8072: 8068: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8047: 8045: 8035: 8034: 8032: 8026: 8020: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7973: 7972: 7970: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7957: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7927: 7925: 7915: 7913: 7903: 7901: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7861:ASDEX Upgrade 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7835: 7831: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7811: 7809: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7792: 7786: 7776: 7774: 7764: 7762: 7752: 7748: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7692: 7689: 7688: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7663: 7655: 7650: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7572: 7569: 7568: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7561:Alcator C-Mod 7552: 7550: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7533: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7513: 7511: 7509:International 7507: 7504: 7502: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7476: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7455:Metal lattice 7453: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7410:Electrostatic 7407: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7387: 7385: 7383: 7379: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7362: 7360: 7356: 7350: 7347: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7327: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7295: 7294: 7291: 7287: 7284: 7283: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7264: 7260: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7209: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7182:Alpha process 7180: 7178: 7176: 7175:Gravitational 7172: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7158: 7152: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7110:Nuclear power 7108: 7107: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7065: 7061: 7058: 7054: 7049: 7042: 7037: 7035: 7030: 7028: 7023: 7022: 7019: 7006: 6997: 6995: 6986: 6984: 6975: 6974: 6970: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6911: 6910:electrostatic 6908: 6907: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6890: 6886: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6833: 6829: 6821: 6816: 6814: 6809: 6807: 6802: 6801: 6798: 6791: 6788: 6777: 6773: 6766: 6761: 6758: 6755: 6752: 6748: 6743: 6740: 6736: 6731: 6728: 6725: 6722: 6719: 6716: 6713: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6688: 6685: 6682: 6678: 6675: 6672: 6669: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6638: 6637: 6631: 6627: 6621: 6617: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6575:(1): 014003. 6574: 6570: 6563: 6558: 6555:(8): 835–865. 6554: 6550: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6525: 6521: 6516: 6512: 6506: 6502: 6497: 6493: 6487: 6483: 6482: 6476: 6472: 6471:New Scientist 6468: 6463: 6459: 6452: 6447: 6443: 6437: 6432: 6431: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6407: 6403: 6397: 6394:. MIT Press. 6393: 6392: 6386: 6382: 6376: 6373:. MIT Press. 6371: 6370: 6363: 6359: 6353: 6349: 6348: 6342: 6341: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6317: 6302: 6298: 6291: 6283: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6258:(5): 053027. 6257: 6253: 6249: 6242: 6223: 6216: 6209: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6166: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6137: 6129: 6110: 6103: 6102: 6094: 6078: 6074: 6068: 6053: 6049: 6043: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6021: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5987: 5980: 5965: 5961: 5954: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5927: 5911: 5905: 5897: 5893: 5887: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5856: 5849: 5845: 5842: 5837: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5807: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5770: 5766: 5763: 5758: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5704: 5696: 5692: 5687: 5686:1721.1/147629 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5663:(4): 042024. 5662: 5658: 5654: 5647: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5599: 5597: 5588: 5584: 5577: 5558: 5551: 5545: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5506: 5498: 5494: 5491:(5): 055101. 5490: 5486: 5482: 5475: 5467: 5463: 5457: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5391: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5325:(8): 085013. 5324: 5320: 5313: 5306: 5295: 5288: 5287: 5279: 5272: 5268: 5265: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5254: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5215:(5): 056113. 5214: 5210: 5209:Phys. Plasmas 5203: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5185:, p. 26. 