594:
engine blocks without the need for heavy cast iron sleeves. A single conductive wire is used as "feedstock" for the system. A supersonic plasma jet melts the wire, atomizes it and propels it onto the substrate. The plasma jet is formed by a transferred arc between a non-consumable cathode and the type of a wire. After atomization, forced air transports the stream of molten droplets onto the bore wall. The particles flatten when they impinge on the surface of the substrate, due to the high kinetic energy. The particles rapidly solidify upon contact. The stacked particles make up a high wear resistant coating. The PTWA thermal spray process utilizes a single wire as the feedstock material. All conductive wires up to and including 0.0625" (1.6mm) can be used as feedstock material, including "cored" wires. PTWA can be used to apply a coating to the wear surface of engine or transmission components to replace a bushing or bearing. For example, using PTWA to coat the bearing surface of a connecting rod offers a number of benefits including reductions in weight, cost, friction potential, and stress in the connecting rod.
306:; they can also change the appearance, electrical or tribological properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc. When sprayed on substrates of various shapes and removed, free-standing parts in the form of plates, tubes, shells, etc. can be produced. It can also be used for powder processing (spheroidization, homogenization, modification of chemistry, etc.). In this case, the substrate for deposition is absent and the particles solidify during flight or in a controlled environment (e.g., water). This technique with variation may also be used to create porous structures, suitable for bone ingrowth, as a coating for medical implants. A polymer dispersion aerosol can be injected into the plasma discharge in order to create a grafting of this polymer on to a substrate surface. This application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of polymers.
238:. In the jet, where the temperature is on the order of 10,000 K, the material is melted and propelled towards a substrate. There, the molten droplets flatten, rapidly solidify and form a deposit. Commonly, the deposits remain adherent to the substrate as coatings; free-standing parts can also be produced by removing the substrate. There are a large number of technological parameters that influence the interaction of the particles with the plasma jet and the substrate and therefore the deposit properties. These parameters include feedstock type, plasma gas composition and flow rate, energy input, torch offset distance, substrate cooling, etc.
39:
913:
equipment should be operated automatically in enclosures specially designed to extract fumes, reduce noise levels, and prevent direct viewing of the spraying head. Such techniques will also produce coatings that are more consistent. There are occasions when the type of components being treated, or their low production levels, require manual equipment operation. Under these conditions, a number of hazards peculiar to thermal spraying are experienced in addition to those commonly encountered in production or processing industries.
69:. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys, ceramics, plastics and composites. They are fed in powder or wire form, heated to a molten or semimolten state and accelerated towards substrates in the form of micrometer-size particles. Combustion or electrical arc discharge is usually used as the source of energy for thermal spraying. Resulting coatings are made by the accumulation of numerous sprayed particles. The surface may not heat up significantly, allowing the coating of flammable substances.
250:, formed by flattening of the liquid droplets. As the feedstock powders typically have sizes from micrometers to above 100 micrometers, the lamellae have thickness in the micrometer range and lateral dimension from several to hundreds of micrometers. Between these lamellae, there are small voids, such as pores, cracks and regions of incomplete bonding. As a result of this unique structure, the deposits can have properties significantly different from bulk materials. These are generally mechanical properties, such as lower
828:
422:
31:
764:
202:
supersonic velocity through the barrel. A pulse of nitrogen is used to purge the barrel after each detonation. This process is repeated many times a second. The high kinetic energy of the hot powder particles on impact with the substrate results in a buildup of a very dense and strong coating. The coating adheres through a mechanical bond resulting from the deformation of the base substrate wrapping around the sprayed particles after the high speed impact.
714:
temperature of 3,560° to 3,650 °F and an average particle velocity of 3,300 ft/sec. Since the maximum flame temperature is relatively close to the melting point of most spray materials, HVAF results in a more uniform, ductile coating. This also allows for a typical coating thickness of 0.002-0.050". HVAF coatings also have a mechanical bond strength of greater that 12,000 psi. Common HVAF coating materials include, but are not limited to;
931:
skin and can also cause "flash burn" to the eyes. Spray booths and enclosures should be fitted with ultra-violet absorbent dark glass. Where this is not possible, operators, and others in the vicinity should wear protective goggles containing BS grade 6 green glass. Opaque screens should be placed around spraying areas. The nozzle of an arc pistol should never be viewed directly unless it is certain that no power is available to the equipment.
