1063:(DOCA) provides an open access archive of pretested variables and established codebooks for content analyses. Measures from the archive can be adopted in future studies to ensure the use of high-quality and comparable instruments. DOCA covers, among others, measures for the content analysis of fictional media and entertainment (e.g., measures for sexualization in video games), of user-generated media content (e.g., measures for online hate speech), and of news media and journalism (e.g., measures for stock photo use in press reporting on child sexual abuse, and measures of personalization in election campaign coverage).
1211:, the process by which meaning is formed out of language. Quantitative content analysts have been criticized for limiting the scope of content analysis to simple counting, and for applying the measurement methodologies of the natural sciences without reflecting critically on their appropriateness to social science. Conversely, qualitative content analysts have been criticized for being insufficiently systematic and too impressionistic. Krippendorff argues that quantitative and qualitative approaches to content analysis tend to overlap, and that there can be no generalisable conclusion as to which approach is superior.
47:
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1473:, if instead the target quantity manifestly is already directly measurable——typically on an interval or ratio scale——especially a continuous physical quantity, then such targets usually are not listed among those needing the "subjective" selections and formulations of content analysis. For example (from mixed research and clinical application), as medical images
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an "overlap" of qualitative and quantitative content analysis. Patterns are looked at more closely in qualitative analysis, and based on the latent meanings that the researcher may find, the course of the research could be changed. It is inductive and begins with open research questions, as opposed to a hypothesis.
1001:
texts. While methods in quantitative content analysis in this way transform observations of found categories into quantitative statistical data, the qualitative content analysis focuses more on the intentionality and its implications. There are strong parallels between qualitative content analysis and
1024:
provides a critique of quantitative analysis, asserting that it oversimplifies complex communications in order to be more reliable. On the other hand, qualitative analysis deals with the intricacies of latent interpretations, whereas quantitative has a focus on manifest meanings. He also acknowledges
1548:
With either approach above, immersing oneself into the data to obtain an overall picture is recommendable for researchers to conduct. Furthermore, identifying a consistent and clear unit of coding is vital, and researchers' choices range from a single word to several paragraphs, from texts to iconic
1539:
The process of the initial coding scheme or approach to coding is contingent on the particular content analysis approach selected. Through a directed content analysis, the scholars draft a preliminary coding scheme from pre-existing theory or assumptions. While with the conventional content analysis
1071:
With the rise of common computing facilities like PCs, computer-based methods of analysis are growing in popularity. Answers to open ended questions, newspaper articles, political party manifestos, medical records or systematic observations in experiments can all be subject to systematic analysis of
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A further step in analysis is the distinction between dictionary-based (quantitative) approaches and qualitative approaches. Dictionary-based approaches set up a list of categories derived from the frequency list of words and control the distribution of words and their respective categories over the
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Content analysis is research using the categorization and classification of speech, written text, interviews, images, or other forms of communication. In its beginnings, using the first newspapers at the end of the 19th century, analysis was done manually by measuring the number of columns given a
893:
and communication artifacts, which might be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video. Social scientists use content analysis to examine patterns in communication in a replicable and systematic manner. One of the key advantages of using content analysis to analyse social phenomena is their
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or "the amount of agreement or correspondence among two or more coders". Lacy and Riffe identify the measurement of inter-coder reliability as a strength of quantitative content analysis, arguing that, if content analysts do not measure inter-coder reliability, their data are no more reliable than
1087:
Robert Weber notes: "To make valid inferences from the text, it is important that the classification procedure be reliable in the sense of being consistent: Different people should code the same text in the same way". The validity, inter-coder reliability and intra-coder reliability are subject to
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classifiers can greatly increase the number of texts that can be labeled, but the scientific utility of doing so is a matter of debate. Further, numerous computer-aided text analysis (CATA) computer programs are available that analyze text for predetermined linguistic, semantic, and psychological
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As a counterpoint, there are limits to the scope of use for the procedures that characterize content analysis. In particular, if access to the goal of analysis can be obtained by direct means without material interference, then direct measurement techniques yield better data. Thus, while content
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Computer-assisted analysis can help with large, electronic data sets by cutting out time and eliminating the need for multiple human coders to establish inter-coder reliability. However, human coders can still be employed for content analysis, as they are often more able to pick out nuanced and
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formulated the core questions of content analysis in its early-mid 20th-century mainstream version: "Who says what, to whom, why, to what extent and with what effect?". The strong emphasis for a quantitative approach started up by
Lasswell was finally carried out by another "father" of content
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Quantitative content analysis highlights frequency counts and statistical analysis of these coded frequencies. Additionally, quantitative content analysis begins with a framed hypothesis with coding decided on before the analysis begins. These coding categories are strictly relevant to the
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of content analysis onto an estimation of infarct extent, which instead is easily enough and more accurately measured as a volume directly on the images. ("Accuracy ... is the highest form of reliability.") The concomitant clinical assessment, however, by the
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Quantitative content analysis has enjoyed a renewed popularity in recent years thanks to technological advances and fruitful application in of mass communication and personal communication research. Content analysis of textual
1187:, who proposed a definition of content analysis which, from this point of view, is emblematic: "a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication".
