Thirty Years' War - Knowledge

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commanders were forced to stay close to rivers, then the primary means of bulk transportation, and could not move too far from their main bases. Many historians argue feeding the troops became an objective in itself, unconnected to diplomatic goals and largely uncontrolled by their central governments. The result was "armies increasingly devoid of intelligible political objectives...degenerating into travelling armed mobs, living in a symbiotic relationship with the countryside they passed through". This often conflicted with the political aims of their employers; the devastation inflicted in 1628 and 1629 by Imperial troops on Brandenburg and Saxony, both nominally their allies, was a major factor in their subsequent support for Swedish intervention.

1150: 1138: 1116: 1104: 1082: 1060: 976: 954: 942: 930: 918: 898: 886: 874: 496: 364: 5530: 3667: 799: 787: 4948:, French commander in the Rhineland, and Wrangel, who had replaced Torstensson, the French and Swedes separately invaded Bavaria in the summer of 1646. Maximilian was soon desperate to end the war he was largely responsible for starting, at which point the Spanish publicised a secret offer by Mazarin to exchange French-occupied Catalonia for the Spanish Netherlands. Angered by this duplicity, the Dutch agreed a truce with Spain in January 1647 and began to negotiate their own peace terms. Having failed to acquire the Netherlands through diplomacy, Mazarin decided to do so by force. To free up resources for the attempt, on 14 March 1647 he signed the 522: 292: 1048: 390: 14082: 6104:, Westphalia changed the relationship between subjects and their rulers. Previously, many had overlapping, sometimes conflicting, political and religious allegiances; they were now understood to be subject first and foremost to the laws and edicts of their respective state authority, not the claims of any other entity, religious or secular. This made it easier to levy national forces of significant size, loyal to their state and its leader; one lesson learned from Wallenstein and the Swedish invasion was the need for their own permanent armies, and Germany as a whole became a far more militarised society. 768: 744: 725: 240: 832: 6284: 3750: 677: 665: 653: 641: 629: 5022: 856: 328: 14712: 431: 4360: 4168: 822: 4480: 5236: 404: 3479: 811: 5865: 844: 264: 5613:, who regarded the bishoprics ceded to France and Brandenburg as property of the Catholic church, and thus his to assign. It also disappointed many exiles by accepting Catholicism as the dominant religion in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, all of which were Protestant strongholds prior to 1618. Fighting did not end immediately, since demobilising over 200,000 soldiers was a complex business, and the last Swedish garrison did not leave Germany until 1654. In addition, Mazarin insisted on excluding the 5355: 1036: 1024: 1012: 1000: 988: 509: 377: 617: 605: 593: 581: 569: 549: 445: 228: 5789: 341: 4866: 4080: 3310: 5472: 61: 4238: 4118:, which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny the existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an Imperial 4002: 3369: 3455:. Four of the electors were Catholic, and three were Protestant; if this balance changed, it would potentially result in the election of a Protestant emperor. When Ferdinand became king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the predominantly Protestant nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. These factors combined to bring about the 3548:, where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for the resources needed to achieve this. 4294: 5922:

reasons for this. When the war ended in 1648, the Franco-Swedish alliance still had over 84,000 men under arms on Imperial territory, their opponents around 77,000. While relatively small in contemporary terms, such numbers were unprecedented at the time. With the possible exception of Spain, the 17th century state could not support armies of this size, forcing them to depend on "contributions" levied or extorted from areas they passed through.

252: 775: 756: 732: 5285:. The Spanish quickly crushed the insurrection and restored their rule over all of southern Italy, defeating multiple French expeditionary forces sent to back the rebels. However, it exposed the weakness of Spanish rule in Italy and the alienation of the local elites from Madrid; in 1650, the governor of Milan wrote that as well as widespread dissatisfaction in the south, the only one of the Italian states that could be relied on was the 305: 215: 14700: 14094: 472: 316: 6077: 713: 701: 689: 6089: 5943: 5829:, overall it accelerated existing changes in trading patterns. It does not appear to have reversed ongoing macro-economic trends, such as the reduction of price differentials between regional markets, and a greater degree of market integration across Europe. The death toll may have improved living standards for the survivors; one study shows wages in Germany increased by 40% in real terms between 1603 and 1652. 3799: 458: 277: 4571: 4613: 4501: 3883: 4767: 4557: 4487: 3785: 5029: 4753: 4725: 4655: 4529: 5764:(5%). Although regular outbreaks of disease were common for decades prior to 1618, the conflict greatly accelerated their spread, due to the influx of soldiers from foreign countries, the shifting locations of battle fronts and displacement of rural populations into already crowded cities. This was not restricted to Germany; disease carried by French and Imperial soldiers allegedly sparked the 4641: 4515: 3813: 3771: 5113: 4781: 4739: 4599: 4543: 4711: 4669: 4585: 3827: 3619: 5071: 5057: 4697: 4683: 4627: 3869: 3855: 3841: 3757: 5099: 5085: 5043: 3663:. Many Protestant rulers had supported Ferdinand against Frederick because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia. On the same grounds, they viewed Frederick's removal as an infringement of "German liberties", while for Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire. 6112:. While this provided both seats and influence in the Imperial Diet, it also brought Sweden into direct conflict with Brandenburg-Prussia and Saxony, their competitors in Pomerania. The income from their German possessions was relatively minor, and although parts of Pomerania remained Swedish until 1815, much of it was ceded to Prussia in 1679 and 1720. 3155:, which was viewed with hostility by both Lutherans and Catholics. The Peace of Augsburg also gave individual rulers within the empire greater political autonomy and control over the religion practised in their domains, while weakening central authority. Conflict over economic and political objectives frequently superseded religion, with Lutheran 5939:, Bavaria and Brandenburg. Soldiers devastated one area before moving on, leaving large tracts of land empty of people and changing the ecosystem. Food shortages were worsened by an explosion in the rodent population, while Bavaria was overrun by wolves in the winter of 1638, and its crops destroyed by packs of wild pigs the following spring. 4111:, and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for a return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618. 4305:, where both sides suffered heavy casualties; Gustavus himself was killed, while some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%. Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded. Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed. 4839:, by 1643 the Saxon army had been reduced to a few isolated garrisons. While Ferdinand accepted a military solution was no longer possible, by fighting on he hoped to prevent the Imperial Estates joining his peace negotiations with France and Sweden, thus preserving his authority by allowing him to represent the Empire as a whole. 5514:

religious changes to the Empire itself. Since they required changes to the structure and governance of the Empire, these negotiations were complex, with states like Saxony and Bavaria having very different views on desired outcomes. Ferdinand finally signed the Peace on 24 October, after a crushing French victory over Spain at

4916:, in which both sides suffered heavy casualties. Convinced the war could no longer be won, Maximilian now put pressure on Ferdinand to end the conflict. Shortly after peace talks restarted in November, Gallas' Imperial army disintegrated and the remnants retreated into Bohemia, where they were scattered by Torstensson at 9000: 4356:; in return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues were dissolved and replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict. 6225:, when it was at its maximum strength; these are Reported numbers, so as mentioned elsewhere, the actual number of soldiers would have been considerably lower. The Spanish army officially had more than 200,000 soldiers in 1640, but most were second line troops in garrisons elsewhere in Europe, not facing the Dutch. 4378:, France joined the Thirty Years War as an ally of Sweden, whose loss of most of the territories gained by Gustavus and their taxes made it increasingly reliant on French financing. The Spanish then invaded Northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat. A Swedish army under 5278:. One of the most famous military events of the 17th century, at one stage it featured no less than three different armies besieging each other. However, the revolts in Portugal and Catalonia forced the Spanish to cease operations in Italy and the war was settled on terms favourable to Christine and France. 5224:, whose success forced the Spanish-Savoyard alliance to withdraw from Casale and sign the Treaty of Cherasco in April 1631. Nevers was confirmed as Duke of Mantua and although Richelieu's representative, Cardinal Mazarin, agreed to evacuate Pinerolo, it was later secretly returned under an agreement with 3709:, while the Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including 6194:

These figures show numbers "In Service of", rather than ethnicity, since all armies were multinational. An estimated 60,000 Scottish, English or Irish individuals fought on one side or the other during the period, while a high proportion were German. Based on an analysis of a mass grave discovered in

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The Peace reconfirmed "German liberties", ending Habsburg attempts to convert the Holy Roman Empire into a more centralised state similar to Spain. Over the next 50 years, Bavaria, Brandenburg-Prussia, Saxony and others increasingly pursued their own policies, while Sweden gained a permanent foothold

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Obtaining supplies thus became the limiting factor in campaign planning, an issue that grew more acute later in the war when much of the Empire had already been fought over. Even when adequate provisions could be gathered, the next problem was getting them to the troops; to ensure security of supply,

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claims most campaigns were "inconclusive" and almost exclusively concerned with control of territory, rather than focused strategic objectives. The lack of connection between military and diplomatic goals helps explain why the war lasted so long and why peace proved so elusive. There were a number of

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in pre and post-war populations, or 'total demographic loss'. They therefore include factors unrelated to death or disease, such as permanent migration to areas outside the Empire or lower birthrates, a common but less obvious impact of extended warfare. There were also wide regional variations; some

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Key elements of the Peace were provisions confirming the autonomy of states within the Empire, including Ferdinand's acceptance of the supremacy of the Imperial Diet, and those seeking to prevent future religious conflict. Article 5 reconfirmed the Augsburg settlement, established 1624 as the basis,

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The terms of the separate treaties with France and Sweden had first to be agreed by Ferdinand and the Imperial Estates. It has been argued they were a "major turning point in German and European...legal history", because they went beyond normal peace settlements and effected major constitutional and

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The first to be signed on 30 January 1648, the Peace of Münster forms part of the Westphalia settlement since the Dutch Republic was still considered Imperial territory. Although it officially confirmed Dutch independence, the Imperial Diet did not formally accept it was no longer part of the Empire

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At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from the Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate

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agreed to support Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against the Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who

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It has been suggested the breakdown of social order caused by the war was often more significant and longer lasting than the immediate damage. The collapse of local government created landless peasants, who banded together to protect themselves from the soldiers of both sides, and led to widespread

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while under attack, as well as the use of standardised weapons. The first half of the 17th century saw the publication of numerous instruction manuals showing the movements required, thirty-two for pikemen and forty-two for musketeers. Training an infantryman to operate in this way was estimated as

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of between 30 to 40%, although this was not evenly spread. It fell from between 18 and 20 million in 1600, to between 11 and 13 million in 1650, and did not regain pre-war levels until 1750. Nearly 50% of these losses appear to have been incurred during the first period of Swedish intervention from

5772:", it resulted in some 280,000 deaths, with higher estimates of around 1 million. Poor harvests throughout the 1630s and repeated plundering of the same areas led to widespread famine; contemporaries record people eating grass, or too weak to accept alms, while instances of cannibalism were common. 5204:

and the Alpine passes into Southern France. However, as soon as the main French army withdrew in late 1629, the Spanish and Savoyards besieged Casale once again. At the same time, the Spanish employed mercenaries paid for by Ferdinand II in an offensive which routed the main Venetian field army and

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However, Condé was unable to fully exploit his victory due to factors affecting all combatants. The devastation inflicted by 25 years of warfare meant armies spent more time foraging than fighting, forcing them to become smaller and more mobile, with a much greater emphasis on cavalry. Difficulties

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whose capital was under siege by Tilly. Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to

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France arguably gained more from the conflict than any other power, and by 1648, most of Richelieu's objectives had been achieved. These included separation of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, expansion of the French frontier into the Empire, and an end to Spanish military supremacy in Northern

5998:. However, the extent to which they were symptomatic of the impact of the conflict on society is debatable, since many took place in areas relatively untouched by the war. Concerned their brutality would discredit the Counter-Reformation, Ferdinand ensured active persecution largely ended by 1630. 5800:

published a detailed analysis of regional data from across Germany covering the period from 1618 to 1648. Broadly confirmed by more recent work, he concluded "about 40% of the rural population fell victim to the war and epidemics; in the cities,...33%". These figures can be misleading, since Franz

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between 1621 and 1639, 215 are recorded as dead or missing, while another five returned home crippled. Aggregating figures from known battles and sieges, historian Peter Wilson estimates those either killed or wounded in combat totalled around 450,000. Since research shows disease either killed or

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Battles generally featured armies of around 13,000 to 20,000 each, one of the largest being Alte Veste in 1632 with a combined 70,000 to 85,000. Estimates of the total deployed by both sides within Germany range from an average of 80,000 to 100,000 from 1618 to 1626, peaking at 250,000 in 1632 and

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However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing a legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant

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On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted the Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject

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between Spain and the Dutch Republic, the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Empire and Sweden, plus the Treaty of Münster between the Empire and France. Preliminary discussions began in 1642 but only became serious in 1646; a total of 109 delegations attended at one time or other, with talks split

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Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder the lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In

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elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in the empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the

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Suggestions of up to 12 million deaths from a population of 18 million are no longer considered accurate. In addition, upper estimates of material losses are not supported by contemporary evidence, or in some cases exceed prewar tax records. Regardless, modern commentators agree the war was a

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six months, although in reality many went into battle with far less experience. It also placed greater responsibility on junior officers who provided the vital links between senior commanders and the tactical unit. One of the first military schools designed to produce such men was set up at

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in Britain may partly be due to the reliance of all sides on foreign mercenaries, often unpaid and required to live off the land. Lack of a sense of 'shared community' resulted in atrocities such as the destruction of Magdeburg, in turn creating large numbers of refugees who were extremely

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in August completed military operations. However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories.

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Schmidt, Burghart; Richefort, Isabelle (2006). "Les relations entre la France et les villes hanséatiques de Hambourg, Brême et Lübeck : Moyen Age-XIXe siècle; Relations between France and the Hanseatic ports of Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck from the Middle Ages to the 19th century".

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While the death of Gustavus was greeted with dismay by most European Protestants, Richelieu was more ambivalent. The two were increasingly at odds over strategic objectives, and contemporary rumours claimed Richelieu was involved in the king's death, although there is no evidence for

4320:. Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb. 4323:

The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Emperor Ferdinand reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria.

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required the immediate restoration of all property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby the court ruled case by case. This demand threatened all Protestants, paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of Imperial neutrality.

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Contemporaries spoke of a 'frenzy of despair' as people sought to make sense of the relentless and often random bloodshed unleashed by the war. Attributed by religious authorities to divine retribution for sin, attempts to identify a supernatural cause led to a series of

5334:. However, the rebels soon found the new French administration differed little from the old, turning the war into a three-sided contest between the Franco-Catalan elite, the rural peasantry, and the Spanish. There was little serious fighting after France took control of 3509:, but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of the Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by 4874:

in gathering provisions meant campaigns started later, and restricted them to areas that could be easily supplied, usually close to rivers. In addition, the French had to rebuild their army in Germany after it was shattered by an Imperial-Bavarian force led by

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Wilson estimates a total of 450,000 combat deaths on all sides, the vast majority of whom were German. By one calculation, four times as many Germans died fighting for Sweden as Swedes, and so casualties are referred to as being "In service", rather than by

5861:. He also enhanced their firepower by providing each unit with quick-firing light artillery pieces on either flank. The best example of their tactical application was in the victory over Tilly's traditionally organised army at Breitenfeld in September 1631. 3575:

was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs.

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being one of many to use it in their work. Variously known as the 'Great German War,' 'Great War' or 'Great Schism', for 19th and early 20th century German nationalists it showed the dangers of a divided Germany and was used to justify the creation of the

3502:. Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised the dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives. 10222:

Pazos, Conde Miguel (2011). "El tradado de Nápoles. El encierro del príncipe Juan Casimiro y la leva de Polacos de Medina de las Torres (1638–1642): The Treaty of Naples; the imprisonment of John Casimir and the Polish Levy of Medina de las Torres".

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refused to comply with the truce. Although the mutinies were quickly suppressed, Maximilian felt obliged to follow Werth's example and in September ordered Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld to combine the remnants of the Bavarian army with Imperial troops under

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regained the Lower Palatinate and became the eighth Imperial elector, although Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and its electoral vote. Externally, Spain acknowledged the independence of the Dutch Republic, while the Emperor confirmed that of the

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Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. These included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic

6285: 5406:, which exported sugar and tobacco to Europe. Known by Dutch historians as the 'Great Design", control of this trade would not only be extremely profitable but also deprive the Spanish of funds needed to finance their war in the Netherlands. 4198:

between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income.

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After Bernard died in July 1639, his troops joined Banér's Swedish army on an ineffectual campaign along the Weser, the highlight being a surprise attack in January 1641 on the Imperial Diet in Regensburg. Forced to retreat, Banér reached

5151:. This reliance on long exterior lines of communication was a strategic weakness, which the French sought to exploit by disrupting the Road. This usually involved attacks on the Spanish-held Duchy of Milan, or blocking the Alpine passes. 6001:

Although the war caused immense destruction, it has also been credited with sparking a revival in German literature, including the creation of societies dedicated to "purging of foreign elements" from the German language. One example is

5259:. However, the anti-Habsburg alliance in Northern Italy fell apart when first Charles of Mantua died in September 1637, then Victor Amadeus in October, whose death led to a struggle for control of the Savoyard state between his widow 4102:

and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state.

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in the Empire. Despite these setbacks, the Habsburg lands suffered less from the war than many others and became a far more coherent bloc with the absorption of Bohemia, and restoration of Catholicism throughout their territories.

3361:, the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire. Some historians who see the war as primarily a European conflict argue Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the 3615:, for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions. 5205:

forced Nevers to abandon Mantua. By October 1630, the French position seemed so precarious their representatives agreed the Treaty of Ratisbon, but it was never ratified as Richelieu claimed he had never approved the terms.

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Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included

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as shock troops. He also used columns on occasion, including the failed assault at Alte Veste in September 1632. The line versus column debate continued into the early 19th century, and both were employed during the

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For Sweden, the benefits ultimately proved short-lived. Unlike French gains which were incorporated into France, Swedish territories remained part of the Empire, and they became members of the Lower and Upper Saxon

6131:. The war created the outlines of a Europe that persisted until 1815 and beyond, most significantly the nation-state of France, along with the start of a split between Germany and a separate Austro-Hungarian bloc. 3261:. Although these links meant the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs often worked together, their objectives did not always align. Spain was a global maritime superpower, whose possessions stretched from Europe to the 3150:

These agreements were undermined by the post-1555 expansion of Protestantism into areas previously designated as Catholic. Another factor was the growth of Protestant faiths not recognised by Augsburg, especially

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Loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies; outside travellers often commented on the growing militarisation of Germany in this period. In 1608,

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gave them and other foreign powers an ongoing motive to intervene. Combined with fears the Protestant religion in general was threatened, what started as an internal dynastic dispute became a European conflict.

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allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him. By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied

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are estimated as averaging up to 25% for the Dutch, 35% for the French and 50% for the Spanish. Most battles of the period were fought between opposing forces of 13,000 to 20,000 men, so the numbers reflect

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in August. Deprived of Imperial support, John George of Saxony signed a six-month truce with Sweden in September, and in the March 1646 Treaty of Eulenberg agreed to remain neutral until the end of the war.

4328:, new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at 4289:

in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign.

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incapacitated two to three times that number, that would suggest military casualties ranged from 1.3 to 1.8 million dead or otherwise rendered unfit for service. Although his methodology has been disputed,

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in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory. Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631

2547: 4053:, and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of the Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch. 2878: 5733:

mortality disaster previously unknown in Europe. Estimates of total deaths range from 4.5 to 8 million, most incurred after 1630 when Sweden entered the war, the vast majority of which were civilian.

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began when the Swedes invaded Jutland with Dutch naval support. Ferdinand pulled together an Imperial army under Gallas to attack the Swedes from the rear, which proved a disastrous decision. Leaving

4897:, but negotiations were delayed when Christian of Denmark blockaded Hamburg and increased toll payments in the Baltic. This severely impacted the Dutch and Swedish economies, and in December 1643 the 2557: 5526:, the requirement that if a ruler changed his religion, his subjects had to follow suit. These terms did not apply to the hereditary lands of the Habsburg monarchy, such as Lower and Upper Austria. 5247:

After the outbreak of the Franco-Spanish War in 1635, Richelieu supported a renewed offensive by Victor Amadeus against Milan to tie down Spanish resources. These included an unsuccessful attack on

4854:, while gains in Alsace allowed France to focus on the war against Spain. In 1643, the Army of Flanders invaded Northern France hoping to relieve pressure elsewhere, but were decisively beaten by 2507: 2152: 4374:, cutting the link between Spanish controlled Milan and the Empire. In May, their main army of 35,000 invaded the Spanish Netherlands, but withdrew in July after suffering 17,000 casualties. In 2829: 5522:

or "Normaljahr", for determining the dominant religion of a state and guaranteed freedom of worship for religious minorities. Article 7 recognised Calvinism as a Reformed faith and removed the

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converted to Calvinism. More common were events such as the 1606 "Battle of the Flags" in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession.

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in 1668, it includes a realistic portrayal of a soldier's life based on his own experiences, many of which are verified by other sources. Other less famous examples include the diaries of

4428:, ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain. Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut the Spanish Road, forcing 2814: 2809: 2799: 4270:, plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops. 1448: 4467:. Olivares now argued Spain should accept Dutch independence, and focus on preventing further French gains in the Spanish Netherlands. This appeared achievable since most of the Dutch 3970:

for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony

2730: 2838: 2735: 3986:, the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in the Empire. Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the 2417: 14787: 5891:. They lacked the offensive impact of columns, and Gustavus therefore compensated by requiring his cavalry to be far more aggressive, often employing his Finnish light cavalry or 2873: 2238: 11302: 2303: 13870: 5644:, the idea of non-interference in domestic affairs by outside powers, although this has since been challenged. The process, or 'Congress' model, was adopted for negotiations at 1609: 9828: 5303:

Throughout the 1630s, tax increases levied to pay for the war led to protests throughout Spanish territories, which in 1640 resulted in revolts: first in Portugal, then in the

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Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led the main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in

2582: 4122:, once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success. 3677:

At the same time, the strategic importance of the Spanish Road to their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate, drew in the Spanish. When an army led by

8289: 2897: 2725: 2308: 2562: 3139:, then the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the religion of their ruler. Other provisions protected substantial religious minorities in cities like 2907: 2755: 2740: 2705: 2385: 2360: 2318: 2273: 2258: 2228: 2213: 2145: 3421:. This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the 2268: 1682: 3697:

correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions.

2609: 2497: 2452: 2427: 1721: 1634: 1624: 1619: 2487: 2447: 1977: 12794: 9383:

Ferretti, Giuliano (2014). "La politique italienne de la France et le duché de Savoie au temps de Richelieu; Franco-Savoyard Italian policy in the time of Richelieu".

2760: 2750: 2710: 2651: 2619: 2577: 2572: 2567: 2512: 1883: 1284: 3935:

As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the

13759: 3336:

When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought formal re-confirmation of the Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir

2804: 2765: 2745: 2720: 2676: 2666: 2646: 2624: 2594: 2537: 2527: 2482: 2457: 2432: 2390: 2370: 2298: 2288: 1746: 1339: 3689:, while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in 3655:

By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but Maximilian's dynastic ambitions made this impossible. In the October 1619

3595:, invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although the Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the 12856: 9776: 4905:

to finish the war in Denmark, in May 1644 Torstensson marched into the Empire; Gallas was unable to stop him, while the Danes sued for peace after their defeat at

2819: 2715: 2671: 2552: 2522: 2517: 2472: 1781: 4076:. He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. 1965: 1699: 11250: 5656:

in 1697; unlike the 19th century 'Congress' system, these were to end wars, rather than prevent them, so references to the 'balance of power' can be misleading.