603:
211:
819:
oxygen, and thus is dirtier than the cold spraying. However, the coating efficiency is higher. On the other hand, lower temperatures of warm spraying reduce melting and chemical reactions of the feed powder, as compared to HVOF. These advantages are especially important for such coating materials as Ti, plastics, and metallic glasses, which rapidly oxidize or deteriorate at high temperatures.
774:(or gas dynamic cold spraying) was introduced to the market in the 1990s. The method was originally developed in the Soviet Union – while experimenting with the erosion of the target substrate, which was exposed to a two-phase high-velocity flow of fine powder in a wind tunnel, scientists observed accidental rapid formation of coatings.
578:
Wire arc spray is a form of thermal spraying where two consumable metal wires are fed independently into the spray gun. These wires are then charged and an arc is generated between them. The heat from this arc melts the incoming wire, which is then entrained in an air jet from the gun. This entrained
1367:
Kodali, Vamsi; Afshari, Aliakbar; Meighan, Terence; McKinney, Walter; Mazumder, Md
Habibul Hasan; Majumder, Nairrita; Cumpston, Jared L.; Leonard, Howard D.; Cumpston, James B.; Friend, Sherri; Leonard, Stephen S.; Erdely, Aaron; Zeidler-Erdely, Patti C.; Hussain, Salik; Lee, Eun Gyung (2022-12-01).
970:
Combustion spraying guns use oxygen and fuel gases. The fuel gases are potentially explosive. In particular, acetylene may only be used under approved conditions. Oxygen, while not explosive, will sustain combustion and many materials will spontaneously ignite if excessive oxygen levels are present.
805:
The deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a
201:
The detonation gun consists of a long water-cooled barrel with inlet valves for gases and powder. Oxygen and fuel (acetylene most common) are fed into the barrel along with a charge of powder. A spark is used to ignite the gas mixture, and the resulting detonation heats and accelerates the powder to
939:
The atomization of molten materials produces a large amount of dust and fumes made up of very fine particles (ca. 80–95% of the particles by number <100 nm). Proper extraction facilities are vital not only for personal safety, but to minimize entrapment of re-frozen particles in the sprayed
930:
Combustion spraying equipment produces an intense flame, which may have a peak temperature more than 3,100 °C and is very bright. Electric arc spraying produces ultra-violet light which may damage delicate body tissues. Plasma also generates quite a lot of UV radiation, easily burning exposed
818:
Warm spraying is a novel modification of high velocity oxy-fuel spraying, in which the temperature of combustion gas is lowered by mixing nitrogen with the combustion gas, thus bringing the process closer to the cold spraying. The resulting gas contains much water vapor, unreacted hydrocarbons and
750:
This process usually involves spraying a powdered material onto the component then following with an acetylene torch. The torch melts the coating material and the top layer of the component material; fusing them together. Due to the high heat of spray and fuse, some heat distortion may occur, and
593:
Plasma transferred wire arc (PTWA) is another form of wire arc spray which deposits a coating on the internal surface of a cylinder, or on the external surface of a part of any geometry. It is predominantly known for its use in coating the cylinder bores of an engine, enabling the use of
Aluminum
912:
Thermal spraying need not be a dangerous process if the equipment is treated with care and correct spraying practices are followed. As with any industrial process, there are a number of hazards of which the operator should be aware and against which specific precautions should be taken. Ideally,
713:
in a compressed air stream. Like HVOF, this produces a uniform high velocity jet. HVAF differs by including a heat baffle to further stabilize the thermal spray mechanisms. Material is injected into the air-fuel stream and coating particles are propelled toward the part. HVAF has a maximum flame
746:
Spray and fuse uses high heat to increase the bond between the thermal spray coating and the substrate of the part. Unlike other types of thermal spray, spray and fuse creates a metallurgical bond between the coating and the surface. This means that instead of relying on friction for coating
654:. A powder feed stock is injected into the gas stream, which accelerates the powder up to 800 m/s. The stream of hot gas and powder is directed towards the surface to be coated. The powder partially melts in the stream, and deposits upon the substrate. The resulting coating has low
136:
In classical (developed between 1910 and 1920) but still widely used processes such as flame spraying and wire arc spraying, the particle velocities are generally low (< 150 m/s), and raw materials must be molten to be deposited. Plasma spraying, developed in the 1970s, uses a
810:(helium instead of nitrogen). However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 °C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.