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affirms that "comprehen ... may ... not conform at all to the process of classification and/or counting by which most content analyses proceed," suggesting that content analysis might materially distort a message.
1218:, which are documents from past times, and artifacts, which are non-linguistic documents. Texts are understood to be produced by communication processes in a broad sense of that phrase—often gaining mean through
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Computers are increasingly used in content analysis to automate the labeling (or coding) of documents. Simple computational techniques can provide descriptive data such as word frequencies and document lengths.
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The following table shows fifteen uses of content analysis in terms of their general purpose, element of the communication paradigm to which they apply, and the general question they are intended to answer.
2746:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. pp. 1–16. (Chapter 1, "The Methodology of Content Analysis," on the quantitative nature and uses of content analysis, and quoting "subjective" from page 12).
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According to today's reporting standards, quantitative content analyses should be published with complete codebooks and for all variables or measures in the codebook the appropriate inter-coder or
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researcher's hypothesis. Quantitative analysis also takes a deductive approach. Examples of content-analytical variables and constructs can be found, for example, in the open-access database
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Content analysis is best understood as a broad family of techniques. Effective researchers choose techniques that best help them answer their substantive questions. That said, according to
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of all variables or measures in the codebook must be ensured. This can be achieved through the use of established measures that have proven their validity in earlier studies. Also, the
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Manifest content is readily understandable at its face value. Its meaning is direct. Latent content is not as overt, and requires interpretation to uncover the meaning or implication.
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intense methodological research efforts over long years. Neuendorf suggests that when human coders are used in content analysis at least two independent coders should be used.
2700:. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office. (ASCII transcription; Chapter 3:1.1, on uses according to scale type, and Appendix III, on intercoder reliability).
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By having contents of communication available in form of machine readable texts, the input is analyzed for frequencies and coded into categories for building up inferences.
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According to current standards of good scientific practice, each content analysis study should provide their codebook in the appendix or as supplementary material so that
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coding. The codebook includes detailed instructions for human coders plus clear definitions of the respective concepts or variables to be coded plus the assigned values.
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Graneheim, Ulla Hällgren; Lundman, Berit (2004). "Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness".
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of the measures can be checked by experts from the field who scrutinize and then approve or correct coding instructions, definitions and examples in the codebook.
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The data collection instrument used in content analysis is the codebook or coding scheme. In qualitative content analysis the codebook is constructed and improved
1018:. This database compiles, systematizes, and evaluates relevant content-analytical variables of communication and political science research areas and topics.
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1526:(mRS), retains the necessary form of content analysis. Recognizing potential limits of content analysis across the contents of language and images alike,
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latent meanings in text. A study found that human coders were able to evaluate a broader range and make inferences based on latent meanings.
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1178:, content analysis has known an increasing use to deeply analyze and understand media content and media logic. The political scientist
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Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between academic disciplines. They all involve systematic reading or observation of
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Conway, Mike (March 2006). "The
Subjective Precision of Computers: A Methodological Comparison with Human Coding in Content Analysis".