5184: 5179: 5173:, p. 22. 5172: 5167: 5159: 5158: 5150: 5144:, p. 20. 5143: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5047: 5042: 5035: 5034:Kenward 1979b 5030: 5024:, p. 13. 5023: 5018: 5016: 5000: 4996: 4989: 4973: 4967: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4920: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4901: 4893: 4889: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4837: 4836:Bromberg 1982 4832: 4826:, p. 10. 4825: 4824:Bromberg 1982 4820: 4818: 4810: 4805: 4803: 4795: 4794:Bromberg 1982 4790: 4783: 4782:Bromberg 1982 4778: 4776: 4767: 4763: 4757: 4755: 4747: 4746:Bromberg 1982 4742: 4735: 4734:Bromberg 1982 4730: 4723: 4722:Bromberg 1982 4718: 4711: 4710:Bromberg 1982 4706: 4699: 4698:Bromberg 1982 4694: 4692: 4690: 4682: 4681:Bromberg 1982 4677: 4670: 4669:Bromberg 1982 4665: 4658: 4657:Bromberg 1982 4653: 4651: 4643: 4642:Bromberg 1982 4638: 4631: 4630:Bromberg 1982 4626: 4619: 4618:Bromberg 1982 4614: 4612: 4610: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4574: 4567: 4559: 4558:New Scientist 4555: 4548: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4511: 4503: 4496: 4495:Bromberg 1982 4491: 4489: 4487: 4485: 4476: 4475:ITER Newsline 4472: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4440: 4439:Bromberg 1982 4435: 4428: 4427:Bromberg 1982 4423: 4416: 4415:Bromberg 1982 4411: 4409: 4401: 4400:Bromberg 1982 4396: 4394: 4386: 4385:Bromberg 1982 4381: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4340:, p. 66. 4339: 4338:Bromberg 1982 4334: 4332: 4324: 4319: 4317: 4309: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4298: 4291:, p. 53. 4290: 4285: 4270: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4239: 4228: 4222: 4215: 4210: 4195: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4172: 4161: 4160: 4152: 4145: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4126: 4121: 4115:, p. 70. 4114: 4113:Bromberg 1982 4109: 4101: 4097: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4079:, p. 48. 4078: 4073: 4066: 4061: 4042: 4038: 4031: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4011: 4010:New Scientist 4007: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3988: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3966:, p. 25. 3965: 3964:Bromberg 1982 3960: 3954:, p. 21. 3953: 3952:Bromberg 1982 3948: 3942:, p. 14. 3941: 3940:Bromberg 1982 3936: 3930:, p. 75. 3929: 3928:Bromberg 1982 3924: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3899:, p. 16. 3898: 3897:Bromberg 1982 3893: 3891: 3883: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3862: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3846:, p. 15. 3845: 3844:Bromberg 1982 3840: 3838: 3830: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3783: 3776: 3771: 3769: 3761: 3757: 3752: 3736: 3732: 3726: 3720:, p. 18. 3719: 3718:Bromberg 1982 3714: 3712: 3704: 3699: 3697: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3655:, p. 35. 3654: 3649: 3640: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3600: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3562:V.D.Shafranov 3557: 3549: 3548: 3543: 3537: 3521: 3520:www.bbc.co.uk 3517: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3436: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3397: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3382: 3374: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3357: 3349: 3341: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3326: 3318: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3293: 3277: 3270: 3264: 3258:, 886 (2001). 3257: 3253: 3249: 3246: 3240: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3210: 3203: 3188: 3184: 3178: 3174: 3154: 3147: 3141: 3134: 3133:Robert Cornog 3130: 3126: 3120: 3116: 3104: 3101: 3099:, inc beta, Q 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3062: 3057: 3056:Energy portal 3051: 3046: 3043: 3032: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2972: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2936:Alcator C-Mod 2933: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2908: 2904: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2872: 2868: 2867: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2792: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2751: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2730: 2729:Stellarator C 2726: 2723: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2671: 2668: 2664: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2630:2012: IR-T1, 2629: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2468: 2464: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2443: 2442:New York City 2439: 2435: 2433:, Switzerland 2432: 2428: 2424: 2421: 2417: 2414: 2410: 2409:ASDEX Upgrade 2406: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2256: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2233: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2213: 