781:. Upon impact, solid particles with sufficient kinetic energy deform plastically and bond mechanically to the substrate to form a coating. The critical velocity needed to form bonding depends on the material's properties, powder size and temperature.
921:
Metal spraying equipment uses compressed gases which create noise. Sound levels vary with the type of spraying equipment, the material being sprayed, and the operating parameters. Typical sound pressure levels are measured at 1 meter behind the arc.
751:
care must be taken to determine if a component is a good candidate. These high temperatures are akin to those used in welding. This metallurgical bond creates an extremely wear and abrasion resistant coating. Spray and fuse delivers the benefits of
903:
Thermal spraying is a line of sight process and the bond mechanism is primarily mechanical. Thermal spray application is not compatible with the substrate if the area to which it is applied is complex or blocked by other bodies.
56:
Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings (approx. thickness range is 20 microns to several mm, depending on the process and feedstock), over a large area at high deposition rate as compared to other coating processes such as
468:
The process typically operates at 39–120 °C to avoid thermal damage. It can induce non-thermally activated surface reactions, causing surface changes which cannot occur with molecular chemistries at atmospheric pressure.
622:, where they are ignited and combusted continuously. The resultant hot gas at a pressure close to 1 MPa emanates through a converging–diverging nozzle and travels through a straight section. The fuels can be gases (
979:
Electric arc guns operate at low voltages (below 45 V dc), but at relatively high currents. They may be safely hand-held. The power supply units are connected to 440 V AC sources, and must be treated with caution.
801:
powders can be deposited using cold spraying. Soft metals such as Cu and Al are best suited for cold spraying, but coating of other materials (W, Ta, Ti, MCrAlY, WC–Co, etc.) by cold spraying has been reported.
951:
Certain materials e.g. aluminum, zinc and other base metals may react with water to evolve hydrogen. This is potentially explosive and special precautions are necessary in fume extraction equipment.
961:
Fumes of reactive compounds can dissociate and create harmful gasses. Respirators should be worn in these areas and gas meters should be used to monitor the air before respirators are removed.
53:
processes in which melted (or heated) materials are sprayed onto a surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma or arc) or chemical means (combustion flame).
1080:
Paulussen, S; Rego, R; Goossens, O; Vangeneugden, D; Rose, K (2005). "Plasma polymerization of hybrid organic–inorganic monomers in an atmospheric pressure dielectric barrier discharge".
940:
coatings. The use of respirators fitted with suitable filters is strongly recommended where equipment cannot be isolated. Certain materials offer specific known hazards:
489:
frequencies, typically 1–500 W at 50 V. The treated components are usually electrically isolated. The volatile plasma by-products are evacuated from the chamber by the
1263:
Fiocco, L.; Li, S.; Stevens, M. M.; Bernardo, E.; Jones, J. R. (1 March 2017). "Biocompatibility and bioactivity of porous polymer-derived Ca-Mg silicate ceramics".
137:
high-temperature plasma jet generated by arc discharge with typical temperatures >15,000 K, which makes it possible to spray refractory materials such as oxides,
954:
Fumes of certain materials, notably zinc and copper alloys, have a disagreeable odour and may cause a fever-type reaction in certain individuals (known as
1110:
Leroux, F; Campagne, C; Perwuelz, A; Gengembre, L (2008). "Fluorocarbon nano-coating of polyester fabrics by atmospheric air plasma with aerosol".