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989:(KWIC) routines address this by placing words in their textual context. This helps resolve ambiguities such as those introduced by
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subject. The approach can also be traced back to a university student studying patterns in
Shakespeare's literature in 1893.
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coding, while in quantitative content analysis the codebook needs to be developed and pretested for reliability and validity
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whose features are primarily categorical——limited usually to a nominal or ordinal scale——via selected conceptual units (the
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2781:. (§3, §6, and §7 for the nature of, risks of, and alternative to ASPECTS, and page 76 for comparison to content analysis).
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Lacy, Stephen R; Riffe, Daniel (1993). "Sins of
Omission and Commission in Mass Communication Quantitative Research".
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symbols. Last, constructing the relationships between codes by sorting out them within specific categories or themes.
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program. Analysis of simple word frequencies is limited because the meaning of a word depends on surrounding text.
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The simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers unambiguous characteristics of the text such as
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Oehmer-Pedrazzi, Franziska; Kessler, Sabrina; Humprecht, Edda; Sommer, Katharina; Castro
Herrero, Laia (2022).
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have long used content analysis to interpret sacred and profane texts and, in many cases, to attribute texts'
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Lasswell, Harold (1948). "The
Structure and Function of Communication in Society". In Bryson, L. (ed.).
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has become popular. These approaches take a simplified view of language that ignores the complexity of
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2291:. (On content analysis's quantitative nature, unitization and categorization, and uses by scale type).
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1770:"Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study"
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2731:. (On content analysis's quantitative nature, unitization and categorization, and descriptive role).
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University of
Pennsylvania Scholarly Commons, Annenberg School of Communication Departmental Papers
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Text
Analysis for the Social Sciences: Methods for Drawing Inferences from Texts and Transcripts
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Text as data: The promise and pitfalls of automatic content analysis methods for political texts
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non-invasive nature, in contrast to simulating social experiences or collecting survey answers.
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a lot of codebooks of content analysis studies are freely available via search for "codebook".
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2683:. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office. pp. 19–21. (Linked to a PDF).
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White, Marilyn Domas; Marsh, Emily E. (2006). "Content
Analysis: A Flexible Methodology".
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Jang-Hwan Lee; Young-Gul Kim; Sung-Ho Yu (2001). "Stage model for knowledge management".
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2304:"On the choice of measures of reliability and validity in the content-analysis of texts"
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Note. Purpose, communication element, & question from Holsti. Uses primarily from
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Mapping Policy
Preferences. Estimates for Parties, Electors and Governments 1945-1998
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2151:." Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Knowledge capture. ACM, 2003.
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Proceedings of the 34th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
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coefficients should be reported based on empirical pre-tests. Furthermore, the
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Content Analysis: A Methodology for Structuring and Analyzing Written Material
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Content Analysis: A Methodology for Structuring and Analyzing Written Material
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Oleinik, Anton; Popova, Irina; Kirdina, Svetlana; Shatalova, Tatyana (2014).
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2034:"Iconography of Child Sexual Abuse in the News (Justice and Crime Reporting)"
2010:
1965:
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Kracauer, Siegfried (1952). "The Challenge of Qualitative Content Analysis".
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Sentiment analysis: Capturing favorability using natural language processing
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Describe & make inferences about the characteristics of communications
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Content Analysis: A Technique for Systematic Inference from Communications
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Over the years, content analysis has been applied to a variety of scopes.
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Uses of Content Analysis by Purpose, Communication Element, and Question
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Relate known characteristics of audiences to messages produced for them
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He also places these uses into the context of the basic communication
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pieces of content. By systematically labeling the content of a set of
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describe and make inferences about characteristics of a communication
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2571:. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 14–93. (Table 2-1, page 26).
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Vaismoradi, Mojtaba; Turunen, Hannele; Bondas, Terese (2013-09-01).
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1320:
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2666:. (On the meanings of "categorical" and other measurement scales).