3440:

opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy.

2656: 2614: 2502: 2467: 2328: 2138: 1873: 1751: 5946:

A peasant begs for mercy in front of his burning farm; by the 1630s, being caught in the open by soldiers from either side was "tantamount to a death sentence".

5143:. One reason was control of this area allowed opponents to threaten the southern borders of France and Austria. In addition, it contained large sections of the 4473:

believed the war was won, the only question being the price of peace. They therefore reduced the army budget for 1640, despite objections from Frederick Henry.

3928:

became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored the

3563:

at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and

14066: 14061: 3924:

had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist

3640: 2700: 2442: 1893: 4036:

and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination with Danish, while few of the subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid.

14812: 11410: 11350: 10089: 2532: 1953: 3685:

in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the

1687: 1465: 4340:

Swedish defeat at Nördlingen triggered direct French intervention and thus expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with

4229:

However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By the end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg,

4222:

which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund. As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634

4129:

had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the

2599: 2323: 12422: 11606: 11386: 4945: 2313: 1803: 1614: 9413: 13410: 12890: 11392: 6116:

Europe. Although the Franco-Spanish war continued until 1659, Westphalia allowed Louis XIV to begin replacing Spain as the predominant European power.

6027:

For German, and to a lesser extent Czech writers, the war was remembered as a defining moment of national trauma, the 18th century poet and playwright

5817:

Although some towns may have overstated their losses to avoid taxes, individual records confirm serious declines; from 1620 to 1650, the population of

2629: 2402: 2283: 2014: 1843: 1813: 1453: 13785: 11374: 5433:, whose position was threatened by Portuguese expansion. Although those gains proved short-lived, the Dutch retained territories elsewhere, like the 4281:

in April 1632, where Tilly was killed. Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at

3678: 2338: 2293: 1016: 6357:

As well as being brother-in-law to Frederick of the Palatinate, James I was also linked to Christian IV of Denmark, having married his elder sister

13860: 11469: 11404: 9051: 5690:

and disease inflicted severe losses on local civilian populations. While the war certainly ranks as one of the worst of these events, 19th century

5221: 4162: 3269:. In contrast, Austria was a land-based power, focused on ensuring their pre-eminence within Germany and securing their eastern border against the 1711: 1530: 9707:

Lesaffer, Randall (1997). "The Westphalia Peace Treaties and the Development of the Tradition of Great European Peace Settlements prior to 1648".

4332:

which destroyed Swedish power in Southern Germany and led to the defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor.

4072:

who was also appointed governor. Von Arnim was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at

2278: 8954:

A. Mears, John (1988). "The Thirty Years' War, the "General Crisis," and the Origins of a Standing Professional Army in the Habsburg Monarchy".

14792: 14767: 14762: 11572: 10382: 5510:, capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in Northern Europe, would not recover until the late 19th century. 3225:

since 1440. The largest single landowner within the Holy Roman Empire, they controlled lands containing over eight million subjects, including

1277: 1028: 5740:

Casualty rates among those who actually did serve in the military could be extremely high. Of 230 men conscripted from the Swedish village of

14837: 14832: 13170: 12897: 5617:

from the treaty of Münster, allowing France to continue its campaign against Spain in the Low Countries, a war that continued until the 1659

5189:. His opposition to Ferdinand II divided the Catholic powers, and made it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against Austria. 5169:

died in December 1627, France and Spain backed rival claimants, resulting in the 1628 to 1631 War of the Mantuan Succession. The French-born

5021: 4862:

on 19 May. Defeat ended any prospect of re-opening the Spanish Road, and Madrid finally accepted the war against the Dutch could not be won.

4932: 3749: 12849: 11807: 9804:

Towards The Peace Congress of Münster and Osnabrück (1643–1648) and the Westphalian Order (1648–1806) in "A Westphalia for the Middle East"

5200:

then ceded the two fortresses to France and allowed their troops unrestricted passage through Savoyard territory, giving them control over

268: 5825:

from 48,000 to 21,000. The financial impact is less clear; while the war caused short-term economic dislocation, especially in the period

14817: 14807: 14772: 14757: 14131: 13443: 12936: 11243: 5502:

until 1728. The Dutch were also given a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, ensuring the commercial ascendancy of

3702: 3694: 1004: 13825: 13124: 3262: 3090: 5806:

areas in Northwest Germany were relatively peaceful after 1630 and experienced almost no population loss, while those of Mecklenburg,

1982: 11436: 6329: 6013: 5752:

Based on local records, military action accounted for less than 3% of civilian deaths, with the major causes being starvation (12%),

4194:

still openly opposing the Emperor, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu. In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the

3896: 1270: 5697: 4972:

in May 1648 and von Holzappel was killed. Although the bulk of the Imperial army escaped thanks to an effective rearguard action by

2994:

authority were important factors in causing the war, some contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the

13578: 5126: 5005:

in August 1648, Ferdinand finally agreed terms and on 24 October, he signed peace treaties with France and Sweden, ending the war.

3333:. In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic. 3172: 8278: 5629:

with Sweden, which also involved Denmark, Russia and Brandenburg, while two Swedish attempts to impose its control on the port of

12842: 4386:

on 4 October, and re-established their predominance in North-East Germany, despite the defection of most of their German allies.

3733:

was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at

3600: 10043: 5274:

In 1639, their quarrel erupted into open warfare, with France backing Christine and Spain the two brothers, and resulted in the

4855: 4190:, who also claimed the Swedish throne and had Imperial support. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like 2892: 13272: 13214: 12677: 12450: 11236: 11199: 10310: 5174: 4183: 4108: 3925: 3608: 3045:

and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. In addition, the acquisition of territories within the empire by rulers like

2119: 860: 779: 9308:

Croxton, Derek (1998). "A Territorial Imperative? The Military Revolution, Strategy and Peacemaking in the Thirty Years War".

9069:

Non-splendid isolation: the Ottoman Empire and the Thirty Years War in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War

5785:

susceptible to sickness and hunger. While flight saved lives in the short-term, in the long run it often proved catastrophic.

4405:

in December secured French control of Alsace and severed the Spanish Road, forcing Gallas to divert resources there. Although

3635:, and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by 11124: 11025: 10938: 10885: 10762: 10743: 10724: 10705: 10657: 10638: 10474: 10455: 10299: 10280: 10212: 10193: 10173: 9963: 9853: 9811: 9765: 9746: 9697: 9678: 9640: 9599: 9505: 9457: 9354: 9298: 9279: 9247: 9209: 9190: 9133: 9114: 9095: 9076: 8165: 5487:

between Münster and Osnabrück. After the Swedes rejected Christian of Denmark as mediator, the negotiators finally agreed on

4325: 3929: 3245:

divided the two empires between different branches of the family. This bond was reinforced by frequent inter-marriage, while

2848: 1086: 4479: 14752: 13082: 12978: 12555: 11462: 5342:, establishing the current-day Franco-Spanish border in the Pyrenees. The revolt ended in 1651 with the Spanish capture of 3596: 2931:, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of 11398: 10485: 3643:, which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at the 3218:, which only assembled on an irregular basis, and then largely served as a forum for discussion, rather than legislation. 14646: 13944: 13842: 13729: 12570: 11889: 5264: 5192:

In March 1629, the French stormed Savoyard positions in the Pas de Suse, lifted the Spanish siege of Casale and captured

5166: 4828: 4126: 1958: 934: 12633: 12560: 11582: 10186:

Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars

4991:

district in July. The main objective was to gain as much loot as possible before the war ended; they failed to take the

3178:

Managing these issues was hampered by the fragmented nature of the empire. Its representative institutions included 300

14802: 14797: 14777: 14500: 13982: 13284: 13035: 12547: 12504: 10781: 9991: 9659: 9561: 9438: 9373: 9228: 6245: 6119:

While religion remained a divisive political issue in many countries, the Thirty Years' War is arguably the last major

4965: 4349: 4262:

provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg. These amounted to 400,000

4014: 3706: 3357:

in July 1609. Both were created to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, but combined with the 1609 to 1614

2944: 2162: 4141:

in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from the Netherlands, while the loss of

3982:, France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625 1382: 13114: 12702: 12623: 12312: 11729: 9621: 9580: 5936: 5562: 5170: 4397:

and the main Imperial army had forced Banér back to the Baltic, in March 1638, Bernard destroyed an Imperial army at

4390: 4150: 3725:. The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in 3568: 3215: 3074: 2853: 2661: 2343: 2082: 1994: 1197: 958: 890: 705: 178: 31: 9515:

Hayden, J. Michael (1973). "Continuity in the France of Henry IV and Louis XIII: French Foreign Policy, 1598–1615".

5883:

Line formations were often harder to co-ordinate, as demonstrated by the victory of the supposedly obsolete Spanish

4980: 14737: 14631: 14226: 13885: 13365: 13255: 12595: 11694: 5645: 4230: 4057: 3670: 3636: 3337: 3330: 3022: 1064: 1052: 878: 803: 11083:

Reilly, Pamela (1959). "Friedrich von Spee's Belief in Witchcraft: Some Deductions from the 'Cautio Criminalis'".

11016:

Polisensky, Joseph (2001). "A Note on Scottish Soldiers in the Bohemian War, 1619–1622". In Murdoch, Steve (ed.).

9257:

Costa, Fernando Dores (2005). "Interpreting the Portuguese War of Restoration (1641–1668) in a European Context".

5421:

in 1630, which was not returned until 1654. In 1641, the Dutch seized Portuguese slave trading hubs in Angola and

5311:. The Madrid government quickly assembled an army of 26,000 men to crush the revolt, which defeated the rebels at 4809: 4432:

to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea. However, their attempts to re-assert maritime control ended when the

14822: 14782: 14747: 14742: 14656: 14259: 14124: 13380: 13304: 12924: 12902: 11455: 10667:

Van Groesen, Michiel (2011). "Lessons Learned: The Second Dutch Conquest of Brazil and the Memory of the First".

6050: 5225: 5220:, with proportionate losses elsewhere. Richelieu took advantage of the diversion of Imperial resources to fund a 4215: 3293:. Since many foreign rulers were also Imperial princes, divisions within the empire drew in external powers like 1639: 1544: 17: 12682: 10991:

Polišenský, J. V. (1968). "The Thirty Years' War and the Crises and Revolutions of Seventeenth-Century Europe".

6299: 3358: 2407: 1970: 1766: 14827: 14443: 14276: 14214: 13619: 13238: 12885: 12877: 12865: 12764: 11338: 10237: 9126:

The Dutch–Spanish War in the Low Countries 1621–1648 in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War

5674:" of the mid-17th century. This term refers to a period of sustained conflict and unrest in areas ranging from 5181:. While a relatively minor conflict, the struggle had a disproportionate impact on the Thirty Years War, since 4794: 3948: 3526: 3346: 3322: 2057: 1786: 1402: 748: 14732: 11792: 11168:

Theibault, John (1997). "The Demography of the Thirty Years War Re-revisited: Günther Franz and his Critics".

10550:"'Causing misery and suffering miserably': Representations of the Thirty Years' War in Literature and History" 9876: 9592:

Spain in the Low Countries, (1635–1643) in Spain, Europe and the Atlantic: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott

5888: 4925: 4329: 4086:

achieved great military success for the Empire but his power threatened both Ferdinand and the German princes.

3401:

External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute due to the imminent expiry of the 1609

1943: 1646: 14651: 14560: 13914: 13493: 13468: 13077: 12819: 12218: 12156: 11864: 10487:

Lords of War: Maximilian I of Bavaria and the Institutions of Lordship in the Catholic League Army, 1619–1626

9405: 5841:", although whether tactics or technology were at the heart of these changes is still debated. Introduced by 4138: 4091: 3522: 3483: 3444: 3326: 3242: 3030: 2940: 2365: 736: 12638: 12195: 12174: 11356: 11018:

A Note on Scottish Soldiers in the Bohemian War, 1619–1622 in 'Scotland and the Thirty Years' war, 1618–1648

5963:, a devout Catholic eager to assert the church's authority in his territories. By the time he died in 1631, 4341: 4206:

in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the

3979: 3944: 3693:, who considered his pro-Spanish policy a betrayal of the Protestant cause. However, Spanish chief minister 3510: 760: 13954: 13473: 13463: 12919: 12743: 12648: 12580: 11797: 5868: 5765: 5529: 5209: 5147:, which allowed Spain to safely move recruits and supplies from their Italian possessions to support their 4824: 4274: 4175: 4142: 4033: 3631:

Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of

3429: 2634: 1913: 1878: 1559: 1521: 1108: 476: 320: 11490: 5327: 4812:

in June, his largely German troops mutinied due to lack of pay. The situation was saved by the arrival of

3666: 2422: 1833: 1704: 14610: 14605: 14221: 13919: 13289: 13062: 12789: 12382: 12307: 12106: 11721: 11587: 11577: 11228: 11117:

Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of the Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years War

10161: 5960: 5495: 4171: 3026: 2995: 1651: 1629: 52: 11979: 9041: 3659:, Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex the 14690: 14666: 14661: 14117: 13928: 12953: 12532: 12512: 12035: 11779: 11290: 5837:

Innovations made by Gustavus in particular are considered part of the tactical evolution known as the "

5781: 5583: 5367: 5312: 5282: 4460: 4316:

in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at

4010: 3983: 3952: 2956: 2887: 2863: 2380: 2263: 2193: 2067: 2042: 1470: 1407: 1040: 6196: 5307:. Backed by France as part of Richelieu's 'war by diversion', in January 1641 the rebels proclaimed a 4959:

The planned offensive fell apart when Turenne's mostly German troops mutinied, while Bavarian general

4302: 3129:

tried to prevent their recurrence by fixing boundaries between the two faiths, using the principle of

1599: 77: 14636: 14390: 14351: 13987: 13689: 13000: 12687: 12333: 11734: 11556: 11308: 11296: 9001:"Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities" 6004: 5842: 5343: 5304: 4061: 4046: 3612: 3131: 3018: 2902: 2542: 2462: 2097: 1584: 1511: 1496: 693: 70: 48: 12116: 12075: 10371: 10003:"The Socio-Economic Relations of Warfare and the Military Mortality Crises of the Thirty Years' War" 5983: 5955:, beginning in Franconia in 1626 and quickly spreading to other parts of Germany. They began in the 5606:, and the Prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, which also gave them a seat in the Imperial Diet. 4348:

for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 declared war on Spain, starting the 1635 to 1659

3214:", which primarily focused on defence and operated as autonomous bodies. Above all of these was the 2843: 1858: 1692: 13820: 13395: 12912: 12814: 12590: 12537: 12517: 12338: 12281: 12276: 11769: 11380: 11326: 6278: 5918: 5905:

Such tactics needed professional soldiers, who could retain formation, reload and fire disciplined

5579: 5575: 5410: 5386:

was an offshoot of the Dutch fight for independence from Spain. The Portuguese dominated the trans-

5383: 5363: 4906: 4452: 4286: 4219: 4130: 4083: 3967: 3940: 3644: 3354: 3298: 2102: 1903: 1589: 1539: 1412: 1344: 902: 408: 11774: 5956: 5208:

Several factors restored the French position in Northern Italy, notably a devastating outbreak of

2990:

beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and

14641: 14299: 13438: 13294: 13021: 12615: 12522: 12392: 12328: 12190: 12070: 11314: 11272: 5853:. Gustavus further reduced the ten ranks used by Maurice to six, and increased the proportion of 5713:

includes factors such as emigration from rural to more secure urban areas and does not equate to

5641: 5308: 5268: 4984: 4969: 4937: 4835:

in December gave the Swedes a significant new base in Germany, and despite their failure to take

4827:

in October 1642, where Torstensson inflicted almost 10,000 casualties on an Imperial army led by

4018: 3656: 3647:

in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country.

3294: 3046: 2963: 2477: 2375: 2062: 2026: 2004: 1999: 1677: 1506: 1491: 1349: 815: 791: 9240:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015

5964: 5811: 14465: 14294: 13909: 13795: 13508: 12628: 12407: 12397: 12302: 12200: 12169: 11949: 11538: 11518: 11478: 11362: 10650:

Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe: A Shared European Heritage Volume I

6185:

at any one time, and exclude citizen militia, who often formed a large proportion of garrisons.

6037: 5665: 5634: 5618: 5178: 4921: 4406: 4353: 4345: 4134: 3592: 3518: 3402: 3066: 2787: 2492: 2355: 2087: 2019: 1938: 1776: 1458: 1367: 946: 836: 825: 486: 420: 11802: 4125:

At the same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their

2243: 1848: 14545: 14410: 13805: 13790: 13503: 13360: 13267: 13067: 13050: 12963: 12907: 12412: 12131: 12121: 11592: 11543: 11533: 10083: 6319:

also held territories within the Empire, which allowed them to intervene in Imperial affairs

5567: 5438: 5275: 5229: 4973: 4953: 4398: 4250: 3690: 3082: 2641: 2233: 2208: 2203: 2092: 1948: 1756: 1741: 1736: 1726: 1574: 1486: 1387: 1142: 1047: 395: 183: 13855: 11332: 9143:

Bireley, Robert (1976). "The Peace of Prague (1635) and the Counterreformation in Germany".

4259: 2437: 1918: 1838: 831: 669: 14600: 14595: 14535: 14375: 14037: 14032: 14027: 14022: 14017: 14012: 14007: 14002: 13997: 13964: 13891: 13734: 13513: 13415: 13390: 13329: 13134: 13109: 13045: 12460: 12402: 12164: 12126: 12085: 11999: 11930: 11859: 11664: 11278: 9914: 9822: 9573:

Geschichte in Daten. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern; History in data; Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania

9498:

The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800

6123:

conflict where it was a primary driver. Future conflicts were either internal, such as the

5991: 5979: 5975: 5649: 5252: 5148: 4879: 4425: 4115: 4064:, the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led 4037: 3718: 3556: 3536:

Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into

3448: 3422: 3406: 3226: 3156: 3086: 2952: 2936: 2770: 2604: 2248: 2223: 2072: 1933: 1898: 1868: 1818: 1716: 1422: 1377: 1372: 1334: 810: 633: 346: 244: 11649: 9107:

France and the Thirty Years War in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years' War

4094:, Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in the June 1629 3994:, main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March 1443: 8: 14704: 14565: 14495: 14438: 14355: 14181: 14086: 13810: 13800: 13749: 13607: 13593: 13453: 13195: 12958: 12784: 12565: 12430: 11823: 11784: 11644: 11629: 11548: 11422: 11416: 11284: 10238:"Real Wages and the Origins of Modern Economic Growth in Germany, 16th to 19th Centuries" 5968: 5838: 5769: 5626: 5558: 5554: 5466: 5281:

In 1647, a French-backed rebellion succeeded in temporarily overthrowing Spanish rule in

5260: 5154: 4968:. Outnumbered by a Franco-Swedish army led by Wrangel and Turenne, they were defeated at 4920:

in March 1645. In May, a Bavarian force under von Mercy destroyed a French detachment at

4902: 4847: 4813: 4441: 4421: 4383: 4317: 3734: 3560: 3436: 3250: 3168: 3078: 3038: 2868: 2858: 2218: 2198: 2183: 2077: 2052: 1761: 1731: 1667: 1604: 1427: 1417: 1358: 980: 609: 597: 332: 174: 131: 84: 12065: 11320: 11046:

Rabb, Theodore K. (1962). "The Effects of the Thirty Years' War on the German Economy".

9918: 5534: 5483: 4095: 3995: 3714: 1923: 1397: 14671: 14575: 14359: 14311: 14306: 14209: 14199: 14156: 14148: 14098: 13875: 13644: 13568: 13536: 13355: 13324: 13161: 13149: 13010: 12948: 12733: 12585: 12475: 12470: 12445: 12435: 12223: 12014: 11989: 11944: 11874: 11844: 11815: 11739: 11684: 11669: 11624: 11619: 11512: 11143: 11100: 11071: 11063: 11004: 10979: 10917: 10837: 10808: 10684: 10617: 10609: 10571: 10434: 10333: 10149: 10141: 10030: 9937: 9902: 9540: 9532: 9484: 9333: 9325: 9160: 9028: 8987: 8979: 6120: 6028: 5987: 5846: 5776: 5701: 5691: 5671: 5491: 5442: 5375: 5320: 4913: 4417: 4402: 4366:, French chief minister from 1624 until 1642, and creator of the anti-Habsburg alliance 4363: 4203: 4187: 4099: 4021:

in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on

3991: 3987: 3917: 3909: 3717:

in June. By November 1622, the Imperials controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from

3572: 3282: 3234: 3230: 3203: 3195: 3160: 2991: 2782: 1908: 1828: 1808: 1579: 992: 798: 786: 645: 527: 297: 220: 13664: 10904:

Kamen, Henry (1968). "The Economic and Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War".

10292:

The Winter King: Frederick V of the Palatinate and the Coming of the Thirty Years' War

1594: 14550: 14525: 14505: 14485: 14475: 14365: 14347: 14316: 14249: 14166: 14140: 14044: 13949: 13724: 13710: 13684: 13669: 13573: 13558: 13488: 13478: 13347: 13279: 13180: 13144: 13040: 12527: 12266: 12238: 12111: 11879: 11764: 11689: 11193: 11120: 11075: 11036: 11021: 10934: 10881: 10777: 10758: 10739: 10720: 10701: 10688: 10653: 10634: 10621: 10575: 10470: 10451: 10438: 10337: 10295: 10276: 10208: 10189: 10169: 10153: 10035: 9987: 9959: 9942: 9849: 9807: 9761: 9742: 9693: 9674: 9655: 9636: 9617: 9595: 9576: 9557: 9544: 9501: 9453: 9434: 9369: 9350: 9337: 9294: 9275: 9243: 9224: 9205: 9186: 9164: 9129: 9110: 9091: 9072: 9032: 9020: 8991: 8971: 6093: 6021: 5826: 5683: 5614: 5603: 5550: 5475: 5454: 5434: 5430: 5403: 5399: 5240: 5158: 5136: 4992: 4456: 4433: 4254: 4242: 4146: 4073: 4065: 3710: 3607:

it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I. The exceptions included

3552: 3506: 3390: 3222: 3126: 3122: 3070: 3050: 3007: 2999: 2975: 2971: 2924: 2824: 1798: 1564: 1549: 1516: 1392: 1324: 1149: 1137: 1115: 1103: 1081: 1059: 975: 953: 941: 929: 917: 897: 885: 873: 676: 664: 652: 640: 628: 553: 501: 436: 369: 187: 165: 10539: 10522: 10341: 10002: 6257:

Wilson estimates that three soldiers died of disease for every one killed in combat.