286:
This technique is mostly used to produce coatings on structural materials. Such coatings provide protection against high temperatures (for example
747:
adhesion, it melds the surface and coating material into one material. Spray and fuse comes down to the difference between adhesion and cohesion.
579:
molten feedstock is then deposited onto a substrate with the help of compressed air. This process is commonly used for metallic, heavy coatings.
1218:
Moridi, A.; Hassani-Gangaraj, S. M.; Guagliano, M.; Dao, M. (2014). "Cold spray coating: review of material systems and future perspectives".
523:
in the form of vacuum UV photons to penetrate bulk polymers to a depth of about 10 ÎĽm. This can cause chain scissions and cross-linking.
437:
layers with high reproducibility and for cleaning and surface engineering of plastics, rubbers and natural fibers as well as for replacing
827:
610:
During the 1980s, a class of thermal spray processes called high velocity oxy-fuel spraying was developed. A mixture of gaseous or liquid
1442:
1351:
399:
variations of CAPS: high-pressure plasma spraying (HPPS), low-pressure plasma spraying (LPPS), the extreme case of which is
410:
Another variation consists of having a liquid feedstock instead of a solid powder for melting, this technique is known as
777:
In cold spraying, particles are accelerated to very high speeds by the carrier gas forced through a converging–diverging
1169:
534:
are used for surface analysis to identify the processes required and to judge their effects. As a simple indication of
958:). This may occur some time after spraying and usually subsides rapidly. If it does not, medical advice must be sought.
271:
1309:
153:
Spray torch (or spray gun) – the core device performing the melting and acceleration of the particles to be deposited
1528:
527:
411:
227:
1523:
17:
441:
for cleaning metal components. This surface engineering can improve properties such as frictional behavior,
888:
531:
81:
546:
is used. The lower the contact angle, the higher the surface energy and more hydrophilic the material is.
1518:
588:
392:
controlled atmosphere plasma spraying (CAPS), usually performed in a closed chamber, either filled with
1513:
989:
259:
520:
66:
62:
1370:"In vivo and in vitro toxicity of a stainless-steel aerosol generated during thermal spray coating"
881:
559:
971:
Care must be taken to avoid leakage and to isolate oxygen and fuel gas supplies when not in use.
859:
446:
330:), where the energy is transferred to the plasma jet by a direct current, high-power electric arc
291:
287:
267:
231:
570:
can predominate with selection of process parameters and if necessary the use of noble gases.
673:
resistant coatings on materials, such as ceramic and metallic layers. Common powders include
473:
is done in a controlled environment inside a sealed chamber at a medium vacuum, around 13–65
327:
251:
1463:"Ultrafine Particles Emitted by Flame and Electric Arc Guns for Thermal Spraying of Metals"
1430:
1119:
855:
566:
whereas only 1 in 10 ionizes. The predominant effect here is the forming of free radicals.
337:
263:
8:
454:
341:
247:
107:
1434:
1194:
1123:
1033:"Warm spraying—a novel coating process based on high-velocity impact of solid particles"
38:
1405:
1245:
1057:
1048:
1032:
794:
619:
505:
442:
255:
223:
180:
157:
1508:
1484:
1438:
1409:
1397:
1389:
1347:
1290:
1062:
869:
470:
430:
376:
hybrid plasma – with combined gas and liquid stabilization, typically argon and water
89:
665:
HVOF coatings may be as thick as 12 mm (1/2"). It is typically used to deposit
650:, etc.). The jet velocity at the exit of the barrel (>1000 m/s) exceeds the
1474:
1381:
1280:
1272:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1127:
1093:
1089:
1052:
1044:
955:
715:
678:
674:
333:
219:
1249:
831:
Plasma sprayed ceramic coating applied onto a part of an automotive exhaust system
1461:
Bemer, D.; Regnier, R.; Subra, I.; Sutter, B.; Lecler, M. T.; Morele, Y. (2010).