1836:(4, Special Issue on International Communications Research): 631.
977:, the page area taken by a newspaper column, or the duration of a
842:
27:
Research method for studying documents and communication artifacts
2759:"ASPECTS, The Mismeasure of Stroke: A Metrological Investigation"
2046:
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as being at least partly versus not at all infarcted in order to
1092:
of human coding is often measured using a statistical measure of
994:
990:
82:
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2001:
1956:
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Relate known characteristics of sources to messages they produce
1238:
Holsti groups fifteen uses of content analysis into three basic
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3265:
1920:
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as 10 qualitatively delineated (unequal) brain regions in the
3032:
2301:
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approach, the initial coding scheme developed from the data.
978:
950:, six questions must be addressed in every content analysis:
2281:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. (passim).
2121:
Pfeiffer, Silvia, Stefan Fischer, and Wolfgang Effelsberg. "
3610:
1136:
audio-visual text, such as TV programs, movies, and videos
1412:
Make inferences about the consequences of communications
1298:
Make inferences about the antecedents of communications
2614:
Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities
2599:
Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities
2569:
Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities
1767:
1747:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. p. 413.
2997:
Krippendorff, Klaus; Bock, Mary Angela, eds. (2008).
1942:
Wulf, Tim; Possler, Daniel; Breuer, Johannes (2021).
1708:
1543:
2853:(2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. p. 17.
2436:
Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology
2349:
Sumpter, Randall S. (July 2001). "News about News".
2278:
Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology
1921:"DOCA - Database of Categories for Content Analysis"
1744:
Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology
1646:
The interpretation of documents and material culture
1614:(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Oxford University Press.
1130:
oral text, such as speech and theatrical performance
1214:Content analysis can also be described as studying
1133:
iconic text, such as drawings, paintings, and icons
1120:There are five types of texts in content analysis:
2742:Hall, Calvin S.; Van de Castle, Robert L. (1966).
2656:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 2–4.
2076:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1501:the latter, with published series often assessing
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2083:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
2038:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
1993:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
1948:DOCA - Database of Variables for Content Analysis
1941:
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1174:In recent times, particularly with the advent of
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2212:(2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. p.
1729:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1097:the subjective impressions of a single reader.
3023:
2601:. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 15–16.
2079:"Personalization (Election Campaign Coverage)"
1663:
1225:
925:methods to analyse meanings of content within
913:, researchers can analyse patterns of content
3048:
2794:"ASPECTS Distorts Infarct Volume Measurement"
2562:
2560:
2558:
2467:"Theory Construction in Qualitative Research"
2239:Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly
2163:Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly
1009:Qualitative and quantitative content analysis
867:
2873:
2431:
2405:
2274:
2031:
1740:
1695:
1535:The development of the initial coding scheme
2641:. (On content analysis's descriptive role).
2631:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 52–54.
2138:." Political analysis 21.3 (2013): 267-297.
1453:analysis attempts to quantifiably describe
1082:
3055:
3041:
2792:Suss, Richard A.; Pinho, Marco C. (2020).
2584:Content Analysis in Communication Research
2555:
2414:Content Analysis in Communication Research
2134:Grimmer, Justin, and Brandon M. Stewart. "
1865:
1609:
1520:National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
1387:Compare communication content to standards
1061:Database of Variables for Content Analysis
874:
860:
45:
3005:
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2626:
2465:Timmermans, Stefan; Tavory, Iddo (2012).
2236:
2090:
2045:
2000:
1955:
1887:
1785:
1649:. Thousand Oaks etc.: Sage. p. 155.
1485:(infarct) volume scale called ASPECTS is
1309:Answer questions of disputed authorship (
905:to indicate the presence of interesting,
3024:Wimmer, Roger; Dominick, Joseph (2005).
3010:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2581:
2411:
2401:. New York: Harper and Row. p. 216.
2391:
2032:Döring, Nicola; Walter, Roberto (2022).
1827:
1575:The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
1381:Describe trends in communication content
966:What are the boundaries of the analysis?