5917:

On the other hand, strategic thinking failed to develop at the same pace. Historian

5417:

in 1624. After it was retaken by the Portuguese in 1625, a second fleet established

4885:

Soon after Rocroi, Ferdinand invited Sweden and France to attend peace talks in the

4167: 14540: 14455: 14400: 14370: 14321: 14281: 14264: 14254: 14189: 14161: 13934: 13739: 13719: 13639: 13624: 13523: 13425: 13299: 13139: 13097: 13092: 13072: 13055: 12968: 12779: 12774: 12643: 12243: 12233: 12228: 12080: 12055: 12050: 12040: 12009: 11925: 11905: 11884: 11869: 11849: 11749: 11744: 11679: 11659: 11528: 11368: 11344: 11177: 11092: 11055: 10996: 10971: 10909: 10829: 10800: 10676: 10601: 10561: 10534: 10494: 10424: 10414: 10325: 10133: 10110: 10099:"Crisis and Catastrophe: The global crisis of the seventeenth century reconsidered" 10071: 10025: 10017: 9932: 9922: 9903:"The face of war: Trauma analysis of a mass grave from the Battle of Lützen (1632)" 9865:"The Battle of Wittstock 1636: Conflicting Reports on a Swedish Victory in Germany" 9716: 9524: 9476: 9392: 9317: 9152: 9012: 8963: 6332:

were represented in the Imperial Diet or Circles. Most of the remaining 1,500 were

6222: 6009: 5850: 5653: 5622: 5571: 5426: 5391: 4960: 4917: 4859: 4851: 4820: 4447:

Spanish inability to adequately supply their troops allowed the French to over-run

4410: 4375: 4313: 4309: 4195: 4069: 4026: 4025:, where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at 3682: 3660: 3584: 3410: 3350: 3278: 3110: 3011: 2253: 1989: 1928: 1888: 1863: 1853: 1793: 1554: 1501: 1329: 1154: 1125: 1091: 1069: 963: 821: 657: 621: 573: 557: 308: 91: 10631:

The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century: Religion, the Reformation and Social Change

9347:

European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies

5797: 4816:

in November with 7,000 Swedish recruits and enough cash to satisfy the mutineers.

3258: 14580: 14555: 14343: 14326: 14171: 13992: 13959: 13903: 13897: 13754: 13659: 13563: 13375: 12869: 12834: 12697: 12575: 12495: 12286: 12060: 12004: 11994: 11974: 11966: 11910: 11854: 11759: 11754: 11654: 11156: 10858:Åberg, A. (1973). "The Swedish Army from Lützen to Narva". In Roberts, M. (ed.). 10680: 9927: 9609: 6358: 6333: 6266: 6061: 6017: 5959:, an area with a history of such events going back to 1616 and now re-ignited by 5899: 5746: 5610: 5414: 5298: 5182: 5162: 4898: 4875: 4464: 4394: 4359: 3588: 3530: 3495: 3478: 3473: 3456: 3286: 3211: 3179: 3144: 3106: 3089:, as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the 3081:, the terms of which included greater autonomy within the empire for states like 3034: 2979: 2412: 2350: 2188: 2130: 2047: 1823: 1771: 1672: 1319: 1310: 1120: 922: 848: 5864: 5845:

in the 1590s, these sought to increase infantry firepower by moving from massed

5586:, occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the 5232:, this secured the French position in Northern Italy for the next twenty years. 4022: 3433: 14530: 14520: 14515: 14510: 14490: 14480: 14395: 14338: 14231: 14194: 14055: 13880: 13674: 13649: 13613: 13553: 13546: 13541: 13531: 13385: 13370: 13309: 13185: 13175: 12931: 12769: 12759: 12707: 12692: 12480: 12387: 12045: 12030: 11634: 11523: 10502: 10329: 9321: 9183:

Witches & Neighbors: The Social And Cultural Context of European Witchcraft

6316: 6312: 6128: 6045: 5775:

Modern historians generally agree the Holy Roman Empire experienced an overall

5753: 5542: 5538: 5515: 5354: 5326:

On 26 January, a combined French-Catalan force routed a larger Spanish army at

5316: 5286: 5197: 5165:

and their possession allowed the holder to threaten Milan. This meant when the

5002: 4278: 3623: 3564: 3452: 3381: 3362: 3270: 3254: 3246: 3238: 3191: 3187: 3164: 3054: 3042: 3003: 2948: 2928: 2333: 2009: 1569: 712: 700: 688: 513: 463: 449: 381: 282: 256: 251: 232: 120: 13248: 12377: 10566: 10549: 10075: 10021: 9894:

Alexander Leslie and the Scottish generals of the Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648

8967: 5694:

often exaggerated its impact to illustrate the dangers of a divided Germany.

5001:, now in Stockholm. When a Spanish offensive in Flanders ended with defeat at 4988: 4379: 3975:

wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria.

3498:

in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the

3221:

Although, in theory, emperors were elected, the position had been held by the

585: 14726: 14716: 14626: 14425: 13939: 13865: 13831: 13815: 13775: 13458: 13433: 13209: 13119: 13104: 13026: 12738: 12662: 12485: 12465: 12367: 12271: 12210: 11984: 11920: 11828: 11614: 11189: 10419: 10402: 9024: 8975: 6033: 6024:

whose descriptions of the everyday brutalities of the war remain compelling.

5982:

from 1626 to 1631, claimed over one thousand lives; in 1629, 274 died in the

5893: 5858: 5788: 5679: 5482:

The Peace of Westphalia actually consisted of three separate agreements; the

5446: 5422: 5413:

was formed to achieve this, and a Dutch fleet captured the Brazilian port of

5379: 5359: 4865: 4437: 4420:, then entered Bohemia in May. To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted 4068:

to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by

3686: 3545: 3541: 3514: 3490:

Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate

3199: 3190:, and present-day France. These ranged in size and importance from the seven 3183: 2987: 1262: 717: 681: 169: 11215: 10523:"The Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics" 10372:"The Long-term Impact of the Thirty Years War: What Grain Price Data Reveal" 9720: 5990:. Elsewhere, persecution followed Imperial military success, expanding into 5570:, effectively an autonomous part of the Empire since 1499. In Lorraine, the 4079: 3529:, both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary 3317:

Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588

3140: 14585: 14415: 14286: 14204: 14049: 13924: 13780: 13744: 13483: 13405: 13249: 12995: 12990: 12985: 12973: 12728: 12605: 12600: 12372: 11639: 11112: 11000: 10913: 10124:

Parker, Geoffrey (1976). "The 'Military Revolution', 1560–1660 – a Myth?".

10115: 10098: 10039: 9946: 9824:

Religion, revolt, and creation of regional identity in Catalonia, 1640–1643

6146:

States that fought against the Emperor at some point between 1618 and 1635.

6101: 6065: 6056: 6041: 5488: 5418: 5186: 5144: 5140: 4949: 4267: 4223: 4191: 3901: 3414: 3373: 907: 843: 263: 60: 11258: 10975: 10820:

Zaller, Robert (1974). "'Interest of State': James I and the Palatinate".

10605: 10062:

Outram, Quentin (2002). "The Demographic impact of early modern warfare".

6431: 5235: 4894: 4842:

This seemed more likely when Richelieu died in December 1642, followed by

4029:

in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November.

3587:

forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen.

3309: 14570: 14448: 14433: 14405: 14241: 13850: 13679: 13654: 13629: 13602: 13589: 13498: 13400: 13087: 12712: 12455: 12253: 11915: 11674: 11482: 11447: 10804: 10592:

Thornton, John (2016). "The Kingdom of Kongo and the Thirty Years' War".

9396: 6200: 5471: 5395: 4997: 4805: 4263: 4237: 4042: 3913: 3722: 3499: 3318: 3114: 2983: 2967: 11181: 10812: 10613: 10429: 9671:

Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present

9329: 6244:

France lost another 200,000 to 300,000 killed or wounded in the related

5587: 5362:; Spain's inability to protect Portuguese interests in the 1602 to 1663 4413:

in October, lack of supplies forced Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic.

3281:, as well as France, confronted by Habsburg lands on its borders to the 2935:

reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the

147: 14333: 13634: 13219: 11161:

The 'Thirty Years War' and the Conflict for European Hegemony 1600–1660

11104: 11067: 10841: 10145: 9536: 9291:

The Last Christian Peace: The Congress of Westphalia as A Baroque Event

8983: 7535: 5952: 5675: 5591: 5339: 5256: 4886: 4850:

as king. However, Richelieu's policies were continued by his successor

4843: 4371: 4001: 3065:

within the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After

2688: 11008: 10983: 10921: 10498: 9488: 9016: 5994:

and the Palatinate following their reconquest by Tilly, then into the

5942: 5768:. Described as the "worst mortality crisis to affect Italy during the 4995:

but captured the Imperial library, along with treasures including the

4890: 3936: 14380: 12261: 9901:

Nicklisch, Nicole; Ramsthaler, Frank; Meller, Harald; Others (2017).

7718: 6124: 5995: 5854: 5807: 5761: 5503: 5335: 5331: 4312:, and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed the 4308:

After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor

3726: 3409:

between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities,

3368: 3266: 3152: 3118: 3094: 3062: 14109: 11096: 10833: 10791:

Wilson, Peter (2008). "The Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618–48".

10252: 6054:, while its enduring cultural resonance is illustrated by the novel 5741: 5686:

and the Holy Roman Empire. In each of these, fighting combined with

5670:

The Thirty Years' War forms part of what historians sometimes call "

4912:

In August 1644, the French and Bavarian armies met in the three day

4293: 3998:, France withdrew from Northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road. 3505:

On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed

3447:, a Calvinist who succeeded his father in 1610, and in 1613 married 3093:

in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of

616: 604: 592: 580: 568: 548: 444: 227: 14590: 14385: 14093: 13448: 13202: 13190: 11059: 10403:"Myths of military revolution: European expansion and Eurocentrism" 10137: 9864: 9528: 9480: 9272:

The Thirty Years' War & German Memory in the Nineteenth Century

9156: 6127:

revolt in South-Western France, or relatively minor, like the 1712

5822: 5595: 5450: 5387: 5201: 5193: 4836: 4808:

in May where he died, and despite beating off an Imperial force at

4469: 4211: 4202:

Following failed negotiations with the Emperor, Gustavus landed in

3418: 3290: 3136: 304: 10205:

Richelieu's Army: War, Government and Society in France, 1624–1642

9739:

Denmark, 1513–1660: the rise and decline of a Renaissance monarchy

9467:

Gutmann, Myron P. (1988). "The Origins of the Thirty Years' War".

8565: 6076: 5549:

In terms of territorial concessions, Brandenburg-Prussia received

4352:. A few days later, the German states and Ferdinand agreed to the 4282: 3618: 3551:

Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially

2923:, from 1618 to 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in 14699: 14460: 14271: 13705: 13319: 12941: 12440: 12359: 11198:. Vol. 4: The Thirty Years War. Cambridge University Press. 9202:

Lützen 1632: Climax of the Thirty Years War: The Clash of Empires

9124:

Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.).

8184: 6328:

Although there were nearly 1,800 separate Imperial Estates, only

6088: 5884: 5599: 5507: 5248: 4832: 4389:

Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son

4285:, from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the 4114:

Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an

4050: 3632: 3537: 3207: 2932: 774: 755: 731: 151: 7328: 7184: 7160: 6096:(in blue) was confirmed in 1653, and finally ended only in 1815. 5640:

It has been argued the Peace established the principle known as

3939:. In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son 3900:

Key locations, 1625–1629 on the map of the modern federal state

3417:, an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to 13871:

Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary

13314: 13224: 13129: 9900: 9366:

Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World 1494–1660

9048:

Despair not: Twenty centuries of the history of the Netherlands

8772: 8141: 7624: 7622: 6437: 6336:

or individual members of the lower nobility, who were excluded.

5911: 5818: 5757: 5687: 5630: 5217: 5173:

was backed by France and the Republic of Venice, his rival the

4448: 4429: 3580: 3491: 3077:, whose principal ally was Spain. Fighting ended with the 1648 1436:

Transylvanian invasions of Hungary (1619–1621, 1623–1624, 1626)

157: 9067:

Baramova, Maria (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.).

8832: 8553: 8457: 6502: 6500: 4335: 3143:, and confirmed Lutheran ownership of property taken from the 8897: 8895: 8700: 8396: 8394: 6686: 6662: 6409: 6407: 6164:

Since officers were paid for each man "present", the numbers

5906: 5749:

calculates an upper limit of 2,071,000 military casualties.

5213: 4119: 3960: 3486:, whose acceptance of the Bohemian Crown sparked the conflict 3413:, commander in the Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the 1035: 1023: 1011: 999: 987: 508: 376: 161: 9778:

The Thirty Years' War: Examining the Origins and Effects of

8712: 8613: 8247: 8172: 8129: 8117: 8009: 7961: 7877: 7865: 7802: 7619: 7451: 7352: 6958: 6956: 4249:

Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and

3626:'s campaign during the Bohemian revolt and Palatine campaign 3579:

By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside

3069:, the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between 9802:

Milton, Patrick; Axworthy, Michael; Simms, Brendan (2018).

9614:

The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806

9105:

Bely, Lucien (2014). Asbach, Olaf; Schröder, Peter (eds.).

9043:

Dispereert niet: Twintig eeuwen historie van de Nederlanden

8931: 8688: 8577: 8355: 8223: 7523: 7376: 7280: 7232: 7220: 7088: 7076: 7064: 6980: 6941: 6761: 6544: 6542: 6497: 6460: 6458: 6064:

and also set during the war, it was nominated for the 2020

4207: 4017:. The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at 3956: 10822:

Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies

9984:

Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression

9958:. Translated by Merton, Charlotte. Nordic Academic Press. 8892: 8796: 8517: 8430: 8406: 8391: 8259: 7997: 7949: 7925: 7826: 7766: 7706: 7694: 7634: 7571: 7547: 7475: 7052: 6485: 6404: 5518:, and with Swedish troops on the verge of taking Prague. 13760:

Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

10363:

Direction des Archives, Ministère des affaires étrangères

9846:

Britain, Denmark-Norway and the House of Stuart 1603–1660

8642: 8640: 8447: 8445: 8213: 8211: 7855: 7853: 7682: 7463: 7040: 7028: 7016: 6953: 6917: 6905: 6893: 6881: 6857: 6845: 6809: 6713: 6703: 6701: 6392: 6008:, often suggested as one of the earliest examples of the 5378:

also became ruler of the Portuguese Empire, creating the

4090:

With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the

3494:

within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of

8880: 8844: 8724: 8541: 8379: 8331: 7973: 7937: 7901: 7670: 7658: 7511: 7427: 7292: 7124: 6992: 6638: 6628: 6626: 6601: 6599: 6597: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6589: 6576: 6574: 6561: 6559: 6557: 6539: 6529: 6527: 6475: 6473: 6455: 6199:

were ethnic Germans, while less than 50% even came from

4393:, who faced a deteriorating military position. Although 4013:, supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and 3990:

to join, but it was overtaken by events. In early 1626,

14788:

17th-century military history of the Kingdom of England

9431:

Epidemics and pandemics; their impacts on human history

8868: 8820: 8652: 8493: 8367: 8235: 8196: 8033: 7814: 7595: 7405: 7403: 7388: 7304: 7268: 7208: 7196: 7148: 7136: 7004: 6737: 6674: 6155:

States that allied at some point between 1618 and 1635.

3721:, which was held by a small English garrison under Sir 10897:

An Unofficial Alliance: Scotland and Sweden, 1569–1654

10698:

The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588–1688

10273:

Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years' War, 1630–1635

10271:

Porshnev, Boris Fedorovich (1995). Dukes, Paul (ed.).

10236:

Pfister, Ulrich; Riedel, Jana; Uebele, Martin (2012).

9956:

Mercenary Swedes; French subsidies to Sweden 1631–1796

8919: 8784: 8736: 8676: 8664: 8637: 8625: 8601: 8589: 8529: 8505: 8481: 8442: 8418: 8343: 8307: 8208: 8153: 8105: 8069: 8057: 7913: 7889: 7850: 7790: 7778: 7754: 7742: 7730: 7646: 7583: 7559: 7487: 7364: 7256: 7244: 6968: 6929: 6833: 6749: 6698: 5780:

1630 to 1635. The high mortality rate compared to the

5659: 5185:

viewed Habsburg expansion in Italy as a threat to the

4869:

Campaigns during the Franco-Swedish phase (until 1642)

2978:

attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into

14688: 13791:

Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary

10878:

Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years' War 1630–1635

9862: 8907: 8856: 8760: 8748: 8093: 8081: 8045: 7838: 7541: 7499: 7439: 7340: 7316: 7172: 7112: 7100: 6869: 6821: 6785: 6773: 6650: 6623: 6611: 6586: 6571: 6554: 6524: 6512: 6470: 4459:

and opposition to heavy taxes led to revolts in both

4156: 3583:

and although Mansfeld's defeat by Imperial forces at

8469: 8319: 8021: 7985: 7415: 7400: 6797: 6725: 6443: 5382:; long-standing commercial rivals, the 1602 to 1663 5135:

Northern Italy had been contested by France and the

2986:

states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of

10966:Polišenský, J. V. (1954). "The Thirty Years' War". 10755:

Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War

10235: 9801: 8571: 7724: 7607: 6419: 6048:used it as the backdrop for his 1939 anti-war play 12864: 9730:War in the Modern Great Power System: 1495 to 1975 4301:Two months later, the Swedes and Imperials met at 3798: 3741: 3033:. Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the 2160: 11136:Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden, 1611–1632 10088:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 6172:, or those available for duty. Variances between 5315:on 23 January 1641. The French now persuaded the 3097:which dominated Europe for the next sixty years. 14724: 13861:Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII 10467:The Resilience of the Spanish Monarchy 1665–1700 10359: 5553:, and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, 3673:whose seizure of the Palatinate expanded the war 3210:. Each also belonged to a regional grouping or " 518: 454: 288: 273: 10369: 9891: 9633:The Path of the Devil: Early Modern Witch Hunts 8808: 8559: 7190: 7166: 6195:2011, a high proportion of "Swedish" forces at 5598:. Sweden received an indemnity of five million 4098:. Christian retained his German possessions of 3517:with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, 11148:The History of the Thirty Years War in Germany 10370:Schulze, Max-Stefan; Volckart, Oliver (2019). 9088:For God and Kaiser; the Imperial Austrian Army 3135:. This designated individual states as either 1292: 14125: 12850: 11463: 11244: 11220: 11119:(2008 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 10959:Scotland and the Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648 9981: 9972: 9447: 8998: 8706: 8463: 8190: 7358: 7334: 5929: 5460: 5437:, as well as Portuguese trading posts on the 5212:; between 1629 and 1631, over 60,000 died in 4182:From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a 4163:Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War 4107:early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary 3353:, and Maximilian responded by setting up the 3061:The period from 1618 to 1635 was primarily a 2962:The war can be seen as a continuation of the 2146: 1278: 11152:in 2 vols; translation by William Blaquiere. 10695: 10647: 10628: 9863:Murdoch, S.; Zickerman, K; Marks, H (2012). 9570: 9221:The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough 9123: 8778: 7628: 6506: 6413: 5875:are deployed two companies deep, the Swedes 5625:of Poland-Lithuania led to the 1655 to 1660 4798:Key locations 1635 to 1648 mentioned in text 4416:In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at 4409:defeated a combined Swedish-German force at 4273:Gustavus used this army to win victories at 10719:(2005 ed.). New York Review of Books. 10666: 10407:European Journal of International Relations 9554:The Thirty Years War: A Documentary History 8164:sfn error: no target: CITEREF2020Thornton ( 8147: 6380:Not to be confused with Freiberg in Saxony. 5986:, plus another 50 in the adjacent Duchy of 5008: 4976:, Bavaria was left defenceless once again. 4846:in May 1643, leaving his five-year-old son 4370:In March 1635, French soldiers entered the 4336:Phase II: French intervention, 1635 to 1648 4174:, known as the "Lion of the North", at the 4032:Many of Christian's German allies, such as 3955:; possession ensured Danish control of the 3304: 14132: 14118: 13876:Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary 13826:Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart 12857: 12843: 11477: 11470: 11456: 11251: 11237: 11015: 10990: 10965: 10520: 10445: 9690:The Thirty Years War (Lancaster Pamphlets) 9551: 9450:Critical History of Jaffna – The Tamil Era 9237: 9199: 9039: 8838: 7688: 7640: 7433: 7394: 7046: 6692: 6668: 6548: 6464: 6298:Some commentators argue it began with the 6080:Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 3249:retained Imperial territories such as the 2153: 2139: 1285: 1271: 11167: 11155: 10565: 10538: 10428: 10418: 10114: 10029: 9936: 9926: 9892:Murdoch, Steve; Grosjean, Alexia (2014). 9571:Heitz, Gerhard; Rischer, Henning (1995). 9344: 7130: 6212:Approved 120,000, actual 80,000 to 90,000 6071: 6014:Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen 5228:. With the exception of the 1639 to 1642 4936:The final battle of the war; the Swedish 3041:, whose strategic importance drew in the 3037:, Frederick's participation expanded the 386: 14813:Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711) 11142: 11034: 10894: 10714: 10591: 10270: 9820: 9774: 9736: 9706: 9382: 9218: 9066: 8953: 8901: 8874: 8730: 8718: 8619: 8547: 8385: 8337: 8253: 8241: 8178: 8159: 8135: 8123: 8039: 8015: 8003: 7979: 7967: 7943: 7907: 7883: 7871: 7808: 7676: 7664: 7517: 7457: 7382: 7370: 7310: 7286: 7238: 7226: 7214: 7202: 7154: 7142: 7094: 7082: 7070: 7010: 6986: 6962: 6947: 6935: 6923: 6899: 6887: 6851: 6839: 6815: 6767: 6755: 6719: 6100:By laying the foundations of the modern 6087: 6075: 5941: 5863: 5832: 5787: 5696: 5528: 5470: 5394:, in which slaves were transported from 5353: 5234: 4931: 4864: 4358: 4292: 4236: 4166: 4078: 4000: 3665: 3617: 3477: 3462: 3367: 3308: 3167:competing with each other and Calvinist 427: 337: 11133: 11111: 10956: 10866: 10547: 10483: 10400: 10311:"Catholics and the Peace of Westphalia" 10289: 10202: 9953: 9843: 9608: 9589: 9466: 9307: 9288: 9142: 9085: 8937: 8862: 8826: 8694: 8658: 8583: 8361: 8229: 8202: 7820: 7601: 7529: 7493: 7298: 7262: 7250: 7106: 7058: 6998: 6974: 6911: 6875: 6491: 6425: 6398: 4924:, before he was defeated and killed at 27:Major war in Central Europe (1618–1648) 14: 14725: 11780:Council of Trent § Protestant response 11082: 10928: 10819: 10790: 10771: 10752: 10587:. Auzielle: Little Round Top Editions. 10585:French Armies of the Thirty Years' War 10464: 10183: 10160: 10123: 10096: 10061: 10000: 9755: 9630: 9514: 9495: 9269: 9180: 9171: 8999:Alfani, Guido; Percoco, Marco (2019). 8925: 8886: 8850: 8802: 8790: 8766: 8742: 8682: 8670: 8646: 8631: 8607: 8595: 8535: 8523: 8511: 8499: 8487: 8451: 8436: 8412: 8400: 8373: 8349: 8313: 8265: 8217: 8111: 8075: 8063: 7955: 7931: 7919: 7895: 7859: 7844: 7832: 7796: 7784: 7772: 7760: 7748: 7736: 7712: 7700: 7652: 7577: 7565: 7553: 7481: 7445: 7421: 7409: 7346: 7322: 7274: 7178: 7118: 7034: 7022: 6863: 6827: 6803: 6791: 6779: 6743: 6731: 6707: 6680: 6656: 6644: 6632: 6617: 6605: 6580: 6565: 6533: 6518: 6479: 6449: 4451:in 1640. At the same time, continuing 3926:George William, Elector of Brandenburg 3650: 3329:approved intervention by the Catholic 14793:Christianity in the Holy Roman Empire 14768:17th century in the Holy Roman Empire 14763:17th century in the Habsburg monarchy 14139: 14113: 12838: 12795:Synodical Conference of North America 11451: 11232: 11219: 10903: 10875: 10857: 10736:The Great Big Book of Horrible Things 10733: 10582: 10245:European Historical Economics Society 10221: 9827:(PhD thesis). Ohio State University. 9649: 9448:Gnanaprakasar, Nalloor Swamy (2003). 9363: 9349:(2014 ed.). Literary Licensing. 9256: 9054:from the original on 23 February 2023 8754: 8099: 8087: 8051: 7991: 7613: 7505: 7469: 6277: 4979:The Swedes sent a second force under 4570: 4326:Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria 3930:Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt 3601:the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia 3100: 2134: 1266: 14838:Wars involving the Holy Roman Empire 14833:Wars involving the Habsburg monarchy 11803:Controversy on the Descent into Hell 11188: 11045: 10947: 10860:Sweden's Age of Greatness, 1632–1718 10308: 9785:(MA thesis). George Fox University. 9727: 9668: 9469:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 9428: 9345:Davenport, Frances Gardiner (1917). 9104: 8475: 8424: 8325: 8027: 7589: 5967:from all levels of society had been 5821:fell from 22,000 to 17,000, that of 5425:, with support from the kingdoms of 4612: 4500: 3882: 3017:Its outbreak is generally traced to 905: 207:Anti-Imperial alliance prior to 1635 78:death of Gustavus Adolphus at Lützen 14647:History of the Mediterranean region 13730:Suppression of the Society of Jesus 10776:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9806:. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. 9687: 9040:Algra, Hendrik; Algra, Ale (1956). 8913: 7542:Murdoch, Zickerman & Marks 2012 5737:falling to under 160,000 by 1648. 5660:Human and financial cost of the war 5478:after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 5161:were subsidiary territories of the 4829:Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria 4766: 4556: 4486: 3784: 3073:, chiefly supported by Sweden, and 24: 14818:Warfare of the early modern period 14808:History of the Palatinate (region) 14773:17th century in the Spanish Empire 14758:17th century in the Dutch Republic 13285:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran 11793:Adiaphoristic controversies (first 10850: 10225:Studia Histórica, Historia Moderna 9973:O'Connell, Daniel Patrick (1968). 9831:from the original on 17 April 2023 9575:(in German). Koehler&Amelang. 9416:from the original on 8 August 2021 9403: 8814: 6311:As explained below, the rulers of 6060:; written by Austro-German author 5914:in 1616 and others soon followed. 5887:over the "new model" Swedish army 5177:by Spain, Ferdinand II, Savoy and 5028: 4752: 4724: 4654: 4528: 4297:Campaigns during the Swedish phase 4157:Sweden invades Germany (1630–1635) 3729:until his death in November 1632. 3467: 2397:Northern Spain and Southern France 25: 14849: 12313:Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette 11202:from the original on 28 June 2011 10388:from the original on 28 July 2021 10049:from the original on 25 June 2022 9896:. London: Pickering & Chatto. 9789:from the original on 7 April 2022 8572:Pfister, Riedel & Uebele 2012 8295:from the original on 17 June 2012 7725:Milton, Axworthy & Simms 2018 5609:The Peace was later denounced by 5590:in Alsace, with the exception of 5349: 5251:in 1635, plus minor victories at 5013: 4640: 4514: 4440:won a significant victory at the 4153:in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid. 3812: 3770: 3569:Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy 3555:, although the strongly Catholic 1660:Swedish-French Period (1635–1648) 32:Thirty Years War (disambiguation) 14710: 14698: 14632:Bibliography of European history 14227:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 14092: 14080: 13411:Fourth Council of Constantinople 13366:Second Council of Constantinople 11150:. London, printed for W. Miller. 10950:The Wars of Louis XIV: 1667–1714 9879:from the original on 8 July 2022 9821:Mitchell, Andrew Joseph (2005). 8271: 6374: 6364: 6279:[ˈdʁaɪ̯sɪçˌjɛːʁɪɡɐkʁiːk] 5112: 5111: 5097: 5083: 5069: 5055: 5041: 5027: 5020: 4823:in January 1642 was followed by 4780: 4779: 4765: 4751: 4738: 4737: 4723: 4709: 4695: 4681: 4667: 4653: 4639: 4625: 4611: 4598: 4597: 4583: 4569: 4555: 4542: 4541: 4527: 4513: 4499: 4485: 4478: 3881: 3867: 3853: 3839: 3825: 3811: 3797: 3783: 3769: 3755: 3748: 3671:Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria 3622:The Catholic counter-offensive; 3297:, who joined the war in 1625 as 3182:distributed across Germany, the 1531:Swedish intervention (1630–1635) 1148: 1136: 1114: 1102: 1080: 1058: 1046: 1034: 1022: 1010: 998: 986: 974: 952: 940: 928: 916: 896: 884: 872: 854: 842: 830: 820: 809: 797: 785: 773: 766: 754: 742: 730: 723: 711: 699: 687: 675: 663: 651: 639: 627: 615: 603: 591: 579: 567: 547: 520: 507: 494: 470: 456: 443: 429: 402: 388: 375: 362: 339: 326: 314: 303: 290: 275: 262: 250: 238: 226: 213: 59: 14657:History of Western civilization 14260:Christianity in the Middle Ages 13381:Third Council of Constantinople 13305:First Council of Constantinople 12722:Australia / New Guinea 10933:(1990 ed.). Dorset Press. 10869:Germany in the Thirty Years War 10493:(PhD thesis). Duke University. 9732:. University Press of Kentucky. 9406:"Art and the Thirty Years' War" 9174:The Thirty Years' War 1618–1648 6351: 6339: 6322: 6305: 6292: 6260: 6251: 6238: 6228: 6215: 6206: 6051:Mother Courage and Her Children 5226:Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy 4710: 4668: 4584: 4216:Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania 4186:, ruled by his Catholic cousin 3826: 3742:Danish intervention (1625–1629) 3540:and the Habsburg heartlands of 3533:, although all three survived. 3237:. The Habsburgs also ruled the 3113:, a religious conflict between 3029:and replaced by the Protestant 2998:for European dominance between 1479:Danish intervention (1625–1629) 1359:Palatinate campaign (1620–1623) 356:Imperial alliance prior to 1635 14501:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 14444:Christianity in the modern era 14215:Christianity in late antiquity 13620:Dissolution of the monasteries 12886:History of the Catholic Church 10880:. Cambridge University Press. 10669:Colonial Latin American Review 10652:. Cambridge University Press. 10484:Stutler, James Oliver (2014). 10275:. Cambridge University Press. 10207:. Cambridge University Press. 9594:. Cambridge University Press. 9556:. Hackett Publishing Co, Inc. 9452:. Asian Educational Services. 6188: 6158: 6149: 6140: 5602:, the Imperial territories of 5070: 5056: 4696: 4682: 4626: 4127:war in the Spanish Netherlands 3943:became joint-administrator of 3868: 3854: 3840: 3756: 3527:Third Defenestration of Prague 3525:. In what became known as the 3432:had no surviving children, in 3347:Frederick IV, Elector Palatine 2966:initiated by the 16th-century 111:(30 years, 5 months and 1 day) 13: 1: 14652:History of the European Union 13494:Fourth Council of the Lateran 13469:Second Council of the Lateran 13078:Apostles in the New Testament 12219:Christoph Friedrich von Ammon 11730:Colloquy of Worms (1540–1541) 11038:Epidemics Resulting from Wars 10793:The English Historical Review 10648:Van Gelderen, Martin (2002). 10540:10.1093/ehr/cvii.ccccxxiv.587 10527:The English Historical Review 10126:The Journal of Modern History 10078:(inactive 12 September 2024). 9517:The Journal of Modern History 9259:Journal of Portuguese History 9223:. Spellmount Publishers Ltd. 9145:The Journal of Modern History 6386: 5704:within Germany, 1618 to 1648 5366:was a key factor in the 1640 5098: 5084: 5042: 4092:War of the Mantuan Succession 3507:Protestant religious freedoms 3484:Frederick V of the Palatinate 3445:Frederick V, Elector Palatine 3031:Frederick V of the Palatinate 2941:War of the Mantuan Succession 109:23 May 1618 – 24 October 1648 13608:Catholic Counter-Reformation 13474:Third Council of the Lateran 13464:First Council of the Lateran 12920:Catholic ecumenical councils 12744:Lutheran Church of Australia 11195:The Cambridge Modern History 11035:Prinzing, Friedrich (1916). 10774:Lützen: Great Battles Series 10681:10.1080/10609164.2011.585770 10629:Trevor-Roper, Hugh (2001) . 10465:Storrs, Christopher (2006). 10446:Spielvogel, Jackson (2017). 10290:Pursell, Brennan C. (2003). 9982:O'Connell, Robert L (1990). 9977:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 9928:10.1371/journal.pone.0178252 9635:. Rowman & Littlefield. 9552:Helfferich, Tryntje (2009). 9242:(2017 ed.). McFarland. 9238:Clodfelter, Micheal (2008). 9200:Brzezinski, Richard (2001). 9050:] (in Dutch). T. Wever. 6347:Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg 6300:War of the Jülich Succession 5796:In 1940, agrarian historian 5292: 5167:last duke in the direct line 3359:War of the Jülich Succession 3313:Map of the Thirty Years' War 3039:fighting into the Palatinate 2178:Flanders and Northern France 1245:Military deaths from disease 1235:120,000 in Imperial service 186:gains independence from the 83:Dutch warships prior to the 7: 14753:17th century in Switzerland 14611:Russian invasion of Ukraine 14222:Crisis of the Third Century 12308:Karl Gottlieb Bretschneider 11724:Augsburg Confession Variata 11573:Denmark–Norway and Holstein 10952:. Harlow, England: Longman. 10696:Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2010). 10180:(with several contributors) 9741:. Oxford University Press. 9616:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 9364:Duffy, Christopher (1995). 9005:The Economic History Review 8560:Schulze & Volckart 2019 7191:Murdoch & Grosjean 2014 7167:Murdoch & Grosjean 2014 6345:Its official title remains 5319:to recognise Louis XIII as 5222:Swedish invasion of Germany 4344:, hired mercenaries led by 4172:Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden 4056:On 13 May 1628, his deputy 3908:With Saxony dominating the 1311:Bohemian Revolt (1618–1620) 1237:30,000 in Bavarian service 1222:110,000 in Swedish service 1123: 1089: 1067: 961: 10: 14854: 14667:Military history of Europe 14662:Maritime history of Europe 12954:History of the Roman Curia 12486:Zillertal Valley expulsion 12196:Friedrich Gottlieb Süskind 12175:Johann Christoph Döderlein 11085:The Modern Language Review 10330:10.1177/004056394800900407 10184:Parker, Geoffrey (2004) . 10103:American Historical Review 9590:Israel, Jonathan (1995a). 9322:10.1177/096834459800500301 9274:. University of Nebraska. 8946: 5930:Social and cultural impact 5792:Soldiers plundering a farm 5782:Wars of the Three Kingdoms 5663: 5464: 5461:Peace of Westphalia (1648) 5402:to work on plantations in 5368:Portuguese Restoration War 5323:, and ruler of Catalonia. 5296: 4382:defeated the Imperials at 4160: 3805:Lübeck (Duchy of Holstein) 3567:. Funded by Frederick and 3471: 2957:Portuguese Restoration War 1041:Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand 29: 14803:History of Central Europe 14798:European wars of religion 14778:17th-century Christianity 14637:Genetic history of Europe 14619: 14424: 14240: 14180: 14147: 14075: 13975: 13841: 13768: 13703: 13690:European wars of religion 13587: 13522: 13424: 13346: 13237: 13160: 13020: 13009: 13001:Eastern Catholic Churches 12876: 12807: 12752: 12721: 12670: 12661: 12614: 12546: 12503: 12494: 12421: 12358: 12351: 12334:Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 12321: 12295: 12252: 12209: 12183: 12155: 12144: 12099: 12023: 11959: 11943: 11898: 11837: 11810:Greek Augsburg Confession 11714: 11707: 11605: 11565: 11557:Nuremberg Religious Peace 11507: 11500: 11489: 11432: 11268: 11226: 11221:Links to related articles 11138:. Longmans, Green and Co. 11134:Roberts, Michael (1958). 11048:Journal of Modern History 10895:Grosjean, Alexia (2003). 10876:Dukes, Paul, ed. (1995). 10867:Benecke, Gerhard (1978). 10772:Wilson, Peter H. (2018). 10753:Wilson, Peter H. (2009). 10567:10.1177/03061973211007353 10548:Talbott, Siobhan (2021). 10097:Parker, Geoffrey (2008). 10076:10.1215/01455532-26-2-245 10022:10.1017/S0025727300067703 9775:McMurdie, Justin (2014). 9737:Lockhart, Paul D (2007). 9090:. Yale University Press. 9086:Bassett, Richard (2015). 8968:10.1017/S0008938900012711 8464:Alfani & Percoco 2019 8279:"The Peace of Westphalia" 6168:frequently differed from 6092:Swedish sovereignty over 6005:Simplicius Simplicissimus 5305:Principality of Catalonia 4987:, seizing the castle and 4266:per year, or one million 4184:war with Poland–Lithuania 3571:, a mercenary army under 3132:cuius regio, eius religio 2695:Franche-Comté and Germany 2174: 2115: 1304: 1243: 1226:30,000 in Danish service 1224:80,000 in French service 1212: 1163: 537: 200: 101: 71:Defenestrations of Prague 58: 49:European wars of religion 46: 41: 13821:Mary of the Divine Heart 13444:Clash against the empire 13396:Second Council of Nicaea 13290:Old St. Peter's Basilica 12815:Confessional Lutheranism 12339:Friedrich Schleiermacher 12282:Richard Adelbert Lipsius 12277:Ferdinand Christian Baur 11770:Colloquy of Worms (1557) 10929:Langer, Herbert (1980). 10738:. W.W. Norton & Co. 10594:Journal of World History 10583:Thion, Stephane (2008). 10450:. Wadsworth Publishing. 10420:10.1177/1354066117719992 10001:Outram, Quentin (2001). 9954:Norrhem, Svante (2019). 9631:Jensen, Gary F. (2007). 9496:Hanlon, Gregory (2016). 9219:Chandler, David (1990). 9172:Bonney, Richard (2002). 8956:Central European History 6414:Heitz & Rischer 1995 6134: 6036:in 1871, as well as the 5766:1629–1631 Italian plague 5623:political disintegration 5411:Dutch West India Company 5009:Conflict outside Germany 4287:Battle of the Alte Veste 4277:in September 1631, then 4131:Dutch West India Company 4084:Albrecht von Wallenstein 3968:Albrecht von Wallenstein 3703:Georg Friedrich of Baden 3645:Battle of White Mountain 3305:Background: 1556 to 1618 3299:Duke of Holstein-Gottorp 2558:Villefranche-de-Conflent 14738:17th century in Bohemia 14642:History of Christianity 14087:Vatican City portal 13439:Investiture Controversy 13295:First Council of Nicaea 12329:Johann Gottfried Herder 12191:Gottlob Christian Storr 10957:Murdoch, Steve (2001). 