1424:
1341:
1276:
1217:
1131:
798:
778:
719:
698:
690:
92:. Generally, the coating quality increases with increasing particle velocities
1385:
807:
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651:
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512:
482:
421:
323:
275:
58:
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1393:
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945:
771:
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222:
spraying process, the material to be deposited (feedstock) — typically as a
1488:
1401:
1317:
1294:
1285:
1145:
1066:
563:
373:(through evaporation, dissociation and ionization) or other suitable liquid
235:
1031:
Kuroda, Seiji; Kawakita, Jin; Watanabe, Makoto; Katanoda, Hiroshi (2008).
354:
gas-stabilized plasma (GSP), where the plasma forms from a gas; typically
42:
Particle temperature and velocity for different thermal spraying processes
30:
643:
490:
462:
458:
192:
Control console(s) – either integrated or individual for all of the above
77:
1240:
763:
186:
Robot/Labour – for manipulating the torch or the substrates to be coated
865:
836:
752:
735:
567:
555:
438:
138:
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for the generation of the flame or plasma jet, gases for carrying the
994:
842:
723:
670:
639:
635:
486:
450:
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295:
1079:
246:
The deposits consist of a multitude of pancake-like 'splats' called
1195:"Spray and Fuse Coatings | Fused Coatings | Metallurgically Bonded"
655:
647:
623:
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73:
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602:
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or RF plasma, where the energy is transferred by induction from a
848:
790:
786:
731:
727:
710:
682:
631:
627:
299:
50:
1146:"HVAF Spray | Thermal Spray Coatings | Machine Part Enhancement"
314:
Plasma spraying systems can be categorized by several criteria.
210:
686:
615:
434:
400:
363:
176:
165:
1030:
689:
materials (WC–Co, etc.) and other corrosion-resistant alloys (
234:
or wire — is introduced into the plasma jet, emanating from a
782:
526:
Plasmas affect materials at an atomic level. Techniques like
481:
or mixture of gases is energized by an electrical field from
429:
Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) is a technology for etching and
370:
355:
1366:
597:
877:
Temperature/oxidation protection (thermal barrier coatings)
666:
611:
504:
Molecular, atomic, metastable and free radical species for
303:
161:
149:
A typical thermal spray system consists of the following:
100:
Several variations of thermal spraying are distinguished:
27:
Coating process for applying heated materials to a surface
1339:
478:
387:
172:
386:
atmospheric plasma spraying (APS), performed in ambient
1460:
1262:
369:
water-stabilized plasma (WSP), where plasma forms from
685:. The process has been most successful for depositing
196:
562:. In a typical reactive gas, 1 in 100 molecules form
72:
Coating quality is usually assessed by measuring its
34:
Plasma spraying setup – a variant of thermal spraying
500:
In contrast to molecular chemistry, plasmas employ:
493:, and if necessary can be neutralized in an exhaust
1422:
1343:Health and safety in welding and allied processes
1500:
704:
944:Finely divided metal particles are potentially
549:
582:
118:High velocity oxy-fuel coating spraying (HVOF)
1308:Degitz, Todd; Dobler, Klaus (November 2002).
709:HVAF coating technology is the combustion of
189:Power supply – often standalone for the torch
1429:. World Scientific Pub Co Inc. p. 211.
1307:
1301:
1478:
1456:
1454:
1346:. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 190–205.
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1284:
1239:
1056:
948:and harmful when accumulated in the body.
598:High velocity oxygen fuel spraying (HVOF)
416:
1426:Plasma Spraying: Theory and Applications
1105:
1103:
1073:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
826:
762:
601:
420:
340:around the plasma jet, through which an
209:
37:
29:
14:
1501:
1451:
1324:
1100:
1007:
734:nature hvaf coatings can help resist
241:
1340:Blunt, Jane; Balchin, N. C. (2001).