903:assigned labels (sometimes called codes)
3028:(8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
3014:
2693:
2676:
2651:
2348:
1674:
1343:Provide legal & evaluative evidence
1142:, which are texts found on the Internet
14:
4035:
2992:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
2710:
2611:
2596:
2566:
2160:
1989:"Hate speech (Hate Speech/Incivility)"
1681:. Bologna, IT: Il Mulino. p. 42.
1678:L'analisi del contenuto e i mass media
1642:
1066:
3036:
2987:
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2427:
2425:
2423:
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2147:Nasukawa, Tetsuya, and Jeonghee Yi. "
1861:
1859:
1823:
1821:
1709:Kimberly A. Neuendorf (30 May 2016).
3026:Mass Media Research: An Introduction
2896:
2886:. (Quote from 4th page, unnumbered).
2756:
2077:Leidecker-Sandmann, Melanie (2021).
1986:
960:From what population are data drawn?
1477:diagnostic features to physicians,
1340:Infer cultural aspects & change
24:
2944:
2798:American Journal of Neuroradiology
2713:"Content Analysis: A Review Essay"
2420:
2416:. Glencoe: Free Press. p. 18.
2265:
1856:
1818:
1544:The conventional process of coding
1435:Assess responses to communications
1405:Describe patterns of communication
25:
4064:
1610:Bryman, Alan; Bell, Emma (2011).
1461:) which are assigned values (the
3264:
2525:. IEEE Comput. Soc. p. 10.
2123:Automatic audio content analysis
1363:Analyse techniques of persuasion
1115:
1048:of the study is ensured. On the
841:
3019:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2890:
2867:
2842:
2785:
2750:
2735:
2704:
2687:
2670:
2645:
2627:Neuendorf, Kimberly A. (2002).
2620:
2605:
2590:
2575:
2514:
2458:
2385:
2342:
2295:
2230:
2197:
2154:
2141:
2128:
2125:." Technical Reports 96 (1996).
2115:
2070:
2025:
1980:
1935:
427:Peace, war, and social conflict
3062:
3008:The Content Analysis Guidebook
2744:The Content Analysis of Dreams
2729:10.1080/00182494.1971.10593939
2629:The Content Analysis Guidebook
2616:. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2363:10.1080/00947679.2001.12062572
1912:
1761:
1712:The Content Analysis Guidebook
1636:
1603:
13:
1:
3360:Industrial and organizational
2876:"Review of Thomas F. Carney,
2849:Weber, Robert Philip (1990).
2717:Historical Methods Newsletter
2440:. California: Sage. pp.
2204:Weber, Robert Philip (1990).
1944:"Sexualization (Video Games)"
1774:Nursing & Health Sciences
1596:
1337:Analyse traits of individuals
963:What is the relevant context?
3601:Human factors and ergonomics
3006:Neuendorf, Kimberly (2017).
2874:Krippendorff, Klaus (1974).
2432:Krippendorff, Klaus (2004).
2275:Krippendorff, Klaus (2004).
1741:Krippendorff, Klaus (2004).
1417:
1414:
1396:
1393:
1375:
1372:
1357:
1352:
1325:
1319:
1303:
1300:
1028:
7:
3015:Roberts, Carl, ed. (1997).
2999:The Content Analysis Reader
2694:Delfico, Joseph F. (1996).
2677:Delfico, Joseph F. (1996).
2586:. Glencoe, Ill: Free Press.
1552:
1250:about the antecedents of a
1226:Latent and manifest content
10:
4069:
3001:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2965:10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001
2582:Berelson, Bernard (1952).
2395:The Communication of Ideas
2251:10.1177/107769909307000114
2175:10.1177/107769900608300112
1259:make inferences about the
1146:
1127:, such as books and papers
98:Human environmental impact
3987:
3924:
3631:
3541:
3453:
3290:Applied behavior analysis
3273:
3262:
3098:
3070:
2757:Suss, Richard A. (2020).
2654:Categorical Data Analysis
2531:10.1109/hicss.2001.927103
2320:10.1007/s11135-013-9919-0
1612:Business research methods
1441:
1349:
1297:
957:How are the data defined?