10734:White, Matthew (2012). 10715:Wedgwood, C.V. (1938). 10521:Sutherland, NM (1992). 10203:Parrott, David (2001). 9844:Murdoch, Steve (2000). 9721:10.1163/187607597X00064 9410:Die Welt der Habsburger 9289:Croxton, Derek (2013). 6020:, a participant in the 5646:Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668 5642:Westphalian sovereignty 5494:and the Venetian envoy 5141:end of the 15th century 4015:Maurice of Hesse-Kassel 3295:Christian IV of Denmark 3047:Christian IV of Denmark 3025:was deposed as king of 1175:100,000–140,000 Swedish 53:French–Habsburg rivalry 14823:Wars involving England 14783:17th-century conflicts 14748:17th century in France 14743:17th century in Europe 14466:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 14099:Catholicism portal 13910:Second Vatican Council 13796:Our Lady of La Salette 13603:Protestant Reformation 13590:Protestant Reformation 13509:Second Council of Lyon 12898:Ecclesiastical history 12303:Franz Volkmar Reinhard 12201:Johann Friedrich Flatt 12170:Johann David Michaelis 11980:Colloquy of Mumpelgart 11539:Protestation at Speyer 11519:Heidelberg Disputation 10948:Lynn, John A. (1999). 10116:10.1086/ahr.113.4.1053 10064:Social Science History 9760:. Palgrave Macmillan. 9758:Europe at War, 1600–50 9756:Maland, David (1980). 9652:Spain's Road to Empire 9404:Friehs, Julia Teresa. 9293:. Palgrave Macmillan. 9270:Cramer, Kevin (2007). 9181:Briggs, Robin (1996). 7641:Algra & Algra 1956 6270: 6097: 6081: 6072:Political consequences 6038:Greater Germanic Reich 5984:Eichstätt witch trials 5947: 5880: 5879:just one company deep. 5793: 5729: 5666:Second plague pandemic 5619:Treaty of the Pyrenees 5546: 5479: 5371: 5244: 5243:by French troops, 1630 4941: 4870: 4367: 4346:Bernard of Saxe-Weimar 4298: 4246: 4179: 4087: 4006: 3707:Christian of Brunswick 3674: 3627: 3593:Prince of Transylvania 3487: 3405:, which suspended the 3398: 3314: 2927:. Fought primarily in 837:Christian of Brunswick 826:Bernard of Saxe-Weimar 538:Commanders and leaders 14828:Wars involving France 14546:Industrial Revolution 13806:First Vatican Council 13504:First Council of Lyon 13268:Constantine the Great 12964:Christian monasticism 11722:Dissemination of the 11544:Articles of Schwabach 11534:Diet of Speyer (1529) 10931:The Thirty Years' War 10871:. St. Martin's Press. 10862:. St. Martin's Press. 10606:10.1353/jwh.2016.0100 10533:(CCCCXXIV): 587–625. 10401:Sharman, J.C (2018). 10166:The Thirty Years' War 9728:Levy, Jack S (1983). 9688:Lee, Stephen (2001). 9669:Kohn, George (1995). 9650:Kamen, Henry (2003). 6438:Nicklisch et al. 2017 6271:Dreißigjähriger Krieg 6221:1640 figures for the 6091: 6079: 5978:, held in the nearby 5957:Bishopric of Würzburg 5945: 5889:at Nördlingen in 1634 5867: 5833:Military developments 5791: 5700: 5568:Old Swiss Confederacy 5532: 5474: 5390:economy known as the 5357: 5239:Siege and capture of 5238: 5230:Piedmontese Civil War 5149:war against the Dutch 4974:Raimondo Montecuccoli 4935: 4868: 4362: 4296: 4251:Frankfurt an der Oder 4240: 4176:Battle of Breitenfeld 4170: 4082: 4004: 3669: 3621: 3481: 3463:Phase I: 1618 to 1635 3371: 3331:Maximilian of Bavaria 3312: 3075:Emperor Ferdinand III 2508:San Lorenzo de Mongay 1252:: 3,500,000–6,500,000 1213:Casualties and losses 1053:Maximilian of Bavaria 14601:European debt crisis 14596:European integration 14536:Age of Enlightenment 14376:Republic of Florence 13983:Sexual abuse scandal 13892:Mit brennender Sorge 13735:Age of Enlightenment 13514:Bernard of Clairvaux 13391:Byzantine Iconoclasm 13330:Council of Chalcedon 13110:Council of Jerusalem 12979:Role in civilization 12959:Religious institutes 12891:By country or region 12571:J. C. K. von Hofmann 12556:G. C. A. von Harless 12461:Lars Levi Laestadius 12165:Johann Salomo Semler 12127:Salzburg Protestants 12000:Matthias Hafenreffer 11890:John the Magnanimous 11860:Cyriacus Spangenberg 11808:Presentation of the 11665:Nicolaus von Amsdorf 11549:Presentation of the 11001:10.1093/past/39.1.34 10914:10.1093/past/39.1.44 10717:The Thirty Years War 10448:Western Civilisation 9782:'s Defining Conflict 9429:Hays, J. N. (2005). 9397:10.3917/dss.141.0007 9176:. Osprey Publishing. 8286:University of Oregon 5980:Bishopric of Bamberg 5976:Bamberg witch trials 5961:Bishop von Ehrenberg 5814:fell by nearly 50%. 5384:Dutch–Portuguese War 5364:Dutch–Portuguese War 5157:and its fortress of 5127:class=notpageimage| 4795:class=notpageimage| 4116:Edict of Restitution 4038:Charles I of England 3897:class=notpageimage| 3557:Louis XIII of France 3423:Electoral Palatinate 3267:much of the Americas 3023:Emperor Ferdinand II 2953:Dutch-Portuguese War 1502:Lutter am Barenberge 1247:: 700,000–1,350,000 1181:70,000–80,000 French 30:For other uses, see 14566:Revolutions of 1848 14496:Early modern France 14277:Anglo-Saxon England 14182:Classical antiquity 13811:Papal infallibility 13801:Our Lady of Lourdes 13750:Shimabara Rebellion 13594:Counter-Reformation 12678:Old Lutheran schism 12634:A. F. O. Münchmeyer 12566:Gottfried Thomasius 12184:Old Tübingen school 11824:Liturgical struggle 11787:Magdeburg Centuries 11785:Publication of the 11775:Counter-Reformation 11645:Argula von Grumbach 11630:Johannes Bugenhagen 11551:Augsburg Confession 10976:10.1093/past/6.1.31 10318:Theological Studies 10309:Ryan, E.A. (1948). 9919:2017PLoSO..1278252N 9385:Dix-septième Siècle 8940:, pp. 752–754. 8841:, pp. 283–284. 8805:, pp. 171–172. 8721:, pp. 257–258. 8697:, pp. 255–256. 8622:, pp. 130–137. 8586:, pp. 493–495. 8526:, pp. 245–246. 8439:, pp. 160–161. 8415:, pp. 156–159. 8403:, pp. 188–189. 8364:, pp. 331–332. 8268:, pp. 746–747. 8256:, pp. 500–501. 8232:, pp. 197–199. 8193:, pp. 153–172. 8181:, pp. 194–195. 8160:2020 & Thornton 8150:, pp. 167–168. 8138:, pp. 189–190. 8126:, pp. 431–448. 8018:, pp. 263–264. 7970:, pp. 235–236. 7958:, pp. 118–119. 7934:, pp. 740–741. 7886:, pp. 495–496. 7874:, pp. 493–494. 7835:, pp. 693–695. 7811:, pp. 472–473. 7775:, pp. 643–645. 7715:, pp. 641–642. 7703:, pp. 636–639. 7580:, pp. 661–662. 7556:, pp. 595–598. 7532:, pp. 272–273. 7484:, pp. 132–134. 7472:, pp. 385–386. 7460:, pp. 220–223. 7385:, pp. 305–306. 7337:, pp. 253–254. 7289:, pp. 385–386. 7241:, pp. 242–244. 7229:, pp. 232–233. 7097:, pp. 107–109. 7085:, pp. 179–181. 7073:, pp. 162–164. 7061:, pp. 182–185. 7037:, pp. 152–154. 7025:, pp. 147–148. 6989:, pp. 127–129. 6950:, pp. 121–122. 6866:, pp. 271–274. 6770:, pp. 159–161. 6695:, pp. 602–603. 6671:, pp. 589–590. 6494:, pp. 164–168. 6401:, pp. 225–226. 5871:1631; Tilly's army 5839:Military Revolution 5770:early modern period 5692:German nationalists 5627:Second Northern War 5467:Peace of Westphalia 5261:Christine of France 4814:Lennart Torstensson 4457:Portuguese colonies 4218:, into agreeing an 4109:Duke of Mecklenburg 4005:Danish intervention 3984:Treaty of The Hague 3980:Treaty of Compiègne 3966:Ferdinand had paid 3651:Palatinate Campaign 3609:Christian of Anhalt 3443:Another option was 3437:Philip III of Spain 3403:Twelve Years' Truce 3251:Spanish Netherlands 3079:Peace of Westphalia 2548:Castelló d'Empúries 1257:4,500,000–8,000,000 1250:Total civilian dead 1184:80,000–90,000 Dutch 1178:27,000 Danes (1626) 1109:Charles of Lorraine 780:Christian of Anhalt 333:Brandenburg-Prussia 175:Brandenburg-Prussia 146:France annexes the 132:Peace of Westphalia 85:Battle of the Downs 14672:Crusading movement 14576:Russian Revolution 14411:Hundred Years' War 14307:Maritime republics 14210:Early Christianity 14200:Hellenistic period 14157:Paleolithic Europe 13856:Our Lady of Fátima 13645:Ignatius of Loyola 13569:Catherine of Siena 13537:Pope Boniface VIII 13356:Benedict of Nursia 13325:Council of Ephesus 13162:Ante-Nicene period 13115:Split with Judaism 12949:Crusading movement 12734:Gotthard Fritzsche 12596:F. H. R. von Frank 12586:Theodosius Harnack 12513:E. W. Hengstenberg 12476:N. F. S. Grundtvig 12471:Carl Olof Rosenius 12446:Paavo Ruotsalainen 12436:Hans Nielsen Hauge 12224:Julius Wegscheider 12015:Stephan Praetorius 11990:Nikolaus Selnecker 11967:Acceptance of the 11875:Victorinus Strigel 11845:Philip Melanchthon 11818:Formula of Concord 11740:Regensburg Interim 11735:Diet of Regensburg 11695:Frederick the Wise 11685:Stephan Praetorius 11670:Laurentius Andreae 11625:Philip Melanchthon 11620:Katharina von Bora 11513:Ninety-five Theses 11144:Schiller, Frederic 11041:. Clarendon Press. 10805:10.1093/ehr/cen160 9780:Corpus Christianum 8781:, pp. 83–117. 8191:Gnanaprakasar 2003 6914:, pp. 12, 15. 6647:, pp. 4, 787. 6246:Franco-Spanish War 6098: 6082: 6029:Friedrich Schiller 5988:Palatinate-Neuburg 5948: 5881: 5794: 5777:population decline 5730: 5702:Population decline 5672:The General Crisis 5561:. Frederick's son 5547: 5480: 5376:Philip II of Spain 5372: 5321:Count of Barcelona 5245: 4942: 4914:Battle of Freiburg 4871: 4825:Second Breitenfeld 4819:French victory at 4368: 4364:Cardinal Richelieu 4350:Franco-Spanish War 4299: 4260:Treaty of Bärwalde 4247: 4180: 4088: 4007: 3992:Cardinal Richelieu 3988:Republic of Venice 3910:Upper Saxon Circle 3675: 3641:Charles of Bucquoy 3628: 3573:Ernst von Mansfeld 3488: 3453:James I of England 3399: 3338:Archduke Ferdinand 3321:, caused when its 3315: 3196:Holy Roman Emperor 3194:who voted for the 3101:Structural origins 2964:religious conflict 2945:Franco-Spanish War 2815:3rd Lérins Islands 2810:2nd Lérins Islands 2800:1st Lérins Islands 2164:Franco-Spanish War 221:Kingdom of Bohemia 80:(16 November 1632) 14733:Thirty Years' War 14686: 14685: 14680: 14679: 14606:COVID-19 pandemic 14551:French Revolution 14526:Habsburg monarchy 14506:Cossack Hetmanate 14486:Portuguese Empire 14476:Absolute monarchy 14471:Thirty Years' War 14366:Holy Roman Empire 14291:Bulgarian Empire 14250:Early Middle Ages 14167:Bronze Age Europe 14141:History of Europe 14107: 14106: 14067:COVID-19 pandemic 14045:Pope Benedict XVI 13950:Pope John Paul II 13725:Pope Benedict XIV 13711:French Revolution 13695:Thirty Years' War 13685:Robert Bellarmine 13670:John of the Cross 13574:Pope Alexander VI 13559:Council of Vienne 13489:Francis of Assisi 13479:Pope Innocent III 13348:Early Middle Ages 13342: 13341: 13338: 13337: 13280:Arian controversy 13233: 13232: 13181:Apostolic Fathers 12832: 12831: 12828: 12827: 12803: 12802: 12703:H. E. F. Guericke 12657: 12656: 12528:Carl Paul Caspari 12451:Finnish Awakening 12347: 12346: 12267:Philip Marheineke 12239:Adolf von Harnack 12140: 12139: 12112:Christian Scriver 12091:Thirty Years' War 11939: 11938: 11880:Johannes Agricola 11765:Peace of Augsburg 11703: 11702: 11690:Johann Pfeffinger 11650:Petrus Särkilahti 11601: 11600: 11445: 11444: 11261:Thirty Years' War 11182:10.1093/gh/15.1.1 11126:978-0-521-02603-1 11027:978-90-04-12086-0 10940:978-0-88029-262-7 10887:978-0-521-45139-0 10764:978-0-7139-9592-3 10745:978-0-393-08192-3 10726:978-1-59017-146-2 10707:978-1-84383-575-2 10700:. Boydell Press. 10659:978-0-521-80203-1 10640:978-0-86597-278-0 10476:978-0-19-924637-3 10457:978-1-305-95231-7 10301:978-0-7546-3401-0 10282:978-0-521-45139-0 10214:978-0-521-79209-7 10195:978-0-521-54392-7 10175:978-0-415-12883-4 9965:978-91-88661-82-1 9855:978-1-86232-182-3 9813:978-1-78738-023-3 9767:978-0-333-23446-4 9748:978-0-19-927121-4 9699:978-0-415-26862-2 9680:978-0-8160-2758-3 9673:. Facts on file. 9642:978-0-7425-4697-4 9601:978-0-521-47045-2 9507:978-1-138-15827-6 9459:978-81-206-1686-8 9356:978-1-4981-4446-9 9300:978-1-137-33332-2 9281:978-0-8032-1562-7 9249:978-0-7864-7470-7 9211:978-1-85532-552-4 9192:978-0-670-83589-8 9135:978-1-4094-0629-7 9116:978-1-4094-0629-7 9097:978-0-300-17858-6 9078:978-1-4094-0629-7 9017:10.1111/ehr.12652 8916:, pp. 67–68. 8904:, pp. 67–68. 8889:, pp. 89–90. 8853:, pp. 18–19. 8779:Trevor-Roper 2001 8427:, pp. 88–91. 8006:, pp. 12–18. 7727:, pp. 60–65. 7629:Van Gelderen 2002 7592:, pp. 94–95. 7544:, pp. 80–85. 7301:, pp. 28–29. 7277:, pp. 98–99. 7193:, pp. 48–49. 7169:, pp. 43–44. 7001:, pp. 37–38. 6965:, pp. 98–99. 6926:, pp. 81–82. 6902:, pp. 78–79. 6890:, pp. 74–75. 6854:, pp. 63–65. 6818:, pp. 47–49. 6746:, pp. 17–22. 6722:, pp. 22–24. 6683:, pp. 17–18. 6507:Van Nimwegen 2014 6094:Western Pomerania 6040:envisaged by the 6022:Sack of Magdeburg 5843:Maurice of Orange 5615:Burgundian Circle 5604:Swedish Pomerania 5551:Farther Pomerania 5545:, 30 January 1648 5476:Holy Roman Empire 5404:Portuguese Brazil 5400:Portuguese Angola 5241:Casale Monferrato 5175:Duke of Guastalla 5159:Casale Monferrato 4926:Second Nördlingen 4909:in October 1644. 4831:. The capture of 4444:in October 1639. 4401:. His capture of 4255:Sack of Magdeburg 4243:Sack of Magdeburg 4231:Christian William 4066:Gustavus Adolphus 3978:In the June 1624 3613:Maurice of Orange 3561:Protestant rebels 3482:"Winter's King", 3407:Eighty Years' War 3241:until 1556, when 3223:House of Habsburg 3200:prince-bishoprics 3127:Peace of Augsburg 3123:Holy Roman Empire 3051:Gustavus Adolphus 3010:, and the French 2976:Peace of Augsburg 2972:Holy Roman Empire 2937:Eighty Years' War 2921:Thirty Years' War 2916: 2915: 2683:France hinterland 2128: 2127: 2110: 2109: 1652:Strasbourg Bridge 1296:Thirty Years' War 1261: 1260: 804:Christian WIlliam 694:Maurice of Orange 554:Gustavus Adolphus 502:Holy Roman Empire 370:Habsburg Monarchy 196: 195: 188:Holy Roman Empire 184:Swiss Confederacy 179:Eastern Pomerania 166:Western Pomerania 87:(21 October 1639) 42:Thirty Years' War 16:(Redirected from 14845: 14715: 14714: 14713: 14703: 14702: 14694: 14541:Great Divergence 14456:Age of Discovery 14401:Late Middle Ages 14371:High Middle Ages 14282:Byzantine Empire 14265:Christianization 14255:Migration Period 14190:Classical Greece 14162:Neolithic Europe 14134: 14127: 14120: 14111: 14110: 14097: 14096: 14085: 14084: 14083: 14062:Patriarch Kirill 13935:Pope John Paul I 13740:Anti-clericalism 13720:Pope Innocent XI 13640:Society of Jesus 13625:Council of Trent 13579:Age of Discovery 13524:Late Middle Ages 13426:High Middle Ages 13416:East–West Schism 13300:Pope Sylvester I 13246: 13245: 13235: 13234: 13145:General epistles 13140:Pauline epistles 13073:John the Baptist 13056:Great Commission 13018: 13017: 12969:Catholic culture 12859: 12852: 12845: 12836: 12835: 12780:C. F. W. Walther 12775:F. C. D. Wyneken 12708:G. P. E. Huschke 12668: 12667: 12644:Theodor Kliefoth 12561:J. W. F. Höfling 12501: 12500: 12356: 12355: 12244:Wilhelm Herrmann 12234:Albrecht Ritschl 12229:Wilhelm Gesenius 12153: 12152: 12081:Johannes Musaeus 12066:Johann Hülsemann 12056:Jesper Brochmand 12051:Nicolaus Hunnius 12041:Abraham Calovius 12010:Aegidius Hunnius 11957: 11956: 11931:Crypto-Lutherans 11926:Gnesio-Lutherans 11906:Crypto-Calvinism 11885:Andreas Osiander 11870:Andreas Musculus 11865:Joachim Westphal 11850:Matthias Flacius 11750:Augsburg Interim 11745:Schmalkaldic War 11712: 11711: 11680:Laurentius Petri 11660:Stephan Agricola 11529:Marburg Colloquy 11505: 11504: 11498: 11497: 11472: 11465: 11458: 11449: 11448: 11259:Treaties of the 11253: 11246: 11239: 11230: 11229: 11217: 11216: 11211: 11209: 11207: 11185: 11164: 11163:. Edward Arnold. 11157:Steinberg, S. H. 11151: 11139: 11130: 11108: 11079: 11042: 11031: 11012: 10993:Past and Present 10987: 10968:Past and Present 10962: 10953: 10944: 10925: 10906:Past and Present 10900: 10899:. Leiden: Brill. 10891: 10872: 10863: 10845: 10816: 10799:(502): 554–586. 10787: 10768: 10749: 10730: 10711: 10692: 10663: 10644: 10633:. Liberty Fund. 10625: 10588: 10579: 10569: 10544: 10542: 10517: 10515: 10513: 10507: 10501:. Archived from 10492: 10480: 10461: 10442: 10432: 10422: 10397: 10395: 10393: 10387: 10379:Economic History 10376: 10366: 10356: 10354: 10352: 10346: 10340:. Archived from 10315: 10305: 10286: 10267: 10265: 10263: 10257: 10251:. Archived from 10242: 10232: 10218: 10199: 10179: 10162:Parker, Geoffrey 10157: 10120: 10118: 10109:(4): 1053–1079. 10093: 10087: 10079: 10058: 10056: 10054: 10048: 10033: 10007: 9997: 9978: 9969: 9950: 9940: 9930: 9897: 9888: 9886: 9884: 9869:Northern Studies 9859: 9840: 9838: 9836: 9817: 9798: 9796: 9794: 9771: 9752: 9733: 9724: 9703: 9684: 9665: 9646: 9627: 9610:Israel, Jonathan 9605: 9586: 9567: 9548: 9511: 9492: 9463: 9444: 9425: 9423: 9421: 9400: 9379: 9360: 9341: 9304: 9285: 9266: 9253: 9234: 9215: 9196: 9177: 9168: 9139: 9120: 9101: 9082: 9063: 9061: 9059: 9036: 9011:(4): 1175–1201. 8995: 8941: 8935: 8929: 8923: 8917: 8911: 8905: 8899: 8890: 8884: 8878: 8872: 8866: 8860: 8854: 8848: 8842: 8836: 8830: 8824: 8818: 8812: 8806: 8800: 8794: 8788: 8782: 8776: 8770: 8764: 8758: 8752: 8746: 8740: 8734: 8728: 8722: 8716: 8710: 8704: 8698: 8692: 8686: 8680: 8674: 8668: 8662: 8656: 8650: 8644: 8635: 8629: 8623: 8617: 8611: 8605: 8599: 8593: 8587: 8581: 8575: 8569: 8563: 8557: 8551: 8545: 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6531: 6522: 6516: 6510: 6504: 6495: 6489: 6483: 6477: 6468: 6462: 6453: 6447: 6441: 6435: 6429: 6423: 6417: 6411: 6402: 6396: 6381: 6378: 6372: 6368: 6362: 6355: 6349: 6343: 6337: 6334:Imperial Knights 6326: 6320: 6309: 6303: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6281: 6276: 6264: 6258: 6255: 6249: 6242: 6236: 6232: 6226: 6223:Army of Flanders 6219: 6213: 6210: 6204: 6192: 6186: 6162: 6156: 6153: 6147: 6144: 6010:picaresque novel 5803:absolute decline 5726: 5720: 5650:Nijmegen in 1678 5572:Three Bishoprics 5535:Peace of Münster 5496:Alvise Contarini 5484:Peace of Münster 5392:Triangular trade 5309:Catalan Republic 5115: 5114: 5101: 5100: 5087: 5086: 5073: 5072: 5059: 5058: 5045: 5044: 5031: 5030: 5024: 4961:Johann von Werth 4852:Cardinal Mazarin 4783: 4782: 4769: 4768: 4755: 4754: 4741: 4740: 4727: 4726: 4713: 4712: 4699: 4698: 4685: 4684: 4671: 4670: 4657: 4656: 4643: 4642: 4629: 4628: 4615: 4614: 4601: 4600: 4587: 4586: 4573: 4572: 4559: 4558: 4545: 4544: 4531: 4530: 4517: 4516: 4503: 4502: 4489: 4488: 4482: 4314:Heilbronn League 4310:Axel Oxenstierna 4196:Truce of Altmark 4143:'s-Hertogenbosch 4096:Treaty of Lübeck 4070:Alexander Leslie 3996:Treaty of Monzón 3885: 3884: 3871: 3870: 3857: 3856: 3843: 3842: 3829: 3828: 3815: 3814: 3801: 3800: 3787: 3786: 3773: 3772: 3759: 3758: 3752: 3713:in May 1622 and 3683:Lower Palatinate 3661:Upper Palatinate 3657:Treaty of Munich 3523:Jaroslav Borzita 3449:Elizabeth Stuart 3430:Emperor Matthias 3411:Ambrosio Spinola 3397:: Ruled by Spain 3365:the Protestant. 3351:Protestant Union 3289:, and along the 3180:Imperial Estates 3111:Schmalkaldic War 3091:balance of power 3012:House of Bourbon 2925:European history 2638: 2347: 2169: 2165: 2155: 2148: 2141: 2132: 2131: 2088:2nd Saint Martin 2083:Cape St. Vincent 2058:1st Saint Martin 2023: 1986: 1974: 1962: 1790: 1708: 1696: 1643: 1522:'s-Hertogenbosch 1462: 1307: 1306: 1299: 1297: 1287: 1280: 1273: 1264: 1263: 1205:20,500 Bavarians 1153: 1152: 1141: 1140: 1132: 1130: 1119: 1118: 1107: 1106: 1098: 1096: 1085: 1084: 1076: 1074: 1063: 1062: 1051: 1050: 1039: 1038: 1027: 1026: 1015: 1014: 1003: 1002: 991: 990: 979: 978: 970: 968: 957: 956: 945: 944: 935:Archduke Leopold 933: 932: 921: 920: 912: 901: 900: 889: 888: 877: 876: 859: 858: 857: 847: 846: 834: 824: 814: 813: 802: 801: 790: 789: 778: 777: 771: 770: 769: 759: 758: 747: 746: 745: 735: 734: 728: 727: 726: 716: 715: 704: 703: 692: 691: 680: 679: 668: 667: 656: 655: 644: 643: 632: 631: 622:Alexander Leslie 620: 619: 608: 607: 596: 595: 584: 583: 572: 571: 562: 552: 551: 530: 526: 524: 523: 512: 511: 500: 498: 497: 475: 474: 473: 466: 462: 460: 459: 448: 447: 439: 435: 433: 432: 407: 406: 405: 398: 394: 392: 391: 380: 379: 368: 366: 365: 349: 345: 343: 342: 331: 330: 329: 319: 318: 317: 309:Heilbronn League 307: 300: 296: 294: 293: 285: 281: 279: 278: 267: 266: 255: 254: 243: 242: 241: 231: 230: 219: 217: 216: 103: 102: 92:Battle of Rocroi 63: 39: 38: 21: 14853: 14852: 14848: 14847: 14846: 14844: 14843: 14842: 14723: 14722: 14721: 14711: 14709: 14697: 14689: 14687: 14682: 14681: 14676: 14615: 14581:Interwar period 14556:Napoleonic Wars 14420: 14391:Mongol invasion 14344:Crown of Aragon 14236: 14176: 14172:Iron Age Europe 14143: 14138: 14108: 14103: 14091: 14081: 14079: 14071: 13993:World Youth Day 13971: 13960:World Youth Day 13904:Pacem in terris 13898:Pope John XXIII 13837: 13764: 13755:Edict of Nantes 13713: 13709: 13699: 13665:Teresa of Ávila 13660:Tridentine Mass 13596: 13592: 13583: 13564:Knights Templar 13518: 13420: 13376:Gregorian chant 13334: 13260: 13257: 13254: 13252: 13241: 13229: 13156: 13025: 13013: 13005: 12872: 12870:Catholic Church 12863: 12833: 12824: 12799: 12790:F. W. Stellhorn 12765:J. A. A. Grabau 12748: 12717: 12698:Henrik Steffens 12653: 12649:Heinrich Hansen 12624:A. F. C. Vilmar 12610: 12581:K. F. A. Kahnis 12576:Franz Delitzsch 12542: 12490: 12417: 12343: 12317: 12291: 12287:Otto Pfleiderer 12248: 12205: 12179: 12136: 12095: 12071:J. C. Dannhauer 12061:Salomo Glassius 12036:J. A. Quenstedt 12019: 12005:Leonhard Hutter 11995:David Chytraeus 11975:Martin Chemnitz 11969:Book of Concord 11952: 11948: 11935: 11911:Sacramentarians 11894: 11855:Nicolaus Gallus 11833: 11816:Signing of the 11760:Peace of Passau 11755:Leipzig Interim 11699: 11655:Mikael Agricola 11597: 11561: 11492: 11485: 11476: 11446: 11441: 11440: 11428: 11264: 11257: 11222: 11214: 11205: 11203: 11127: 11097:10.2307/3720833 11028: 10941: 10888: 10853: 10851:Further reading 10848: 10834:10.2307/4048141 10784: 10765: 10746: 10727: 10708: 10660: 10641: 10511: 10509: 10508:on 28 July 2021 10505: 10490: 10477: 10458: 10391: 10389: 10385: 10374: 10350: 10348: 10347:on 4 March 2016 10344: 10313: 10302: 10283: 10261: 10259: 10255: 10240: 10215: 10196: 10176: 10081: 10080: 10052: 10050: 10046: 10010:Medical History 10005: 9994: 9966: 9913:(5): e0178252. 