880:Medical implants coatings (by using
1170:"Thermal Spray for Pump Cavitation"
891:(for any of the above applications)
197:Detonation thermal spraying process
24:
693:, nickel-based alloys, aluminium,
205:
144:
25:
1540:
934:
822:
741:
573:
453:, cohesive strength of films, or
974:
813:
758:
755:with the ease of thermal spray.
544:water droplet contact angle test
528:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
511:Positive ions and electrons for
403:plasma spraying (VPS, see below)
344:, radio-frequency current passes
278:can be present in the deposits.
1416:
1360:
1082:Surface and Coatings Technology
412:Solution precursor plasma spray
309:
281:
1467:Annals of Occupational Hygiene
1256:
1232:10.1179/1743294414Y.0000000270
1211:
1187:
1162:
1138:
1094:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2005.02.134
898:
839:reconditioning or conditioning
13:
1:
1000:
889:functionally graded materials
705:High Velocity Air Fuel (HVAF)
121:High velocity air fuel (HVAF)
95:
1277:10.1016/j.actbio.2016.12.043
1132:10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.12.037
1049:10.1088/1468-6996/9/3/033002
550:Changing effects with plasma
532:scanning electron microscopy
7:
1423:Suryanarayanan, R. (1993).
983:
925:
806:processing gas having high
589:Plasma transferred wire arc
583:Plasma transferred wire arc
457:, or it can make materials
168:to the torch through tubes.
156:Feeder – for supplying the
10:
1545:
1386:10.1007/s00204-022-03362-7
990:List of coating techniques
874:Repairing damaged surfaces
586:
406:underwater plasma spraying
907:
558:tends to occur more than
521:electromagnetic radiation
80:content, macro and micro-
67:chemical vapor deposition
1037:Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater
916:
882:polymer derived ceramics
542:or wettability, often a
288:thermal barrier coatings
1529:Metallurgical processes
1112:Applied Surface Science
965:
860:electrical conductivity
767:Cold spraying schematic
447:electrical conductivity
292:exhaust heat management
268:electrical conductivity
1374:Archives of Toxicology
1310:"Thermal Spray Basics"
832:
768:
607:
560:chemical dissociations
519:Plasma also generates
426:
425:Vacuum plasma spraying
417:Vacuum plasma spraying
349:Plasma-forming medium:
318:Plasma jet generation:
215:
43:
35:
1480:10.1093/annhyg/meq052
864:Wear control: either
830:
766:
605:
424:
381:Spraying environment:
262:tolerance, and lower
213:
41:
33:
1524:Thin film deposition
868:(wear-resistant) or
856:thermal conductivity
779:de Laval type nozzle
646:, etc.) or liquids (
431:surface modification
272:rapid solidification
1435:1993psta.book.....S
1220:Surface Engineering
1124:2008ApSS..254.3902L
795:composite materials
554:At higher energies
455:dielectric constant
270:. Also, due to the
214:Wire flame spraying
108:Detonation spraying
1519:Chemical processes
1265:Acta Biomaterialia
833:
769:
718:, chrome carbide,
620:combustion chamber
608:
427:
242:Deposit properties
216:
44:
36:
1514:Materials science
1444:978-981-02-1363-3
1380:(12): 3201–3217.
1353:978-1-85573-538-5
1176:. 21 January 2020
870:abradable coating
471:Plasma processing
366:or their mixtures
276:metastable phases
226:, sometimes as a
112:Wire arc spraying
90:surface roughness
16:(Redirected from
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1493:
1492:
1482:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1337:
1322:
1321:
1316:. Archived from
1305:
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1243:
1215:
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1208:
1206:
1205:
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1181:
1166:
1160:
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1157:
1156:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1107:
1098:
1097:
1088:(1–4): 672–675.