2988:Budge, Ian, ed. (2001).
2486:10.1177/0735275112457914
1987:Esau, Katharina (2021).
1830:Public Opinion Quarterly
1083:Reliability and Validity
954:Which data are analyzed?
941:
192:Structural functionalism
3566:Behavioral neuroscience
3130:Behavioral neuroscience
2897:Frey, Bruce B. (2018).
2612:Holsti, Ole R. (1969).
2597:Holsti, Ole R. (1969).
2567:Holsti, Ole R. (1969).
1331:Secure political &
1233:
1102:inter-rater reliability
1094:inter-coder reliability
1054:Center for Open Science
969:What is to be measured?
901:or artifacts which are
212:Symbolic interactionism
107:Industrial revolutions
3616:Psychology of religion
3556:Behavioral engineering
3493:Human subject research
3149:Cognitive neuroscience
3115:Affective neuroscience
2851:Basic Content Analysis
2652:Agresti, Alan (2002).
2308:Quality & Quantity
2208:Basic Content Analysis
1586:Video content analysis
1513:impose the uncredited
1503:intercoder reliability
1491:middle cerebral artery
1471:intercoder reliability
1446:as adapted by Holsti.
1050:Open Science Framework
202:Social constructionism
4043:Quantitative research
3992:Wiktionary definition
3528:Self-report inventory
3523:Quantitative research
2953:Nurse Education Today
2909:10.4135/9781506326139
2771:10.31219/osf.io/c4tkp
2412:Berelson, B. (1952).
1880:10.1353/lib.2006.0053
1524:modified Rankin Scale
1511:italicized operations
1333:military intelligence
577:Conversation analysis
152:Social stratification
4048:Qualitative research
3518:Qualitative research
3473:Behavior epigenetics
2711:Carney, T F (1971).
1675:Tipaldo, G. (2014).
1493:territory, which it
1052:(OSF) server of the
3997:Wiktionary category
3561:Behavioral genetics
3533:Statistical surveys
3390:Occupational health
3125:Behavioral genetics
2474:Sociological Theory
1643:Hodder, I. (1994).
1559:Donald Wayne Foster
1431:flow of information
1311:authorship analysis
1280:
1263:of a communication.
1067:Computational tools
987:Key Word In Context
919:statistical methods
162:Social cycle theory
33:Part of a series on
3969:Schools of thought
3872:Richard E. Nisbett
3752:Donald T. Campbell
3430:Sport and exercise
2810:10.3174/ajnr.A6485
2351:Journalism History
1528:Klaus Krippendorff
1418:With what effect?
1278:
1176:mass communication
1022:Siegfried Kracauer
948:Klaus Krippendorff
848:Society portal
471:History of science
452:Race and ethnicity
132:Social environment
4030:
4029:
4007:Wikimedia Commons
3934:Counseling topics
3897:Ronald C. Kessler
3887:Shelley E. Taylor
3812:Lawrence Kohlberg
3787:Stanley Schachter
3586:Consumer behavior
3468:Archival research
3236:Psycholinguistics
3120:Affective science
2451:978-0-7619-1544-7
1787:10.1111/nhs.12048
1722:978-1-4129-7947-4
1688:978-88-15-24832-9
1469:while monitoring
1450:
1449:
1415:Decoding process
1059:Furthermore, the
1003:thematic analysis
938:characteristics.
884:
883:
602:Social experiment
482:Social psychology
127:Social complexity
16:(Redirected from
4060:
3964:Research methods
3907:Richard Davidson
3902:Joseph E. LeDoux
3777:George A. Miller
3767:David McClelland
3762:Herbert A. Simon
3662:Edward Thorndike
3483:Content analysis
3268:
3241:Psychophysiology
3057:
3050:
3043:
3034:
3033:
3029:
3020:
3011:
3002:
2993:
2984:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2900:Content Analysis
2894:
2888:
2887:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2821:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2564:
2553:
2552:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2502:
2496:. Archived from
2471:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2439:
2429:
2418:
2417:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2314:(5): 2703–2718.