9882: 9880: 9856: 9834: 9832: 9814: 9792: 9790: 9768: 9749: 9700: 9681: 9662: 9643: 9624: 9602: 9583: 9564: 9508: 9460: 9441: 9419: 9417: 9376: 9357: 9301: 9282: 9250: 9231: 9212: 9193: 9136: 9117: 9098: 9079: 9057: 9055: 8949: 8944: 8936: 8932: 8928:, pp. 6–7. 8924: 8920: 8912: 8908: 8900: 8893: 8885: 8881: 8873: 8869: 8861: 8857: 8849: 8845: 8839:Helfferich 2009 8837: 8833: 8829:, pp. 3–4. 8825: 8821: 8813: 8809: 8801: 8797: 8789: 8785: 8777: 8773: 8765: 8761: 8753: 8749: 8741: 8737: 8729: 8725: 8717: 8713: 8705: 8701: 8693: 8689: 8681: 8677: 8669: 8665: 8657: 8653: 8645: 8638: 8630: 8626: 8618: 8614: 8606: 8602: 8594: 8590: 8582: 8578: 8570: 8566: 8558: 8554: 8546: 8542: 8534: 8530: 8522: 8518: 8510: 8506: 8502:, p. 1058. 8498: 8494: 8486: 8482: 8474: 8470: 8466:, p. 1175. 8462: 8458: 8450: 8443: 8435: 8431: 8423: 8419: 8411: 8407: 8399: 8392: 8384: 8380: 8376:, p. 1053. 8372: 8368: 8360: 8356: 8348: 8344: 8336: 8332: 8324: 8320: 8312: 8308: 8298: 8296: 8292: 8281: 8277: 8276: 8272: 8264: 8260: 8252: 8248: 8240: 8236: 8228: 8224: 8216: 8209: 8205:, pp. 3–4. 8201: 8197: 8189: 8185: 8177: 8173: 8163: 8158: 8154: 8146: 8142: 8134: 8130: 8122: 8118: 8110: 8106: 8098: 8094: 8086: 8082: 8074: 8070: 8062: 8058: 8050: 8046: 8038: 8034: 8026: 8022: 8014: 8010: 8002: 7998: 7990: 7986: 7978: 7974: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7930: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7906: 7902: 7894: 7890: 7882: 7878: 7870: 7866: 7858: 7851: 7843: 7839: 7831: 7827: 7819: 7815: 7807: 7803: 7795: 7791: 7783: 7779: 7771: 7767: 7759: 7755: 7747: 7743: 7735: 7731: 7723: 7719: 7711: 7707: 7699: 7695: 7689:Clodfelter 2008 7687: 7683: 7675: 7671: 7663: 7659: 7651: 7647: 7643:, pp. 120. 7639: 7635: 7627: 7620: 7612: 7608: 7600: 7596: 7588: 7584: 7576: 7572: 7564: 7560: 7552: 7548: 7540: 7536: 7528: 7524: 7516: 7512: 7504: 7500: 7492: 7488: 7480: 7476: 7468: 7464: 7456: 7452: 7444: 7440: 7434:Brzezinski 2001 7432: 7428: 7420: 7416: 7408: 7401: 7395:Brzezinski 2001 7393: 7389: 7381: 7377: 7369: 7365: 7357: 7353: 7345: 7341: 7333: 7329: 7321: 7317: 7309: 7305: 7297: 7293: 7285: 7281: 7273: 7269: 7261: 7257: 7249: 7245: 7237: 7233: 7225: 7221: 7213: 7209: 7201: 7197: 7189: 7185: 7177: 7173: 7165: 7161: 7153: 7149: 7141: 7137: 7129: 7125: 7117: 7113: 7105: 7101: 7093: 7089: 7081: 7077: 7069: 7065: 7057: 7053: 7047:Spielvogel 2017 7045: 7041: 7033: 7029: 7021: 7017: 7009: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6954: 6946: 6942: 6934: 6930: 6922: 6918: 6910: 6906: 6898: 6894: 6886: 6882: 6874: 6870: 6862: 6858: 6850: 6846: 6838: 6834: 6826: 6822: 6814: 6810: 6802: 6798: 6790: 6786: 6778: 6774: 6766: 6762: 6754: 6750: 6742: 6738: 6730: 6726: 6718: 6714: 6706: 6699: 6693:Sutherland 1992 6691: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6669:Sutherland 1992 6667: 6663: 6655: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6631: 6624: 6616: 6612: 6604: 6587: 6579: 6572: 6564: 6555: 6549:Clodfelter 2008 6547: 6540: 6532: 6525: 6517: 6513: 6505: 6498: 6490: 6486: 6478: 6471: 6465:Clodfelter 2008 6463: 6456: 6448: 6444: 6436: 6432: 6424: 6420: 6412: 6405: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6375: 6369: 6365: 6359:Anne of Denmark 6356: 6352: 6344: 6340: 6327: 6323: 6310: 6306: 6297: 6293: 6283: 6282: 6274: 6265: 6261: 6256: 6252: 6243: 6239: 6233: 6229: 6220: 6216: 6211: 6207: 6193: 6189: 6163: 6159: 6154: 6150: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6074: 6062:Daniel Kehlmann 6018:Peter Hagendorf 5965:over 900 people 5932: 5900:Napoleonic Wars 5835: 5801:calculated the 5747:Pitirim Sorokin 5728: 5724: 5722: 5718: 5705: 5668: 5662: 5611:Pope Innocent X 5533:Signing of the 5469: 5463: 5415:Salvador, Bahia 5352: 5301: 5295: 5183:Pope Urban VIII 5163:Duchy of Mantua 5133: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5123: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5116: 5108: 5107: 5106: 5102: 5094: 5093: 5092: 5088: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5066: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5052: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5038: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5016: 5011: 4981:von Königsmarck 4938:Siege of Prague 4899:Torstensson War 4876:Franz von Mercy 4801: 4800: 4799: 4797: 4791: 4790: 4789: 4788: 4784: 4776: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4762: 4761: 4760: 4756: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4742: 4734: 4733: 4732: 4728: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4714: 4706: 4705: 4704: 4700: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4686: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4672: 4664: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4650: 4649: 4648: 4644: 4636: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4616: 4608: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4594: 4593: 4592: 4588: 4580: 4579: 4578: 4574: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4560: 4552: 4551: 4550: 4546: 4538: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4524: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4504: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4490: 4395:Matthias Gallas 4354:Peace of Prague 4338: 4165: 4159: 4151:Frederick Henry 4133:captured their 3932:in early 1625. 3906: 3905: 3904: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3886: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3872: 3864: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3850: 3849: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3835: 3834: 3830: 3822: 3821: 3820: 3816: 3808: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3794: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3780: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3744: 3653: 3597:1620 Polish war 3589:Gabriel Bethlen 3531:Filip Fabricius 3476: 3474:Bohemian Revolt 3470: 3468:Bohemian Revolt 3465: 3457:Bohemian Revolt 3393: 3385: 3376: 3355:Catholic League 3307: 3212:Imperial circle 3204:Imperial cities 3192:prince-electors 3145:Catholic Church 3107:Peace of Passau 3103: 3035:Bohemian Revolt 2917: 2912: 2736:Lons-le-Saunier 2632: 2341: 2239:Aire-sur-la-Lys 2170: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2129: 2124: 2123: 2111: 2098:Colberger Heide 2017: 1980: 1968: 1956: 1879:2nd Breitenfeld 1784: 1757:2nd Rheinfelden 1702: 1690: 1637: 1630:1st Rheinfelden 1560:1st Breitenfeld 1540:Swedish landing 1471:Vlach uprisings 1456: 1300: 1295: 1293: 1291: 1253: 1248: 1238: 1236: 1234: 1227: 1225: 1223: 1221: 1208: 1187: 1159: 1147: 1135: 1126: 1113: 1101: 1092: 1079: 1070: 1057: 1045: 1033: 1021: 1009: 997: 985: 973: 964: 951: 939: 927: 915: 895: 883: 871: 865: 855: 853: 849:Gabriel Bethlen 841: 808: 796: 784: 772: 767: 765: 753: 743: 741: 729: 724: 722: 710: 706:Frederick Henry 698: 686: 674: 662: 650: 638: 626: 614: 602: 590: 578: 566: 558: 546: 533: 521: 519: 506: 495: 493: 487:Peace of Prague 481: 471: 469: 457: 455: 442: 430: 428: 421:Peace of Prague 413: 409:Catholic League 403: 401: 389: 387: 374: 363: 361: 352: 340: 338: 327: 325: 315: 313: 291: 289: 276: 274: 261: 249: 239: 237: 225: 214: 212: 192: 139: 123: 110: 97: 65:Left to right: 64: 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Thirty Year War 15: 12: 11: 5: 14851: 14841: 14840: 14835: 14830: 14825: 14820: 14815: 14810: 14805: 14800: 14795: 14790: 14785: 14780: 14775: 14770: 14765: 14760: 14755: 14750: 14745: 14740: 14735: 14720: 14719: 14707: 14684: 14683: 14678: 14677: 14675: 14674: 14669: 14664: 14659: 14654: 14649: 14644: 14639: 14634: 14629: 14623: 14621: 14617: 14616: 14614: 14613: 14608: 14603: 14598: 14593: 14588: 14583: 14578: 14573: 14568: 14563: 14558: 14553: 14548: 14543: 14538: 14533: 14531:Russian Empire 14528: 14523: 14521:British Empire 14518: 14516:Dutch Republic 14513: 14511:Swedish Empire 14508: 14503: 14498: 14493: 14491:Spanish Empire 14488: 14483: 14481:Ottoman Empire 14478: 14473: 14468: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14452: 14451: 14441: 14436: 14430: 14428: 14422: 14421: 14419: 14418: 14413: 14408: 14403: 14398: 14396:Serbian Empire 14393: 14388: 14383: 14378: 14373: 14368: 14363: 14341: 14336: 14331: 14330: 14329: 14324: 14319: 14314: 14304: 14303: 14302: 14297: 14289: 14284: 14279: 14274: 14269: 14268: 14267: 14257: 14252: 14246: 14244: 14238: 14237: 14235: 14234: 14232:Late antiquity 14229: 14224: 14219: 14218: 14217: 14207: 14202: 14197: 14195:Roman Republic 14192: 14186: 14184: 14178: 14177: 14175: 14174: 14169: 14164: 14159: 14153: 14151: 14145: 14144: 14137: 14136: 14129: 14122: 14114: 14105: 14104: 14102: 14101: 14089: 14076: 14073: 14072: 14070: 14069: 14064: 14059: 14052: 14047: 14042: 14041: 14040: 14035: 14030: 14025: 14020: 14015: 14010: 14005: 14000: 13990: 13985: 13979: 13977: 13973: 13972: 13970: 13969: 13968: 13967: 13957: 13952: 13947: 13942: 13937: 13932: 13922: 13917: 13912: 13907: 13900: 13895: 13888: 13883: 13881:Lateran Treaty 13878: 13873: 13868: 13863: 13858: 13853: 13847: 13845: 13839: 13838: 13836: 13835: 13828: 13823: 13818: 13813: 13808: 13803: 13798: 13793: 13788: 13783: 13778: 13772: 13770: 13766: 13765: 13763: 13762: 13757: 13752: 13747: 13742: 13737: 13732: 13727: 13722: 13716: 13714: 13706:Baroque period 13704: 13701: 13700: 13698: 13697: 13692: 13687: 13682: 13677: 13675:Peter Canisius 13672: 13667: 13662: 13657: 13652: 13650:Francis Xavier 13647: 13642: 13637: 13632: 13627: 13622: 13617: 13614:Exsurge Domine 13610: 13605: 13599: 13597: 13588: 13585: 13584: 13582: 13581: 13576: 13571: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13554:Pope Clement V 13551: 13550: 13549: 13547:Avignon Papacy 13542:Western Schism 13539: 13534: 13532:Thomas Aquinas 13528: 13526: 13520: 13519: 13517: 13516: 13511: 13506: 13501: 13496: 13491: 13486: 13481: 13476: 13471: 13466: 13461: 13456: 13451: 13446: 13441: 13436: 13430: 13428: 13422: 13421: 13419: 13418: 13413: 13408: 13403: 13398: 13393: 13388: 13386:Saint Boniface 13383: 13378: 13373: 13371:Pope Gregory I 13368: 13363: 13358: 13352: 13350: 13344: 13343: 13340: 13339: 13336: 13335: 13333: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13312: 13310:Biblical canon 13307: 13302: 13297: 13292: 13287: 13282: 13277: 13276: 13275: 13264: 13262: 13243: 13239:Late antiquity 13231: 13230: 13228: 13227: 13222: 13217: 13212: 13207: 13206: 13205: 13200: 13199: 13198: 13193: 13188: 13186:Pope Clement I 13176:Church Fathers 13173: 13167: 13165: 13158: 13157: 13155: 13154: 13153: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13101: 13100: 13095: 13090: 13085: 13075: 13070: 13065: 13060: 13059: 13058: 13053: 13048: 13043: 13032: 13030: 13015: 13007: 13006: 13004: 13003: 12998: 12993: 12988: 12983: 12982: 12981: 12976: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12946: 12945: 12944: 12939: 12937:Biblical canon 12932:Catholic Bible 12929: 12928: 12927: 12917: 12916: 12915: 12905: 12900: 12895: 12894: 12893: 12882: 12880: 12874: 12873: 12862: 12861: 12854: 12847: 12839: 12830: 12829: 12826: 12825: 12823: 12822: 12817: 12811: 12809: 12805: 12804: 12801: 12800: 12798: 12797: 12792: 12787: 12782: 12777: 12772: 12770:Wilhelm Sihler 12767: 12762: 12760:Martin Stephan 12756: 12754: 12750: 12749: 12747: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12725: 12723: 12719: 12718: 12716: 12715: 12710: 12705: 12700: 12695: 12693:Eduard Huschke 12690: 12688:J. G. Scheibel 12685: 12680: 12674: 12672: 12665: 12659: 12658: 12655: 12654: 12652: 12651: 12646: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12620: 12618: 12612: 12611: 12609: 12608: 12603: 12598: 12593: 12591:C. E. Luthardt 12588: 12583: 12578: 12573: 12568: 12563: 12558: 12552: 12550: 12544: 12543: 12541: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12525: 12520: 12518:F. A. Philippi 12515: 12509: 12507: 12505:Repristination 12498: 12492: 12491: 12489: 12488: 12483: 12481:August Tholuck 12478: 12473: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12427: 12425: 12419: 12418: 12416: 12415: 12410: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12393:J. W. Petersen 12390: 12385: 12380: 12375: 12370: 12364: 12362: 12353: 12349: 12348: 12345: 12344: 12342: 12341: 12336: 12331: 12325: 12323: 12319: 12318: 12316: 12315: 12310: 12305: 12299: 12297: 12293: 12292: 12290: 12289: 12284: 12279: 12274: 12269: 12264: 12258: 12256: 12250: 12249: 12247: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12231: 12226: 12221: 12215: 12213: 12207: 12206: 12204: 12203: 12198: 12193: 12187: 12185: 12181: 12180: 12178: 12177: 12172: 12167: 12161: 12159: 12150: 12142: 12141: 12138: 12137: 12135: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12119: 12114: 12109: 12103: 12101: 12097: 12096: 12094: 12093: 12088: 12083: 12078: 12073: 12068: 12063: 12058: 12053: 12048: 12046:Georg Calixtus 12043: 12038: 12033: 12031:Johann Gerhard 12027: 12025: 12021: 12020: 12018: 12017: 12012: 12007: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11963: 11961: 11954: 11941: 11940: 11937: 11936: 11934: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11918: 11913: 11908: 11902: 11900: 11896: 11895: 11893: 11892: 11887: 11882: 11877: 11872: 11867: 11862: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11841: 11839: 11835: 11834: 11832: 11831: 11826: 11821: 11813: 11805: 11800: 11795: 11790: 11782: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11757: 11752: 11747: 11742: 11737: 11732: 11727: 11718: 11716: 11709: 11705: 11704: 11701: 11700: 11698: 11697: 11692: 11687: 11682: 11677: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11635:Johannes Brenz 11632: 11627: 11622: 11617: 11611: 11609: 11603: 11602: 11599: 11598: 11596: 11595: 11590: 11585: 11580: 11575: 11569: 11567: 11566:Reformation in 11563: 11562: 11560: 11559: 11554: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11524:Leipzig Debate 11521: 11516: 11508: 11502: 11495: 11487: 11486: 11475: 11474: 11467: 11460: 11452: 11443: 11442: 11434: 11433: 11430: 11429: 11427: 11426: 11420: 11414: 11408: 11402: 11396: 11390: 11384: 11378: 11372: 11366: 11360: 11354: 11348: 11342: 11336: 11330: 11324: 11318: 11312: 11306: 11300: 11294: 11288: 11282: 11276: 11269: 11266: 11265: 11256: 11255: 11248: 11241: 11233: 11227: 11224: 11223: 11213: 11212: 11186: 11170:German History 11165: 11153: 11140: 11131: 11125: 11109: 11080: 11060:10.1086/238995 11043: 11032: 11026: 11013: 10988: 10963: 10954: 10945: 10939: 10926: 10901: 10892: 10886: 10873: 10864: 10854: 10852: 10849: 10847: 10846: 10828:(2): 144–175. 10817: 10788: 10783:978-0199642540 10782: 10769: 10763: 10757:. Allen Lane. 10750: 10744: 10731: 10725: 10712: 10706: 10693: 10675:(2): 167–193. 10664: 10658: 10645: 10639: 10626: 10600:(2): 189–213. 10589: 10580: 10545: 10518: 10481: 10475: 10462: 10456: 10443: 10413:(3): 491–513. 10398: 10367: 10357: 10324:(4): 590–599. 10306: 10300: 10287: 10281: 10268: 10258:on 11 May 2022 10233: 10227:(in Spanish). 10219: 10213: 10200: 10194: 10181: 10174: 10158: 10138:10.1086/241429 10132:(2): 195–214. 10121: 10094: 10070:(2): 245–272. 10059: 10016:(2): 151–184. 9998: 9993:978-0195053593 9992: 9979: 9970: 9964: 9951: 9898: 9889: 9860: 9854: 9841: 9818: 9812: 9799: 9772: 9766: 9753: 9747: 9734: 9725: 9704: 9698: 9685: 9679: 9666: 9661:978-0140285284 9660: 9654:. Allen Lane. 9647: 9641: 9628: 9622: 9606: 9600: 9587: 9581: 9568: 9563:978-0872209398 9562: 9549: 9529:10.1086/240888 9512: 9506: 9493: 9481:10.2307/204823 9475:(4): 749–770. 9464: 9458: 9445: 9440:978-1851096589 9439: 9426: 9401: 9380: 9375:978-0415146494 9374: 9361: 9355: 9342: 9316:(3): 253–279. 9310:War in History 9305: 9299: 9286: 9280: 9267: 9254: 9248: 9235: 9230:978-0946771424 9229: 9216: 9210: 9197: 9191: 9178: 9169: 9157:10.1086/241519 9140: 9134: 9121: 9115: 9102: 9096: 9083: 9077: 9064: 9037: 8996: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8942: 8930: 8918: 8906: 8891: 8879: 8867: 8855: 8843: 8831: 8819: 8807: 8795: 8793:, p. 163. 8783: 8771: 8759: 8757:, p. 220. 8747: 8745:, p. 784. 8735: 8733:, p. 516. 8723: 8711: 8709:, p. 147. 8707:O'Connell 1990 8699: 8687: 8685:, p. 177. 8675: 8673:, p. 770. 8663: 8661:, p. 254. 8651: 8649:, p. 184. 8636: 8634:, p. 202. 8624: 8612: 8610:, p. 200. 8600: 8598:, p. 185. 8588: 8576: 8564: 8552: 8550:, p. 512. 8540: 8538:, p. 152. 8528: 8516: 8514:, p. 122. 8504: 8492: 8490:, p. 345. 8480: 8478:, p. 103. 8468: 8456: 8454:, p. 250. 8441: 8429: 8417: 8405: 8390: 8388:, p. 510. 8378: 8366: 8354: 8352:, p. 757. 8342: 8340:, p. 504. 8330: 8328:, p. 597. 8318: 8316:, p. 707. 8306: 8270: 8258: 8246: 8234: 8222: 8220:, p. 746. 8207: 8195: 8183: 8171: 8152: 8140: 8128: 8116: 8114:, p. 153. 8104: 8102:, p. 407. 8092: 8090:, p. 406. 8080: 8078:, p. 124. 8068: 8066:, p. 259. 8056: 8054:, p. 125. 8044: 8032: 8030:, p. 200. 8020: 8008: 7996: 7984: 7982:, p. 247. 7972: 7960: 7948: 7946:, p. 501. 7936: 7924: 7922:, p. 726. 7912: 7910:, p. 496. 7900: 7898:, p. 716. 7888: 7876: 7864: 7862:, p. 711. 7849: 7837: 7825: 7823:, p. 273. 7813: 7801: 7799:, p. 687. 7789: 7787:, p. 671. 7777: 7765: 7763:, p. 587. 7753: 7751:, p. 171. 7741: 7739:, p. 154. 7729: 7717: 7705: 7693: 7681: 7679:, p. 447. 7669: 7667:, p. 446. 7657: 7655:, p. 150. 7645: 7633: 7631:, p. 284. 7618: 7606: 7604:, p. 537. 7594: 7582: 7570: 7568:, p. 615. 7558: 7546: 7534: 7522: 7520:, p. 328. 7510: 7508:, p. 387. 7498: 7486: 7474: 7462: 7450: 7448:, p. 523. 7438: 7426: 7414: 7399: 7387: 7375: 7363: 7361:, p. 256. 7359:O'Connell 1968 7351: 7349:, p. 128. 7339: 7335:O'Connell 1968 7327: 7325:, p. 120. 7315: 7313:, p. 106. 7303: 7291: 7279: 7267: 7265:, p. 511. 7255: 7253:, p. 497. 7243: 7231: 7219: 7217:, p. 172. 7207: 7205:, p. 170. 7195: 7183: 7181:, p. 426. 7171: 7159: 7157:, p. 212. 7147: 7145:, p. 208. 7135: 7133:, p. 295. 7131:Davenport 1917 7123: 7121:, p. 382. 7111: 7099: 7087: 7075: 7063: 7051: 7049:, p. 447. 7039: 7027: 7015: 7013:, p. 117. 7003: 6991: 6979: 6977:, p. 469. 6967: 6952: 6940: 6928: 6916: 6904: 6892: 6880: 6868: 6856: 6844: 6832: 6830:, p. 557. 6820: 6808: 6796: 6794:, p. 224. 6784: 6782:, p. 222. 6772: 6760: 6748: 6736: 6724: 6712: 6697: 6685: 6673: 6661: 6659:, p. 189. 6649: 6637: 6635:, p. 248. 6622: 6620:, p. 787. 6610: 6608:, p. 790. 6585: 6583:, p. 173. 6570: 6568:, p. 791. 6553: 6538: 6536:, p. 231. 6523: 6521:, p. 395. 6511: 6509:, p. 166. 6496: 6484: 6482:, p. 387. 6469: 6454: 6452:, p. 484. 6442: 6430: 6418: 6416:, p. 232. 6403: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6382: 6373: 6363: 6350: 6338: 6321: 6313:Denmark-Norway 6304: 6291: 6259: 6250: 6237: 6227: 6214: 6205: 6187: 6157: 6148: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6129:Toggenburg War 6073: 6070: 6046:Bertolt Brecht 5935:rebellions in 5931: 5928: 5851:line formation 5834: 5831: 5754:bubonic plague 5723: 5717: 5684:Tsarist Russia 5661: 5658: 5543:Dutch Republic 5524:ius reformandi 5465:Main article: 5462: 5459: 5351: 5350:Outside Europe 5348: 5317:Catalan Courts 5297:Main article: 5294: 5291: 5287:Duchy of Parma 5276:Siege of Turin 5263:and brothers, 5216:and 46,000 in 5198:Treaty of Suza 5171:Duke of Nevers 5130:Northern Italy 5125: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5103: 5096: 5095: 5090: 5089: 5082: 5081: 5076: 5075: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5061: 5054: 5053: 5048: 5047: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5033: 5026: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5014:Northern Italy 5012: 5010: 5007: 4952:with Bavaria, 4793: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4778: 4777: 4772: 4771: 4764: 4763: 4758: 4757: 4750: 4749: 4744: 4743: 4736: 4735: 4730: 4729: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4715: 4708: 4707: 4702: 4701: 4694: 4693: 4688: 4687: 4680: 4679: 4674: 4673: 4666: 4665: 4660: 4659: 4652: 4651: 4646: 4645: 4638: 4637: 4632: 4631: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4617: 4610: 4609: 4604: 4603: 4596: 4595: 4590: 4589: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4575: 4568: 4567: 4562: 4561: 4554: 4553: 4548: 4547: 4540: 4539: 4534: 4533: 4526: 4525: 4520: 4519: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4505: 4498: 4497: 4492: 4491: 4484: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4475: 4337: 4334: 4161:Main article: 4158: 4155: 4135:treasure fleet 3895: 3894: 3888: 3887: 3880: 3879: 3874: 3873: 3866: 3865: 3860: 3859: 3852: 3851: 3846: 3845: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3831: 3824: 3823: 3818: 3817: 3810: 3809: 3804: 3803: 3796: 3795: 3790: 3789: 3782: 3781: 3776: 3775: 3768: 3767: 3762: 3761: 3754: 3753: 3747: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3652: 3649: 3599:, followed by 3559:faced his own 3472:Main article: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3451:, daughter of 3363:Dutch Republic 3327:Emperor Rudolf 3306: 3303: 3271:Ottoman Empire 3239:Spanish Empire 3188:Northern Italy 3161:Denmark–Norway 3147:since Passau. 