1077:
1071:
1070:
1060:
1028:
956:metal fume fever
753:hardface welding
716:tungsten carbide
699:medical implants
691:stainless steels
679:chromium carbide
506:chemical effects
334:induction plasma
47:Thermal spraying
21:
1544:
1543:
1539:
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1535:
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1421:
1417:
1365:
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1338:
1325:
1314:Welding Journal
1306:
1302:
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1216:
1212:
1203:
1201:
1193:
1192:
1188:
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1168:
1167:
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1143:
1139:
1108:
1101:
1078:
1074:
1029:
1008:
1003:
986:
977:
968:
937:
928:
919:
910:
901:
895:
825:
816:
799:nanocrystalline
761:
744:
720:stainless steel
707:
600:
591:
585:
576:
552:
513:kinetic effects
443:heat resistance
419:
312:
284:
244:
208:
206:Plasma spraying
199:
171:Media supply –
147:
145:System overview
104:Plasma spraying
98:
49:techniques are
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1542:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1495:
1494:
1450:
1443:
1415:
1359:
1352:
1323:
1320:on 2004-11-18.
1300:
1255:
1226:(6): 369–395.
1210:
1186:
1161:
1137:
1099:
1072:
1005:
1004:
1002:
999:
998:
997:
992:
985:
982:
976:
973:
967:
964:
963:
962:
959:
952:
949:
936:
935:Dust and fumes
933:
927:
924:
918:
915:
909:
906:
900:
897:
893:
892:
887:Production of
885:
878:
875:
872:
862:
852:
846:
840:
824:
821:
815:
812:
808:speed of sound
760:
757:
743:
742:Spray and Fuse
740:
706:
703:
695:hydroxyapatite
681:, MCrAlY, and
652:speed of sound
618:is fed into a
606:HVOF schematic
599:
596:
587:Main article:
584:
581:
575:
574:Wire arc spray
572:
551:
548:
536:surface energy
517:
516:
509:
418:
415:
408:
407:
404:
397:
390:
378:
377:
374:
367:
346:
345:
331:
324:direct current
311:
308:
283:
280:
243:
240:
207:
204:
198:
195:
194:
193:
190:
187:
184:
169:
154:
146:
143:
134:
133:
132:Spray and Fuse
130:
125:
122:
119:
116:
115:Flame spraying
113:
110:
105:
97:
94:
59:electroplating
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1541:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1473:(6): 607–14.
1472:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1455:
1446:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1419:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1363:
1355:
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1344:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1286:10044/1/43928
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1259:
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1247:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1175:
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1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1104:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1043:(3): 033002.
1042:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1006:
996:
993:
991:
988:
987:
981:
975:Shock hazards
972:
960:
957:
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950:
947:
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932:
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867:
863:
861:
857:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
834:
829:
820:
814:Warm spraying
811:
809:
803:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
775:
773:
772:Cold spraying
765:
759:Cold spraying
756:
754:
748:
739:
737:
733:
730:. Due to its
729:
725:
721:
717:
712:
702:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
663:
661:
660:bond strength
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
604:
595:
590:
580:
571:
569:
568:Ionic effects
565:
564:free radicals
561:
557:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
524:
522:
514:
510:
507:
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501:
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492:
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484:
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476:
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466:
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405:
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398:
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375:
372:
368:
365:
361:
357:
353:
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335:
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329:
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321:
320:
319:
315:
307:
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297:
293:
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279:
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257:
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239:
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203:
191:
188:
185:
182:
178:
174:
170:
167:
163:
159:
155:
152:
151:
150:
142:
140:
131:
129:
128:Cold spraying
126:
124:Warm spraying
123:
120:
117:
114:
111:
109:
106:
103:
102:
101:
93:
91:
87:
86:bond strength
83:
79:
75:
70:
68:
64:
60:
54:
52:
48:
40:
32:
19:
18:Thermal spray
1470:
1466:
1425:
1418:
1377:
1373:
1362:
1342:
1318:the original
1313:
1303:
1268:
1264:
1258:
1241:11311/968457
1223:
1219:
1213:
1202:. Retrieved
1199:HTS Coatings
1198:
1189:
1178:. Retrieved
1174:HTS Coatings
1173:
1164:
1153:. Retrieved
1150:HTS Coatings
1149:
1140:
1118:(13): 3902.