2299:
2293:
2292:
2272:
2263:
2262:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2211:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2158:
2152:
2145:
2139:
2132:
2126:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2094:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2049:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2004:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1959:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1891:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1825:
1816:
1815:
1789:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1738:
1727:
1726:
1706:
1693:
1692:
1672:
1661:
1660:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1607:
1581:Transition words
1509:. The foregoing
1281:
1277:
1185:Bernard Berelson
1110:content validity
975:word frequencies
935:Machine learning
889:is the study of
887:Content analysis
876:
869:
862:
846:
845:
597:Network analysis
487:Sociocybernetics
477:Social movements
207:Social darwinism
157:Social structure
49:
30:
29:
21:
18:Textual analysis
4068:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4057:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4026:
3983:
3959:Psychotherapies
3920:
3877:Martin Seligman
3842:Daniel Kahneman
3782:Richard Lazarus
3732:Raymond Cattell
3636:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3537:
3449:
3276:
3269:
3260:
3221:Neuropsychology
3101:
3094:
3066:
3061:
2947:
2945:Further reading
2942:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2919:
2895:
2891:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2847:
2843:
2790:
2786:
2755:
2751:
2740:
2736:
2709:
2705:
2692:
2688:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2650:
2646:
2639:
2625:
2621:
2610:
2606:
2595:
2591:
2580:
2576:
2565:
2556:
2541:
2519:
2515:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2430:
2421:
2410:
2406:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2347:
2343:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2273:
2266:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2202:
2198:
2159:
2155:
2146:
2142:
2133:
2129:
2120:
2116:
2075:
2071:
2030:
2026:
1985:
1981:
1940:
1936:
1917:
1913:
1864:
1857:
1826:
1819:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1739:
1730:
1723:
1707:
1696:
1689:
1673:
1664:
1657:
1641:
1637:
1622:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1591:Grounded theory
1555:
1546:
1537:
1522:(NIHSS) or the
1236:
1228:
1199:, particularly
1180:Harold Lasswell
1149:
1118:
1085:
1069:
1046:reproducibility
1031:
1011:
944:
880:
840:
833:
832:
793:
783:
782:
710:
636:
622:
620:Major theorists
612:
611:
547:
537:
536:
227:
217:
216:
187:Critical theory
182:Conflict theory
177:
167:
166:
137:Social equality
78:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4066:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4028:
4027:
4025:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3930:
3928:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3917:Roy Baumeister
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3852:Michael Posner
3849:
3844:
3839:
3837:Elliot Aronson
3834:
3832:Walter Mischel
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3797:Albert Bandura
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3772:Leon Festinger
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3742:Neal E. Miller
3739:
3737:Abraham Maslow
3734:
3729:
3724:
3722:Ernest Hilgard
3719:
3717:Donald O. Hebb
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3697:J. P. Guilford
3694:
3692:Gordon Allport
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3672:John B. Watson
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3637:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3463:Animal testing
3459:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3281:
3279:
3271:
3270:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3166:Cross-cultural
3163:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3146:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3106:
3104:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3060:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3021:
3012:
3003:
2994:
2985:
2959:(2): 105–112.
2946:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2917:
2889:
2866:
2859:
2841:
2784:
2749:
2734:
2703:
2686:
2669:
2662:
2644:
2637:
2619:
2604:
2589:
2574:
2554:
2539:
2513:
2480:(3): 167–186.
2457:
2450:
2419:
2404:
2384:
2341:
2294:
2287:
2264:
2245:(1): 126–132.
2229:
2222:
2196:
2169:(1): 186–200.
2153:
2140:
2127:
2114:
2069:
2024:
1979:
1934:
1911:
1868:Library Trends
1855:
1842:10.1086/266427
1817:
1780:(3): 398–405.