2207: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2178: 2174: 2166: 2161: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2122: 2120: 2114: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2088: 2086: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2063: 2059: 2057: 2052: 2048: 2046: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1986:shaped plasma 1982: 1979: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1950: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1916: 1907: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1852: 1846: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1831: 1827: 1826:banana orbits 1822: 1820: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1778: 1777:safety factor 1771: 1768: 1764: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1729:Lorentz force 1725: 1721: 1714:Basic problem 1706: 1698: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1645:FIRE, IGNITOR 1636: 1633: 1631: 1626: 1623: 1619: 1618:Geneva Summit 1614: 1612: 1608: 1607:Richard Nixon 1603: 1601: 1598:declared the 1597: 1596:Ronald Reagan 1589: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1565: 1561: 1559: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1530: 1528: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1512: 1507: 1499: 1495: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1471:Robert Hirsch 1467: 1463: 1461: 1456: 1454: 1449: 1447: 1437: 1428: 1426: 1420: 1417: 1411: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1392: 1391:Tihiro Ohkawa 1388: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1359: 1357: 1356: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1341:Herman Postma 1337: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1301: 1299: 1294: 1290: 1284: 1282: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1240: 1238: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1222: 1220: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1184: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1106: 1105:safety factor 1100: 1097: 1088: 1085: 1081: 1078: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1057: 1050: 1044: 1035: 1031: 1029: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1003: 1000: 996: 986: 984: 980: 976: 970: 966: 964: 955: 951: 946: 937: 935: 934:Joseph Stalin 931: 927: 922: 918: 913: 911: 907: 906:Lyman Spitzer 901: 899: 895: 891: 883: 878: 869: 867: 862: 860: 856: 852: 847: 843: 838: 836: 832: 828: 823: 821: 816: 814: 809: 807: 803: 793: 791: 785: 782: 777: 775: 774:electrostatic 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 745: 743: 739: 734: 730: 726: 721: 719: 715: 711: 710:James L. Tuck 707: 703: 702:hydrogen bomb 699: 695: 690: 687: 683: 682: 681:thermonuclear 676: 673: 672:cross section 668: 666: 665:electronvolts 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 641:Mark Oliphant 628: 619: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 577: 573: 569: 566: 563: 561: 557: 553: 548: 543: 539: 535: 530: 529: 528: 522: 518: 514: 510: 507: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 485: 480: 476: 472: 468: 463: 462: 461: 453: 449: 445: 435: 433: 429: 425: 421: 420:Ronald Reagan 415: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 384: 382: 378: 374: 373:safety factor 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 345: 344:Lyman Spitzer 340: 336: 334: 330: 326: 320: 318: 314: 311: 310:thermonuclear 307: 303: 299: 295: 287: 281: 248: 240: 236: 232: 227: 223: 215: 212: 197: 194: 186: 175: 172: 168: 165: 161: 158: 154: 151: 147: 144: – 143: 139: 138:Find sources: 132: 128: 122: 121: 116:This article 114: 110: 105: 104: 95: 92:February 2022 83: 78: 69: 68: 63: 61: 54: 53: 48: 47: 42: 37: 28: 27: 22: 8165:Perhapsatron 7500: 7465:Pyroelectric 7395:Laser-driven 7324: 7234:Neon-burning 7202:Helium flash 7048:Fusion power 6963:Pyroelectric 6917:Laser-driven 6878: 6781:30 September 6779:. 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Retrieved 3186: 3177: 3153: 3140: 3129:Luis Alvarez 3119: 2898:1990s–2001: 2870: 2864: 2861:Hydro-Québec 2677:MAST Upgrade 2538:(HT-7U), in 2291:Soviet Union 2240: 2220: 2216: 2208: 2204: 2180: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2134: 2115: 2111: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2069: 2062:understood. 