3102: 3099: 3043:Dutch Republic 2949:Torstenson War 2929:Central Europe 2914: 2913: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2774: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2627: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2586: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2388: 2386:2nd Gravelines 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2361:3rd Landrecies 2358: 2353: 2348: 2336: 2331: 2326: 2321: 2319:2nd Landrecies 2316: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2274:2nd Saint Omer 2271: 2266: 2264:1st Gravelines 2261: 2259:2nd Thionville 2256: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2224:1st Thionville 2221: 2219:1st Saint Omer 2216: 2214:1st Landrecies 2211: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2158: 2157: 2150: 2143: 2135: 2126: 2125: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2108: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2031: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2012: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1975: 1963: 1951: 1946: 1944:2nd Nördlingen 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1697: 1685: 1680: 1678:Schenkenschans 1675: 1670: 1662: 1661: 1657: 1656: 1655: 1654: 1649: 1647:1st Nördlingen 1644: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1534: 1533: 1527: 1526: 1525: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1481: 1480: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1451: 1446: 1438: 1437: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1403:Bergen op Zoom 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1362: 1361: 1355: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1347: 1345:White Mountain 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1314: 1313: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1290: 1289: 1282: 1275: 1267: 1259: 1258: 1241: 1240: 1232:Combat deaths: 1229: 1219:Combat deaths: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1207: 1206: 1203: 1202:90,000 Spanish 1200: 1193: 1191:Maximum actual 1188: 1186: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1170:Maximum actual 1166: 1165: 1161: 1160: 1158: 1157: 1145: 1133: 1111: 1099: 1077: 1055: 1043: 1031: 1019: 1007: 995: 983: 971: 949: 937: 925: 913: 893: 881: 868: 866: 864: 863: 861:George William 851: 839: 828: 818: 806: 794: 782: 763: 761:Jindřich Thurn 751: 739: 720: 708: 696: 684: 672: 660: 648: 636: 624: 612: 600: 588: 576: 564: 543: 540: 539: 535: 534: 532: 531: 528:Denmark–Norway 516: 514:Spanish Empire 504: 490: 482: 480: 479: 467: 464:Dutch Republic 452: 440: 424: 415: 414: 412: 411: 399: 384: 382:Spanish Empire 372: 358: 353: 351: 350: 335: 323: 311: 301: 298:Denmark–Norway 286: 283:Dutch Republic 271: 259: 247: 235: 223: 209: 203: 202: 198: 197: 194: 193: 191: 190: 181: 172: 154: 143: 141: 135: 134: 129: 125: 124: 121:Central Europe 119: 117: 113: 112: 107: 99: 98: 96: 95: 88: 81: 74: 66: 56: 55: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14850: 14839: 14836: 14834: 14831: 14829: 14826: 14824: 14821: 14819: 14816: 14814: 14811: 14809: 14806: 14804: 14801: 14799: 14796: 14794: 14791: 14789: 14786: 14784: 14781: 14779: 14776: 14774: 14771: 14769: 14766: 14764: 14761: 14759: 14756: 14754: 14751: 14749: 14746: 14744: 14741: 14739: 14736: 14734: 14731: 14730: 14728: 14718: 14708: 14706: 14701: 14696: 14695: 14692: 14673: 14670: 14668: 14665: 14663: 14660: 14658: 14655: 14653: 14650: 14648: 14645: 14643: 14640: 14638: 14635: 14633: 14630: 14628: 14627:Art of Europe 14625: 14624: 14622: 14618: 14612: 14609: 14607: 14604: 14602: 14599: 14597: 14594: 14592: 14589: 14587: 14584: 14582: 14579: 14577: 14574: 14572: 14569: 14567: 14564: 14562: 14559: 14557: 14554: 14552: 14549: 14547: 14544: 14542: 14539: 14537: 14534: 14532: 14529: 14527: 14524: 14522: 14519: 14517: 14514: 14512: 14509: 14507: 14504: 14502: 14499: 14497: 14494: 14492: 14489: 14487: 14484: 14482: 14479: 14477: 14474: 14472: 14469: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14450: 14447: 14446: 14445: 14442: 14440: 14437: 14435: 14432: 14431: 14429: 14427: 14426:Modern period 14423: 14417: 14414: 14412: 14409: 14407: 14404: 14402: 14399: 14397: 14394: 14392: 14389: 14387: 14384: 14382: 14379: 14377: 14374: 14372: 14369: 14367: 14364: 14361: 14357: 14353: 14349: 14345: 14342: 14340: 14337: 14335: 14332: 14328: 14325: 14323: 14320: 14318: 14315: 14313: 14310: 14309: 14308: 14305: 14301: 14298: 14296: 14293: 14292: 14290: 14288: 14285: 14283: 14280: 14278: 14275: 14273: 14270: 14266: 14263: 14262: 14261: 14258: 14256: 14253: 14251: 14248: 14247: 14245: 14243: 14239: 14233: 14230: 14228: 14225: 14223: 14220: 14216: 14213: 14212: 14211: 14208: 14206: 14203: 14201: 14198: 14196: 14193: 14191: 14188: 14187: 14185: 14183: 14179: 14173: 14170: 14168: 14165: 14163: 14160: 14158: 14155: 14154: 14152: 14150: 14146: 14142: 14135: 14130: 14128: 14123: 14121: 14116: 14115: 14112: 14100: 14095: 14090: 14088: 14078: 14077: 14074: 14068: 14065: 14063: 14060: 14058: 14057: 14053: 14051: 14048: 14046: 14043: 14039: 14036: 14034: 14031: 14029: 14026: 14024: 14021: 14019: 14016: 14014: 14011: 14009: 14006: 14004: 14001: 13999: 13996: 13995: 13994: 13991: 13989: 13986: 13984: 13981: 13980: 13978: 13974: 13966: 13963: 13962: 13961: 13958: 13956: 13953: 13951: 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13940:Mother Teresa 13938: 13936: 13933: 13930: 13926: 13923: 13921: 13918: 13916: 13913: 13911: 13908: 13906: 13905: 13901: 13899: 13896: 13894: 13893: 13889: 13887: 13884: 13882: 13879: 13877: 13874: 13872: 13869: 13867: 13866:Pope Pius XII 13864: 13862: 13859: 13857: 13854: 13852: 13849: 13848: 13846: 13844: 13840: 13834: 13833: 13832:Rerum novarum 13829: 13827: 13824: 13822: 13819: 13817: 13816:Pope Leo XIII 13814: 13812: 13809: 13807: 13804: 13802: 13799: 13797: 13794: 13792: 13789: 13787: 13786:United States 13784: 13782: 13779: 13777: 13776:Pope Pius VII 13774: 13773: 13771: 13767: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13753: 13751: 13748: 13746: 13743: 13741: 13738: 13736: 13733: 13731: 13728: 13726: 13723: 13721: 13718: 13717: 13715: 13712: 13707: 13702: 13696: 13693: 13691: 13688: 13686: 13683: 13681: 13678: 13676: 13673: 13671: 13668: 13666: 13663: 13661: 13658: 13656: 13653: 13651: 13648: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13631: 13628: 13626: 13623: 13621: 13618: 13616: 13615: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13600: 13598: 13595: 13591: 13586: 13580: 13577: 13575: 13572: 13570: 13567: 13565: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13548: 13545: 13544: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13529: 13527: 13525: 13521: 13515: 13512: 13510: 13507: 13505: 13502: 13500: 13497: 13495: 13492: 13490: 13487: 13485: 13482: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13470: 13467: 13465: 13462: 13460: 13459:Scholasticism 13457: 13455: 13452: 13450: 13447: 13445: 13442: 13440: 13437: 13435: 13434:Pope Urban II 13432: 13431: 13429: 13427: 13423: 13417: 13414: 13412: 13409: 13407: 13404: 13402: 13399: 13397: 13394: 13392: 13389: 13387: 13384: 13382: 13379: 13377: 13374: 13372: 13369: 13367: 13364: 13362: 13359: 13357: 13354: 13353: 13351: 13349: 13345: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13308: 13306: 13303: 13301: 13298: 13296: 13293: 13291: 13288: 13286: 13283: 13281: 13278: 13274: 13271: 13270: 13269: 13266: 13265: 13263: 13259: 13251: 13247: 13244: 13240: 13236: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13210:Justin Martyr 13208: 13204: 13201: 13197: 13194: 13192: 13189: 13187: 13184: 13183: 13182: 13179: 13178: 13177: 13174: 13172: 13169: 13168: 13166: 13163: 13159: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13122: 13121: 13120:New Testament 13118: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13089: 13086: 13084: 13083:Commissioning 13081: 13080: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13061: 13057: 13054: 13052: 13049: 13047: 13044: 13042: 13039: 13038: 13037: 13034: 13033: 13031: 13028: 13027:Apostolic Age 13023: 13019: 13016: 13012: 13008: 13002: 12999: 12997: 12994: 12992: 12989: 12987: 12984: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12971: 12970: 12967: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12934: 12933: 12930: 12926: 12923: 12922: 12921: 12918: 12914: 12913:Papal primacy 12911: 12910: 12909: 12906: 12904: 12901: 12899: 12896: 12892: 12889: 12888: 12887: 12884: 12883: 12881: 12879: 12875: 12871: 12867: 12860: 12855: 12853: 12848: 12846: 12841: 12840: 12837: 12821: 12820:Homosexuality 12818: 12816: 12813: 12812: 12810: 12806: 12796: 12793: 12791: 12788: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12776: 12773: 12771: 12768: 12766: 12763: 12761: 12758: 12757: 12755: 12753:United States 12751: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12739:Johann Flierl 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12726: 12724: 12720: 12714: 12713:Free churches 12711: 12709: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12699: 12696: 12694: 12691: 12689: 12686: 12684: 12681: 12679: 12676: 12675: 12673: 12669: 12666: 12664: 12660: 12650: 12647: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12639:J. K. W. Löhe 12637: 12635: 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12621: 12619: 12617: 12613: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 12592: 12589: 12587: 12584: 12582: 12579: 12577: 12574: 12572: 12569: 12567: 12564: 12562: 12559: 12557: 12554: 12553: 12551: 12549: 12545: 12539: 12538:L .A. Gotwald 12536: 12534: 12531: 12529: 12526: 12524: 12523:F. G. Hedberg 12521: 12519: 12516: 12514: 12511: 12510: 12508: 12506: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12493: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12466:Laestadianism 12464: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12428: 12426: 12424: 12420: 12414: 12411: 12409: 12406: 12404: 12403:J. F. Buddeus 12401: 12399: 12398:A. H. Francke 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12383:J. V. Andreae 12381: 12379: 12376: 12374: 12371: 12369: 12368:Martin Moller 12366: 12365: 12363: 12361: 12357: 12354: 12350: 12340: 12337: 12335: 12332: 12330: 12327: 12326: 12324: 12320: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12300: 12298: 12294: 12288: 12285: 12283: 12280: 12278: 12275: 12273: 12272:David Strauss 12270: 12268: 12265: 12263: 12260: 12259: 12257: 12255: 12251: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12216: 12214: 12212: 12208: 12202: 12199: 12197: 12194: 12192: 12189: 12188: 12186: 12182: 12176: 12173: 12171: 12168: 12166: 12163: 12162: 12160: 12158: 12154: 12151: 12148: 12147:or critical 12145:Speculative 12143: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12120: 12118: 12117:V. E. Löscher 12115: 12113: 12110: 12108: 12107:David Hollatz 12105: 12104: 12102: 12098: 12092: 12089: 12087: 12084: 12082: 12079: 12077: 12074: 12072: 12069: 12067: 12064: 12062: 12059: 12057: 12054: 12052: 12049: 12047: 12044: 12042: 12039: 12037: 12034: 12032: 12029: 12028: 12026: 12022: 12016: 12013: 12011: 12008: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11985:Jakob Andreae 11983: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11970: 11965: 11964: 11962: 11958: 11955: 11951: 11946: 11942: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11921:Ubiquitarians 11919: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11907: 11904: 11903: 11901: 11897: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11863: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11842: 11840: 11836: 11830: 11829:Uppsala Synod 11827: 11825: 11822: 11820: 11819: 11814: 11812: 11811: 11806: 11804: 11801: 11799: 11796: 11794: 11791: 11789: 11788: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11748: 11746: 11743: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11726: 11725: 11720: 11719: 11717: 11713: 11710: 11708:Early turmoil 11706: 11696: 11693: 11691: 11688: 11686: 11683: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11673: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11663: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11615:Martin Luther 11613: 11612: 11610: 11608: 11604: 11594: 11591: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11571: 11570: 11568: 11564: 11558: 11555: 11553: 11552: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11522: 11520: 11517: 11515: 11514: 11510: 11509: 11506: 11503: 11499: 11496: 11494: 11488: 11484: 11480: 11473: 11468: 11466: 11461: 11459: 11454: 11453: 11450: 11439: 11438: 11431: 11424: 11421: 11418: 11415: 11412: 11409: 11406: 11403: 11400: 11397: 11394: 11391: 11388: 11385: 11382: 11379: 11376: 11373: 11370: 11367: 11364: 11361: 11358: 11355: 11352: 11349: 11346: 11343: 11340: 11339:Fontainebleau 11337: 11334: 11331: 11328: 11325: 11322: 11319: 11316: 11313: 11310: 11307: 11304: 11301: 11298: 11295: 11292: 11289: 11286: 11283: 11280: 11277: 11274: 11271: 11270: 11267: 11262: 11254: 11249: 11247: 11242: 11240: 11235: 11234: 11231: 11225: 11218: 11201: 11197: 11196: 11191: 11187: 11183: 11179: 11175: 11171: 11166: 11162: 11158: 11154: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11137: 11132: 11128: 11122: 11118: 11114: 11113:Ringmar, Erik 11110: 11106: 11102: 11098: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11081: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11049: 11044: 11040: 11039: 11033: 11029: 11023: 11019: 11014: 11010: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10995:(39): 34–43. 10994: 10989: 10985: 10981: 10977: 10973: 10969: 10964: 10960: 10955: 10951: 10946: 10942: 10936: 10932: 10927: 10923: 10919: 10915: 10911: 10908:(39): 44–61. 10907: 10902: 10898: 10893: 10889: 10883: 10879: 10874: 10870: 10865: 10861: 10856: 10855: 10843: 10839: 10835: 10831: 10827: 10823: 10818: 10814: 10810: 10806: 10802: 10798: 10794: 10789: 10785: 10779: 10775: 10770: 10766: 10760: 10756: 10751: 10747: 10741: 10737: 10732: 10728: 10722: 10718: 10713: 10709: 10703: 10699: 10694: 10690: 10686: 10682: 10678: 10674: 10670: 10665: 10661: 10655: 10651: 10646: 10642: 10636: 10632: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10615: 10611: 10607: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10590: 10586: 10581: 10577: 10573: 10568: 10563: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10532: 10528: 10524: 10519: 10504: 10500: 10496: 10489: 10488: 10482: 10478: 10472: 10468: 10463: 10459: 10453: 10449: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10431: 10426: 10421: 10416: 10412: 10408: 10404: 10399: 10384: 10380: 10373: 10368: 10364: 10358: 10343: 10339: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10312: 10307: 10303: 10297: 10293: 10288: 10284: 10278: 10274: 10269: 10254: 10250: 10246: 10239: 10234: 10230: 10226: 10220: 10216: 10210: 10206: 10201: 10197: 10191: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10171: 10168:. Routledge. 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10139: 10135: 10131: 10127: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10095: 10091: 10085: 10077: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10060: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10032: 10027: 10023: 10019: 10015: 10011: 10004: 9999: 9995: 9989: 9985: 9980: 9976: 9971: 9967: 9961: 9957: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9912: 9908: 9904: 9899: 9895: 9890: 9878: 9874: 9870: 9866: 9861: 9857: 9851: 9847: 9842: 9830: 9826: 9825: 9819: 9815: 9809: 9805: 9800: 9788: 9784: 9783: 9779: 9773: 9769: 9763: 9759: 9754: 9750: 9744: 9740: 9735: 9731: 9726: 9722: 9718: 9714: 9710: 9705: 9701: 9695: 9692:. Routledge. 9691: 9686: 9682: 9676: 9672: 9667: 9663: 9657: 9653: 9648: 9644: 9638: 9634: 9629: 9625: 9623:0-19-873072-1 9619: 9615: 9611: 9607: 9603: 9597: 9593: 9588: 9584: 9582:3-7338-0195-4 9578: 9574: 9569: 9565: 9559: 9555: 9550: 9546: 9542: 9538: 9534: 9530: 9526: 9522: 9518: 9513: 9509: 9503: 9500:. Routledge. 9499: 9494: 9490: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9465: 9461: 9455: 9451: 9446: 9442: 9436: 9432: 9427: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9402: 9398: 9394: 9390: 9387:(in French). 9386: 9381: 9377: 9371: 9368:. Routledge. 9367: 9362: 9358: 9352: 9348: 9343: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9319: 9315: 9311: 9306: 9302: 9296: 9292: 9287: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9255: 9251: 9245: 9241: 9236: 9232: 9226: 9222: 9217: 9213: 9207: 9203: 9198: 9194: 9188: 9184: 9179: 9175: 9170: 9166: 9162: 9158: 9154: 9150: 9146: 9141: 9137: 9131: 9127: 9122: 9118: 9112: 9108: 9103: 9099: 9093: 9089: 9084: 9080: 9074: 9071:. Routledge. 9070: 9065: 9053: 9049: 9045: 9044: 9038: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8997: 8993: 8989: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8969: 8965: 8962:(2): 122–41. 8961: 8957: 8952: 8951: 8939: 8934: 8927: 8922: 8915: 8910: 8903: 8902:McMurdie 2014 8898: 8896: 8888: 8883: 8877:, p. 65. 8876: 8875:McMurdie 2014 8871: 8864: 8859: 8852: 8847: 8840: 8835: 8828: 8823: 8816: 8811: 8804: 8799: 8792: 8787: 8780: 8775: 8769:, p. 93. 8768: 8763: 8756: 8751: 8744: 8739: 8732: 8731:Wedgwood 1938 8727: 8720: 8719:Wedgwood 1938 8715: 8708: 8703: 8696: 8691: 8684: 8679: 8672: 8667: 8660: 8655: 8648: 8643: 8641: 8633: 8628: 8621: 8620:Chandler 1990 8616: 8609: 8604: 8597: 8592: 8585: 8580: 8574:, p. 18. 8573: 8568: 8562:, p. 30. 8561: 8556: 8549: 8548:Wedgwood 1938 8544: 8537: 8532: 8525: 8520: 8513: 8508: 8501: 8496: 8489: 8484: 8477: 8472: 8465: 8460: 8453: 8448: 8446: 8438: 8433: 8426: 8421: 8414: 8409: 8402: 8397: 8395: 8387: 8386:Wedgwood 1938 8382: 8375: 8370: 8363: 8358: 8351: 8346: 8339: 8338:Wedgwood 1938 8334: 8327: 8322: 8315: 8310: 8291: 8287: 8280: 8274: 8267: 8262: 8255: 8254:Wedgwood 1938 8250: 8244:, p. 71. 8243: 8242:Lesaffer 1997 8238: 8231: 8226: 8219: 8214: 8212: 8204: 8199: 8192: 8187: 8180: 8179:Thornton 2016 8175: 8167: 8161: 8156: 8149: 8144: 8137: 8136:Thornton 2016 8132: 8125: 8124:Mitchell 2005 8120: 8113: 8108: 8101: 8096: 8089: 8084: 8077: 8072: 8065: 8060: 8053: 8048: 8042:, p. 20. 8041: 8040:Ferretti 2014 8036: 8029: 8024: 8017: 8016:Wedgwood 1938 8012: 8005: 8004:Ferretti 2014 8000: 7994:, p. 62. 7993: 7988: 7981: 7980:Wedgwood 1938 7976: 7969: 7968:Wedgwood 1938 7964: 7957: 7952: 7945: 7944:Wedgwood 1938 7940: 7933: 7928: 7921: 7916: 7909: 7908:Wedgwood 1938 7904: 7897: 7892: 7885: 7884:Wedgwood 1938 7880: 7873: 7872:Wedgwood 1938 7868: 7861: 7856: 7854: 7847:, p. 64. 7846: 7841: 7834: 7829: 7822: 7817: 7810: 7809:Wedgwood 1938 7805: 7798: 7793: 7786: 7781: 7774: 7769: 7762: 7757: 7750: 7745: 7738: 7733: 7726: 7721: 7714: 7709: 7702: 7697: 7691:, p. 41. 7690: 7685: 7678: 7677:Wedgwood 1938 7673: 7666: 7665:Wedgwood 1938 7661: 7654: 7649: 7642: 7637: 7630: 7625: 7623: 7615: 7610: 7603: 7598: 7591: 7586: 7579: 7574: 7567: 7562: 7555: 7550: 7543: 7538: 7531: 7526: 7519: 7518:Wedgwood 1938 7514: 7507: 7502: 7496:, p. 32. 7495: 7490: 7483: 7478: 7471: 7466: 7459: 7458:Wedgwood 1938 7454: 7447: 7442: 7436:, p. 74. 7435: 7430: 7424:, p. 99. 7423: 7418: 7412:, p. 89. 7411: 7406: 7404: 7396: 7391: 7384: 7383:Wedgwood 1938 7379: 7373:, p. 38. 7372: 7371:Porshnev 1995 7367: 7360: 7355: 7348: 7343: 7336: 7331: 7324: 7319: 7312: 7311:Porshnev 1995 7307: 7300: 7295: 7288: 7287:Wedgwood 1938 7283: 7276: 7271: 7264: 7259: 7252: 7247: 7240: 7239:Wedgwood 1938 7235: 7228: 7227:Wedgwood 1938 7223: 7216: 7215:Lockhart 2007 7211: 7204: 7203:Lockhart 2007 7199: 7192: 7187: 7180: 7175: 7168: 7163: 7156: 7155:Wedgwood 1938 7151: 7144: 7143:Wedgwood 1938 7139: 7132: 7127: 7120: 7115: 7109:, p. 53. 