1115:
1111:
1085:
1081:
1075:
1040:
1036:
978:
969:
938:
929:
920:
911:
902:
894:
823:Applications
817:
804:
776:
770:
749:
745:
708:
664:
609:
592:
577:
553:
538:, and hence
525:
518:
499:
467:
428:
409:
396:or evacuated
380:
379:
348:
347:
317:
316:
313:
285:
282:Applications
245:
236:plasma torch
217:
200:
148:
135:
99:
71:
55:
46:
45:
899:Limitations
644:natural gas
491:vacuum pump
463:hydrophobic
459:hydrophilic
342:alternating
1503:Categories
1204:2020-07-28
1180:2020-06-04
1155:2020-06-04
1001:References
946:pyrophoric
866:hardfacing
851:protection
845:protection
837:Crankshaft
736:cavitation
556:ionization
445:, surface
433:to create
310:Variations
232:suspension
139:molybdenum
96:Variations
1410:251671596
1394:1432-0738
1271:: 56–67.
995:Thin film
854:Altering
843:Corrosion
724:hastelloy
701:, etc.).
671:corrosion
658:and high
640:acetylene
636:propylene
487:microwave
451:lubricity
394:inert gas
328:DC plasma
296:corrosion
258:, higher
1509:Coatings
1489:20685717
1402:35984461
1295:28017870
1067:27877996
984:See also
926:UV light
791:ceramics
787:polymers
738:damage.
656:porosity
648:kerosene
624:hydrogen
540:adhesion
495:scrubber
360:hydrogen
252:strength
248:lamellae
82:hardness
74:porosity
63:physical
1431:Bibcode
1120:Bibcode
1058:5099653
849:Fouling
732:ductile
728:inconel
711:propane
683:alumina
632:propane
628:methane
300:erosion
264:thermal
256:modulus
177:liquids
141:, etc.
51:coating
1487:
1441:
1408:
1400:
1392:
1350:
1293:
1250:987439
1248:
1065:
1055:
908:Safety
783:Metals
726:, and
687:cermet
616:oxygen
477:. The
435:porous
401:vacuum
364:helium
260:strain
228:liquid
224:powder
220:plasma
183:, etc.
181:powder
166:liquid
158:powder
1406:S2CID
1246:S2CID
917:Noise
677:-Co,
371:water
356:argon
173:gases
78:oxide
1485:PMID
1439:ISBN
1398:PMID
1390:ISSN
1348:ISBN
1291:PMID
1063:PMID
966:Heat
797:and
697:for
669:and
667:wear
614:and
612:fuel
530:and
439:CFCs
338:coil
304:wear
290:for
266:and
254:and
162:wire
88:and
65:and
1475:doi
1382:doi
1281:hdl
1273:doi
1236:hdl
1228:doi
1128:doi
1116:254
1090:doi
1086:200
1053:PMC
1045:doi
858:or
485:to
479:gas
461:or
388:air
294:),
218:In
175:or
164:or
1505::
1483:.
1471:54
1469:.
1465:.
1453:^
1437:.
1404:.
1396:.
1388:.
1378:96
1376:.
1372:.
1326:^
1312:.
1289:.
1279:.
1269:50
1267:.
1244:.
1234:.
1224:30
1222:.
1197:.
1172:.
1148:.
1126:.
1114:.
1102:^
1084:.
1061:.
1051:.
1039:.
1035:.
1009:^
793:,
789:,
785:,
722:,
675:WC
662:.
642:,
638:,
634:,
630:,
626:,
497:.
483:DC
475:Pa
465:.
449:,
362:,
358:,
302:,
298:,
274:,
230:,
160:,
84:,
76:,
61:,
1491:.
1477::
1447:.
1433::
1412:.
1384::
1356:.
1297:.
1283::
1275::
1252:.
1238::
1230::
1207:.
1183:.
1158:.
1134:.
1130::
1122::
1096:.
1092::
1069:.
1047::
1041:9
884:)
515:.
508:.
326:(
20:)
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