2060: 2053: 2049: 2041: 2026: 2022: 2014:milliseconds 2011: 2003: 1996: 1994: 1983: 1974: 1969: 1966:heavy metals 1962: 1947: 1944: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1917: 1913: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1879: 1877: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1858: 1856: 1850: 1835: 1823: 1816: 1813:Other issues 1807: 1800: 1785: 1781: 1775: 1772: 1760: 1744: 1733: 1717: 1687: 1680: 1653: 1642: 1634: 1627: 1615: 1604: 1593: 1562: 1554: 1534:Bob Guccione 1531: 1515: 1503: 1468: 1464: 1457: 1450: 1442: 1421: 1416:Harold Furth 1412: 1408: 1384: 1365: 1355:aspect ratio 1353: 1338: 1326: 1307: 1297: 1285: 1280: 1277: 1258: 1241: 1234: 1223: 1215: 1206: 1202: 1187: 1179: 1175: 1163: 1154: 1140: 1138: 1134:Stalin Prize 1126: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1094: 1082: 1074: 1058: 1054: 1049:DIDO reactor 1032: 1024: 1010: 1006: 1004: 992: 971: 967: 959: 914: 902: 887: 863: 839: 835:Igor Golovin 824: 817: 810: 799: 786: 778: 751: 733:pinch effect 722: 705: 691: 686:Enrico Fermi 679: 677: 669: 645:Paul Harteck 638: 611: 607: 603: 595: 591: 584:Igor Golovin 581: 575: 571: 567: 559: 555: 554:roidal'naya 551: 541: 537: 533: 526: 520: 516: 512: 508: 500: 496: 492: 491:roidal'naya 488: 478: 474: 470: 466: 443: 441: 416: 385: 380: 376: 341: 337: 321: 313:fusion power 246: 244: 222: 207: 189: 180: 170: 163: 156: 149: 137: 125:Please help 120:verification 117: 89: 81: 57: 50: 44: 43:Please help 40: 8380:confinement 8126: [ 8056:Heliotron J 7960:Stellarator 7828: [ 7745: [ 7652: [ 7492:confinement 7481:experiments 7436:Other forms 7320:Stellarator 7286:Bumpy torus 7164:Confinement 7056:Core topics 6874:Stellarator 6838:confinement 5826:24 February 5720:(10): 773. 5183:Wesson 1999 5171:Wesson 1999 5142:Wesson 1999 5046:Wesson 1999 5022:Wesson 1999 4957:, pp. 4456:WalesOnline 4289:Herman 1990 3756:Herman 1990 3192:15 December 2949:1995–2013: 2934:1992–2016: 2923:1999–2014: 2918:Los Angeles 2912:1999–2006: 2887:1991–1998: 2876:1988–2005: 2840:1985–2010: 2828:Mexico City 2818:1983–2000: 2807:1983–2023: 2796:1982–1997: 2772:1978–2013: 2752:1973–1976: 2734:1971–1980: 2617:Gandhinagar 1958:stellarator 1849:Breakeven, 1763:stellarator 1747:barber pole 1676:fusion gain 1616:During the 1372:Bruno Coppi 1349:transformer 1255:Culham Five 1237:Novosibirsk 1168:meeting in 1130:Lenin Prize 1070:RAF Harwell 1028:diamagnetic 989:Instability 910:stellarator 770:atomic bomb 698:atomic bomb 692:During the 635:First steps 606:роидальная 536:роидальная 469:роидальная 369:stellarator 8626:Categories 7400:Ion-driven 7154:Processes, 7097:Aneutronic 7092:Commercial 6899:(acoustic) 6711:at MIT OCW 5864:(Thesis). 5796:31 January 5762:Tore Supra 5636:14 January 5466:FusionWiki 4762:"Timeline" 4358:(4): 659. 4274:6 November 4199:6 November 4077:Clery 2014 3802:(8): 844. 3758:, p. 3673:(6): 613. 3526:8 February 3297:V.Reshetov 3187:Energy.gov 3165:References 3019:(PSFC) in 2811:(JET), in 2745:1972: The 2607:Costa Rica 2390:, Portugal 2324:Tore Supra 2230:See also: 2171:See also: 2129:See also: 1780:, denoted 1647:, and the 1546:Riggs Bank 1304:US turmoil 1249:Maxwellian 1219:Bohm limit 1190:David Bohm 1112:, and the 890:Juan Perón 706:controlled 515:mber with 410:(JET) and 375:(labelled 153:newspapers 46:improve it 8647:Deuterium 8585:Z machine 8566:Non-laser 8477:GEKKO XII 8429:Long path 8123:Uragan-3M 8118:Uragan-2M 7615:Riggatron 7335:Spheromak 7330:Spherical 7254:S-process 7249:R-process 7192:CNO cycle 6869:Spheromak 6826:Types of 6585:CiteSeerX 6419:QC791.D64 6282:0029-5515 6231:17 August 6118:17 August 5910:"Tokamak" 5878:117710767 5742:123466788 5695:244608556 5566:9 October 5536:0031-9007 5242:5 January 5092:1476-4687 5004:1 January 4999:New Atlas 4978:1 January 4942:0096-3402 3816:250885028 3796:Phys. Usp 3542:"Tokamak" 3170:Citations 2984:Cadarache 2953:, at the 2944:Cambridge 2822:, at the 2780:, Germany 2623:, India ( 2619:, at the 2601:, at the 2590:, Japan ( 2546:, China ( 2542:, at The 2518:São Paulo 2456:São Paulo 2450:, at the 2415:, Germany 2382:, at the 2345:(IPR) in 2332:Cadarache 2302:San Diego 2187:klystrons 2183:gyrotrons 2072:deuterium 1884:deuterium 1860:breakeven 1751:candycane 1724:electrons 1709:overlaid. 1550:Riggatron 1485:systems. 1333:Oak Ridge 1314:multipole 1269:Bas Pease 940:New ideas 926:Kurchatov 827:Igor Tamm 802:electrons 790:Igor Tamm 756:, then a 752:In 1950, 657:deuterium 655:to shoot 639:In 1934, 574:ber with 503:atushkami 499:gnitnymi 442:The word 438:Etymology 400:deuterium 355:requires 333:Igor Tamm 183:June 2024 142:"Tokamak" 52:talk page 8642:Tokamaks 8529:LULI2000 8395:Americas 8378:Inertial 7968:Americas 7535:Americas 7490:Magnetic 7479:Devices, 7423:Polywell 7382:Inertial 7263:Magnetic 7212:remnants 7077:Timeline 6958:Polywell 6889:Inertial 6846:Magnetic 6690:Archived 6657:Archived 6616:Tokamaks 6607:17487157 6540:(2001). 6325:Archived 6200:24159256 5896:wisc.edu 5844:Archived 5765:Archived 5747:27 April 5347:17071617 5267:Archived 5110:38383624 5101:10881383 4908:Archived 3486:(2004). 3386:Helsinki 3303:Archived 3248:Archived 3135:in 1939. 3028:See also 2857:Varennes 2830:, Mexico 2561:, JAPAN 2520:, Brazil 2505:, Russia 2495:Globus-M 2463:Archived 2413:Garching 2373:Frascati 2334:, France 2212:neutrons 2121:design. 1949:divertor 1896:ignition 1871:of 1. 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