7108: 7103: 7096: 7095:Lockhart 2007 7091: 7084: 7083:Wedgwood 1938 7079: 7072: 7071:Wedgwood 1938 7067: 7060: 7055: 7048: 7043: 7036: 7031: 7024: 7019: 7012: 7011:Wedgwood 1938 7007: 7000: 6995: 6988: 6987:Wedgwood 1938 6983: 6976: 6971: 6964: 6963:Wedgwood 1938 6959: 6957: 6949: 6948:Baramova 2014 6944: 6938:, p. 94. 6937: 6936:Wedgwood 1938 6932: 6925: 6924:Wedgwood 1938 6920: 6913: 6908: 6901: 6900:Wedgwood 1938 6896: 6889: 6888:Wedgwood 1938 6884: 6878:, p. 14. 6877: 6872: 6865: 6860: 6853: 6852:Wedgwood 1938 6848: 6842:, p. 50. 6841: 6840:Wedgwood 1938 6836: 6829: 6824: 6817: 6816:Wedgwood 1938 6812: 6806:, p. 11. 6805: 6800: 6793: 6788: 6781: 6776: 6769: 6768:Wedgwood 1938 6764: 6758:, p. 24. 6757: 6756:Wedgwood 1938 6752: 6745: 6740: 6734:, p. 21. 6733: 6728: 6721: 6720:Wedgwood 1938 6716: 6709: 6704: 6702: 6694: 6689: 6682: 6677: 6670: 6665: 6658: 6653: 6646: 6641: 6634: 6629: 6627: 6619: 6614: 6607: 6602: 6600: 6598: 6596: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6582: 6577: 6575: 6567: 6562: 6560: 6558: 6551:, p. 39. 6550: 6545: 6543: 6535: 6530: 6528: 6520: 6515: 6508: 6503: 6501: 6493: 6488: 6481: 6476: 6474: 6467:, p. 40. 6466: 6461: 6459: 6451: 6446: 6439: 6434: 6427: 6422: 6415: 6410: 6408: 6400: 6395: 6391: 6377: 6367: 6360: 6354: 6348: 6342: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6318: 6314: 6308: 6301: 6295: 6286: 6280: 6272: 6268: 6263: 6254: 6247: 6241: 6231: 6224: 6218: 6209: 6202: 6198: 6191: 6184: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6161: 6152: 6143: 6139: 6132: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6111: 6105: 6103: 6095: 6090: 6086: 6078: 6069: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6058: 6053: 6052: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6034:German Empire 6030: 6025: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6012:; written by 6011: 6007: 6006: 5999: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5972: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5944: 5940: 5938: 5937:Upper Austria 5927: 5923: 5920: 5915: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5901: 5896: 5895: 5894:Hakkapeliitta 5890: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5815: 5813: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5798:Günther Franz 5790: 5786: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5750: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5734: 5727: >66% 5716: 5712: 5708: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5680:British Isles 5677: 5673: 5667: 5657: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5638: 5636: 5635:1654 and 1666 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5607: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5564: 5563:Charles Louis 5560: 5556: 5552: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5531: 5527: 5525: 5519: 5517: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5497: 5493: 5490: 5485: 5477: 5473: 5468: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5447:Malabar Coast 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5409:In 1621, the 5407: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5380:Iberian Union 5377: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5360:Iberian Union 5356: 5347: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5324: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5290: 5288: 5284: 5279: 5277: 5272: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5242: 5237: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5206: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5190: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5128: 5023: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4985:attack Prague 4982: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4970:Zusmarshausen 4967: 4966:von Holzappel 4962: 4957: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4910: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4883: 4882:in November. 4881: 4877: 4867: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4796: 4577:Zusmarshausen 4481: 4474: 4472: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4453:Dutch attacks 4450: 4445: 4443: 4439: 4438:Maarten Tromp 4435: 4431: 4427: 4424:'s army from 4423: 4419: 4414: 4412: 4408: 4407:von Hatzfeldt 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4391:Ferdinand III 4387: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4342:new subsidies 4333: 4331: 4327: 4321: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4306: 4304: 4295: 4291: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4271: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4244: 4239: 4235: 4232: 4227: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4164: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4121: 4117: 4112: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4019:Dessau Bridge 4016: 4012: 4003: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3903: 3898: 3751: 3739: 3736: 3730: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3687:Mediterranean 3684: 3681:occupied the 3680: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3648: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3614: 3610: 3604: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3547: 3546:Upper Austria 3543: 3539: 3534: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3519:Vilem Slavata 3516: 3515:Prague Castle 3512: 3508: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3460: 3459:in May 1618. 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3441: 3438: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384:dependencies 3383: 3379: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3339: 3334: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3311: 3302: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3259:Franche-Comté 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3217: 3216:Imperial Diet 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3184:Low Countries 3181: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3133: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2988:Protestantism 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2909: 2908:3rd Barcelona 2906: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2883:Porto Longone 2882: 2877: 2875: 2874:Castellammare 2872: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2859:1st Barcelona 2857: 2855: 2854:3rd Tarragona 2852: 2850: 2849:2nd Tarragona 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2797: 2794:Naval battles 2793: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2775: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2682: 2681: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2578:Castellfollit 2576: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2543:2nd Barcelona 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2498:4th Tarragona 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2434: 2431: 2429: 2428:1st Tarragona 2426: 2424: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2345: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2200: 2197: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2177: 2176: 2173: 2166: 2156: 2151: 2149: 2144: 2142: 2137: 2136: 2133: 2122: 2121: 2114: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2039: 2038: 2035:Naval battles 2034: 2033: 2028: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2013: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2005:Wevelinghoven 2003: 2001: 2000:Zusmarshausen 1998: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1978:Hohentübingen 1976: 1972: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1722:2nd Magdeburg 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1706: 1701: 1698: 1694: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1683:Ray-sur-Saône 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1492:Dessau Bridge 1490: 1488: 1485: 1484: 1483: 1482: 1478: 1477: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1368:Bad Kreuznach 1366: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1351: 1350:Neu Titschein 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1288: 1283: 1281: 1276: 1274: 1269: 1268: 1265: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1233: 1230: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1211: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1001: 996: 994: 989: 984: 982: 977: 972: 969: 967: 960: 959:von Holzappel 955: 950: 948: 947:von Hatzfeldt 943: 938: 936: 931: 926: 924: 919: 914: 911: 910: 904: 899: 894: 892: 891:Ferdinand III 887: 882: 880: 875: 870: 869: 867: 862: 852: 850: 845: 840: 838: 833: 829: 827: 823: 819: 817: 816:John George I 812: 807: 805: 800: 795: 793: 788: 783: 781: 776: 764: 762: 757: 752: 750: 740: 738: 733: 721: 719: 718:Maarten Tromp 714: 709: 707: 702: 697: 695: 690: 685: 683: 678: 673: 671: 666: 661: 659: 654: 649: 647: 642: 637: 635: 630: 625: 623: 618: 613: 611: 606: 601: 599: 594: 589: 587: 582: 577: 575: 570: 565: 563: 561: 555: 550: 545: 544: 542: 541: 536: 529: 517: 515: 510: 505: 503: 492: 491: 489: 488: 483: 478: 468: 465: 453: 451: 446: 441: 438: 426: 425: 423: 422: 417: 416: 410: 400: 397: 385: 383: 378: 373: 371: 360: 359: 357: 354: 348: 336: 334: 324: 322: 312: 310: 306: 302: 299: 287: 284: 272: 270: 265: 260: 258: 253: 248: 246: 236: 234: 229: 224: 222: 211: 210: 208: 205: 204: 199: 189: 185: 182: 180: 176: 173: 171: 170:Bremen-Verden 167: 163: 159: 156:Sweden gains 155: 153: 149: 145: 144: 142: 137: 136: 133: 130: 127: 126: 122: 118: 115: 114: 108: 105: 104: 100: 94:(19 May 1643) 93: 89: 86: 82: 79: 75: 73:(23 May 1618) 72: 68: 67: 62: 57: 54: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 14705:Christianity 14586:World War II 14470: 14439:Early modern 14416:Kalmar Union 14287:Papal States 14205:Roman Empire 14054: 14050:Pope Francis 13976:21st century 13925:Pope Paul VI 13902: 13890: 13843:20th century 13830: 13781:Pope Pius IX 13769:19th century 13745:Pope Pius VI 13694: 13612: 13484:Latin Empire 13454:Universities 13406:Pope Leo III 13273:Christianity 13258:state church 13250:Great Church 13051:Resurrection 13014:(30–325/476) 13011:Early Church 12996:Latin Church 12991:Papal States 12986:Vatican City 12729:August Kavel 12663:Old Lutheran 12606:Werner Elert 12601:Paul Althaus 12533:C. P. Krauth 12496:Neo-Lutheran 12431:J. G. Hamann 12408:J. A. Bengel 12388:P. J. Spener 12373:Johann Arndt 12322:Transitional 12146: 12090: 11968: 11817: 11809: 11786: 11723: 11640:Justus Jonas 11550: 11511: 11491:Start of the 11435: 11260: 11206:16 September 11204:. Retrieved 11194: 11173: 11169: 11160: 11147: 11135: 11116: 11091:(1): 51–55. 11088: 11084: 11054:(1): 40–51. 11051: 11047: 11037: 11017: 10992: 10970:(6): 31–43. 10967: 10958: 10949: 10930: 10905: 10896: 10877: 10868: 10859: 10825: 10821: 10796: 10792: 10773: 10754: 10735: 10716: 10697: 10672: 10668: 10649: 10630: 10597: 10593: 10584: 10557: 10553: 10530: 10526: 10512:21 September 10510:. Retrieved 10503:the original 10486: 10466: 10447: 10430:10072/385454 10410: 10406: 10390:. Retrieved 10378: 10365:(in French). 10362: 10349:. Retrieved 10342:the original 10321: 10317: 10291: 10272: 10260:. Retrieved 10253:the original 10248: 10244: 10228: 10224: 10204: 10185: 10165: 10129: 10125: 10106: 10102: 10084:cite journal 10067: 10063: 10051:. Retrieved 10013: 10009: 9983: 9974: 9955: 9910: 9906: 9893: 9881:. Retrieved 9872: 9868: 9848:. Tuckwell. 9845: 9833:. Retrieved 9823: 9803: 9791:. Retrieved 9781: 9777: 9757: 9738: 9729: 9715:(1): 71–95. 9712: 9708: 9689: 9670: 9651: 9632: 9613: 9591: 9572: 9553: 9520: 9516: 9497: 9472: 9468: 9449: 9433:. ABC-CLIO. 9430: 9418:. Retrieved 9409: 9388: 9384: 9365: 9346: 9313: 9309: 9290: 9271: 9262: 9258: 9239: 9220: 9201: 9182: 9173: 9151:(1): 31–69. 9148: 9144: 9125: 9106: 9087: 9068: 9056:. Retrieved 9047: 9042: 9008: 9004: 8959: 8955: 8938:Gutmann 1988 8933: 8921: 8909: 8882: 8870: 8865:, p. 6. 8863:Talbott 2021 8858: 8846: 8834: 8827:Talbott 2021 8822: 8810: 8798: 8786: 8774: 8762: 8750: 8738: 8726: 8714: 8702: 8695:Croxton 1998 8690: 8678: 8666: 8659:Croxton 1998 8654: 8627: 8615: 8603: 8591: 8584:Sharman 2018 8579: 8567: 8555: 8543: 8531: 8519: 8507: 8495: 8483: 8471: 8459: 8432: 8420: 8408: 8381: 8369: 8362:Croxton 2013 8357: 8345: 8333: 8321: 8309: 8299:30 September 8297:. Retrieved 8285: 8273: 8261: 8249: 8237: 8230:Israel 1995a 8225: 8203:Croxton 2013 8198: 8186: 8174: 8162:, p. ?. 8155: 8143: 8131: 8119: 8107: 8095: 8083: 8071: 8059: 8047: 8035: 8023: 8011: 7999: 7987: 7975: 7963: 7951: 7939: 7927: 7915: 7903: 7891: 7879: 7867: 7840: 7828: 7821:Croxton 1998 7816: 7804: 7792: 7780: 7768: 7756: 7744: 7732: 7720: 7708: 7696: 7684: 7672: 7660: 7648: 7636: 7616:, p. 4. 7609: 7602:Israel 1995b 7597: 7585: 7573: 7561: 7549: 7537: 7530:Israel 1995a 7525: 7513: 7501: 7494:Bireley 1976 7489: 7477: 7465: 7453: 7441: 7429: 7417: 7397:, p. 4. 7390: 7378: 7366: 7354: 7342: 7330: 7318: 7306: 7299:Norrhem 2019 7294: 7282: 7270: 7263:Israel 1995b 7258: 7251:Israel 1995b 7246: 7234: 7222: 7210: 7198: 7186: 7174: 7162: 7150: 7138: 7126: 7114: 7107:Murdoch 2000 7102: 7090: 7078: 7066: 7059:Pursell 2003 7054: 7042: 7030: 7018: 7006: 6999:Stutler 2014 6994: 6982: 6975:Israel 1995b 6970: 6943: 6931: 6919: 6912:Bassett 2015 6907: 6895: 6883: 6876:Bassett 2015 6871: 6859: 6847: 6835: 6823: 6811: 6799: 6787: 6775: 6763: 6751: 6739: 6727: 6715: 6688: 6676: 6664: 6652: 6640: 6613: 6514: 6492:Parrott 2001 6487: 6445: 6433: 6428:, p. 8. 6426:Parrott 2001 6421: 6399:Croxton 2013 6394: 6376: 6366: 6361:(1574–1619). 6353: 6346: 6341: 6324: 6307: 6294: 6262: 6253: 6240: 6235:nationality. 6230: 6217: 6208: 6190: 6182: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6160: 6151: 6142: 6118: 6114: 6109: 6106: 6102:nation state 6099: 6083: 6066:Booker Prize 6055: 6049: 6026: 6003: 6000: 5973: 5949: 5933: 5924: 5919:Jeremy Black 5916: 5904: 5892: 5882: 5876: 5872: 5836: 5827:1618 to 1623 5816: 5802: 5795: 5774: 5751: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5721: 33–66% 5714: 5710: 5706: 5669: 5639: 5608: 5548: 5523: 5520: 5512: 5500: 5489:Papal Legate 5481: 5419:Dutch Brazil 5408: 5373: 5330:and secured 5325: 5302: 5299:Reapers' War 5280: 5273: 5246: 5207: 5191: 5187:Papal States 5153: 5145:Spanish Road 5134: 4996: 4978: 4958: 4956:and Sweden. 4950:Truce of Ulm 4943: 4922:Herbsthausen 4911: 4884: 4872: 4841: 4818: 4810:Wolfenbüttel 4802: 4619:Herbsthausen 4507:Wolfenbüttel 4468: 4446: 4415: 4388: 4369: 4339: 4322: 4307: 4300: 4272: 4253:, while the 4248: 4228: 4224:Smolensk War 4214:and coerced 4201: 4192:Hesse-Kassel 4181: 4124: 4113: 4105: 4089: 4055: 4034:Hesse-Kassel 4031: 4023:Wolfenbüttel 4008: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3934: 3921: 3907: 3902:Lower Saxony 3889:Wolfenbüttel 3731: 3699: 3676: 3654: 3629: 3605: 3591:, Calvinist 3578: 3550: 3535: 3504: 3489: 3442: 3427: 3415:Spanish Road 3400: 3394: 3386: 3377: 3374:Spanish Road 3343: 3335: 3316: 3275: 3220: 3177: 3173:Baltic trade 3149: 3130: 3104: 3060: 3016: 2961: 2920: 2918: 2880: 2831: 2731:Sainte-Agnès 2418:Ille-sur-Têt 2408:Fuenterrabía 2366:Valenciennes 2118: 2063:Lizard Point 1914:Philippsburg 1884:2nd Freiberg 1859:Wolfenbüttel 1804:1st Freiberg 1799:2nd Breisach 1777:Wittenweiher 1767:Fuenterrabía 1625:1st Breisach 1610:Pfaffenhofen 1294: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239:30,000 other 1231: 1228:50,000 other 1218: 1190: 1169: 1143:Montecuccoli 1127: 1093: 1071: 965: 908: 879:Ferdinand II 792:Christian IV 749:von Mansfeld 559: 484: 477:Hesse-Kassel 418: 355: 321:Hesse-Kassel 269:Transylvania 206: 201:Belligerents 47:Part of the 36: 14571:World War I 14561:Nationalism 14449:Reformation 14434:Renaissance 14406:Black Death 14339:Kievan Rus' 14242:Middle Ages 14056:Laudato si' 13851:Pope Pius X 13680:Philip Neri 13655:Pope Pius V 13630:Thomas More 13499:Inquisition 13401:Charlemagne 13361:Monasticism 13171:Persecution 13063:Holy Spirit 13046:Crucifixion 12925:First seven 12785:H. A. Preus 12629:F. J. Stahl 12616:High Church 12456:Claus Harms 12413:G. C. Knapp 12378:Jakob Böhme 12122:J. M. Goeze 12086:J. W. Baier 12076:J. F. König 11916:Philippists 11675:Olaus Petri 11493:Reformation 11483:Lutheranism 11263:(1618–1648) 11176:(1): 1–21. 10560:(1): 3–25. 10294:. Ashgate. 9883:28 December 9835:15 December 9523:(1): 1–23. 9128:. Ashgate. 9109:. Ashgate. 9058:23 February 8926:Storrs 2006 8887:Bonney 2002 8851:Cramer 2007 8803:Briggs 1996 8791:Briggs 1996 8767:Jensen 2007 8743:Wilson 2009 8683:Parker 1997 8671:Wilson 2009 8647:Parker 1997 8632:Parker 1976 8608:Parker 1976 8596:Parker 1997 8536:Outram 2001 8524:Outram 2002 8512:Parker 1997 8500:Parker 2008 8488:Wilson 2009 8452:Outram 2002 8437:Outram 2001 8413:Outram 2001 8401:Parker 1997 8374:Parker 2008 8350:Wilson 2009 8314:Wilson 2009 8266:Wilson 2009 8218:Wilson 2009 8112:Parker 1997 8076:Hanlon 2016 8064:Wilson 2009 7956:Hanlon 2016 7932:Wilson 2009 7920:Wilson 2009 7896:Wilson 2009 7860:Wilson 2009 7845:Bonney 2002 7833:Wilson 2009 7797:Wilson 2009 7785:Wilson 2009 7773:Wilson 2009 7761:Wilson 2009 7749:Parker 1997 7737:Parker 1997 7713:Wilson 2009 7701:Wilson 2009 7653:Parker 1997 7578:Wilson 2009 7566:Wilson 2009 7554:Wilson 2009 7482:Parker 1997 7446:Wilson 2009 7422:Wilson 2018 7410:Wilson 2018 7347:Parker 1997 7323:Parker 1997 7275:Maland 1980 7179:Wilson 2009 7119:Wilson 2009 7035:Zaller 1974 7023:Zaller 1974 6864:Wilson 2009 6828:Wilson 2008 6804:Parker 1997 6792:Wilson 2009 6780:Wilson 2009 6744:Wilson 2009 6732:Wilson 2009 6708:Hayden 1973 6681:Parker 1997 6657:Parker 1997 6645:Wilson 2009 6633:Outram 2002 6618:Wilson 2009 6606:Wilson 2009 6581:Parker 1997 6566:Wilson 2009 6534:Parker 2004 6519:Wilson 2009 6480:Wilson 2009 6450:Wilson 2009 6201:Scandinavia 5953:witch-hunts 5869:Breitenfeld 5812:Württemberg 5492:Fabio Chigi 5435:Cape Colony 5396:West Africa 4998:Codex Gigas 4989:Malá Strana 4887:Westphalian 4806:Halberstadt 4773:Halberstadt 4563:Rheinfelden 4493:Breitenfeld 4434:Dutch fleet 4422:Piccolomini 4399:Rheinfelden 4380:Johan Banér 4275:Breitenfeld 4264:Reichstaler 4043:Mecklenburg 3914:Brandenburg 3791:Halberstadt 3723:Horace Vere 3719:Frankenthal 3637:Count Tilly 3511:Count Thurn 3500:Reformation 3389:: Ruled by 3349:formed the 3319:Cologne War 3263:Philippines 3169:Brandenburg 3125:. The 1555 3121:within the 3115:Protestants 2974:. The 1555 2970:within the 2968:Reformation 2788:Fort Rocher 2751:2nd Poligny 2746:1st Poligny 2726:Saint-Amour 2677:3rd Valenza 2667:2nd Cremona 2652:1st Cremona 2647:2nd Valenza 2633: [ 2595:1st Valenza 2538:3rd Tortosa 2528:2nd Tortosa 2458:1st Tortosa 2376:2nd Dunkirk 2371:2nd Mardyck 2342: [ 2304:Armentières 2299:1st Dunkirk 2289:1st Mardyck 2168:(1635–1659) 2018: [ 1981: [ 1969: [ 1957: [ 1939:Mergentheim 1874:Schweidnitz 1785: [ 1703: [ 1691: [ 1638: [ 1457: [ 1423:Frankenthal 1388:Mingolsheim 1255:Total dead: 981:Piccolomini 903:Wallenstein 737:Frederick V 670:Grand Condé 598:Torstensson 574:Oxenstierna 138:Territorial 14727:Categories 14334:Viking Age 14149:Prehistory 13929:coronation 13635:Pope Leo X 13220:Tertullian 13150:Revelation 13125:Background 12683:Background 12441:Haugeanism 12149:theologies 11950:Scholastic 11423:Westphalia 11303:Königsberg 11285:Nikolsburg 11190:Ward, A.W. 10499:10161/8754 9391:(262): 7. 9204:. Osprey. 9185:. Viking. 8755:White 2012 8100:Kamen 2003 8088:Kamen 2003 8052:Duffy 1995 7992:Thion 2008 7614:Costa 2005 7506:Kamen 2003 7470:Kamen 2003 6387:References 6275:pronounced 5855:musketeers 5760:(4%), and 5676:Ming China 5664:See also: 5633:failed in 5592:Strasbourg 5439:Gold Coast 5340:Roussillon 5257:Mombaldone 5253:Tornavento 5155:Montferrat 5139:since the 5035:Montferrat 4880:Tuttlingen 4844:Louis XIII 4759:Regensburg 4731:Thionville 4661:Tuttlingen 4535:Nördlingen 4426:Thionville 4376:March 1636 4372:Valtellina 4330:Nördlingen 4147:Dutch Army 3691:Parliament 3198:, down to 3141:Donauwörth 3109:ended the 2955:, and the 2898:Sant Feliu 2893:Formentera 2771:Tuttlingen 2756:Pontarlier 2741:Bletterans 2689:The Fronde 2605:Tornavento 2523:4th Lleida 2518:3rd Lleida 2493:2nd Lleida 2478:1st Lleida 2473:2nd Salses 2443:La Granada 2413:1st Salses 2309:Nieuwpoort 2249:Honnecourt 2229:Charlemont 2209:1st Corbie 2199:La Capelle 2194:Le Catelet 2093:Lister Dyb 1954:Korneuburg 1899:Tuttlingen 1869:Honnecourt 1819:Thionville 1762:Saint Omer 1717:Tornavento 1590:Alte Veste 1575:Maastricht 1449:Érsekújvár 1408:Heidelberg 1335:Wisternitz 1087:Pappenheim 634:Louis XIII 485:Post-1635 419:Post-1635 245:Palatinate 14381:Feudalism 14352:Catalonia 13945:Communism 13915:Ecumenism 13261:(380–451) 13253:(180–451) 13242:(313–476) 13164:(100–325) 12423:Awakening 12262:Karl Daub 11607:Reformers 11437:Campaigns 11411:Eulenberg 11399:Brömsebro 11357:Compiègne 11351:Ebersdorf 11345:Heilbronn 11309:Franzburg 11297:Pressburg 11291:The Hague 11076:154709047 11020:. 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