1760:
1753:
1728:
1721:
1694:
1687:
1662:
1656:978-0761926870
1655:
1635:
1620:
1601:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1554:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1536:
1533:
1463:categorization
1455:communications
1448:
1447:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1427:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1398:
1395:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1327:
1324:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1265:
1264:
1257:
1254:
1235:
1232:
1227:
1224:
1205:mobile devices
1148:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1117:
1114:
1084:
1081:
1072:textual data.
1068:
1065:
1030:
1027:
1010:
1007:
971:
970:
967:
964:
961:
958:
955:
943:
940:
915:quantitatively
882:
881:
879:
878:
871:
864:
856:
853:
852:
851:
850:
835:
834:
831:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
794:
789:
788:
785:
784:
638:
637:
623:
618:
617:
614:
613:
610:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
548:
543:
542:
539:
538:
535:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
247:Astrosociology
244:
239:
234:
228:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
178:
173:
172:
169:
168:
165:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
105:
100:
95:
93:Human behavior
90:
85:
79:
76:
75:
72:
71:
70:
69:
64:
59:
51:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4065:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3989:
3986:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3954:Psychologists
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3944:Organizations
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3892:John Anderson
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3822:Ulric Neisser
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3807:Endel Tulving
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3792:Robert Zajonc
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3747:Jerome Bruner
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3712:B. F. Skinner
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3677:Clark L. Hull
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3657:Sigmund Freud
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3647:William James
3645:
3643:
3642:Wilhelm Wundt
3640:
3638:
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2540:0-7695-0981-9
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2503:on 2019-08-19
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813:Organizations
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567:Computational
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312:Environmental
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262:Consciousness
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142:Social equity
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88:Globalization
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19:
4053:Hermeneutics
3867:Larry Squire
3862:Bruce McEwen
3857:Amos Tversky
3827:Jerome Kagan
3817:Noam Chomsky
3757:Hans Eysenck
3727:Harry Harlow
3707:Erik Erikson
3606:Intelligence
3503:Neuroimaging
3482:
3246:Quantitative
3211:Mathematical
3206:Intelligence
3196:Experimental
3191:Evolutionary
3181:Differential
3090:Psychologist
3025:
3016:
3007:
2998:
2989:
2956:
2952:
2932:December 16,
2930:. Retrieved
2899:
2892:
2883:
2877:
2869:
2850:
2844:
2801:
2797:
2787:
2762:
2752:
2743:
2737:
2723:(2): 52–61.
2720:
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2706:
2696:
2689:
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2672:
2653:
2647:
2628:
2622:
2613:
2607:
2598:
2592:
2583:
2577:
2568:
2522:
2516:
2505:. Retrieved
2498:the original
2477:
2473:
2460:
2435:
2413:
2407:
2394:
2387:
2357:(2): 64–72.
2354:
2350:
2344:
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2307:
2297:
2277:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2207:
2199:
2166:
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2156:
2143:
2130:
2117:
2082:
2072:
2047:10.34778/2zu
2037:
2027:
1992:
1982:
1947:
1937:
1914:
1874:(1): 22–45.
1871:
1867:
1833:
1829:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1743:
1711:
1677:
1645:
1638:
1611:
1605:
1573:
1564:Hermeneutics
1547:
1538:
1514:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1486:
1479:neuroimaging
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1429:Analyse the
1273:
1266:
1237:
1229:
1213:
1201:social media
1195:produced by
1189:
1173:
1169:authenticity
1157:Hermeneutics
1154:
1150:
1125:written text
1119:
1099:
1093:
1086:
1077:
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1034:
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999:
972:
945:
931:
896:
886:
885:
798:Bibliography
712:
640:
639:
626:
592:Mathematical
572:Ethnographic
552:Quantitative
237:Architecture
175:Perspectives
147:Social power
3939:Disciplines
3912:Susan Fiske
3802:Roger Brown
3702:Carl Rogers
3687:Jean Piaget
3652:Ivan Pavlov
3508:Observation
3488:Experiments
3435:Suicidology
3330:Educational
3285:Anomalistic
3256:Theoretical
3231:Personality
3161:Comparative
3144:Cognitivism
3135:Behaviorism
2092:10.34778/2g
2002:10.34778/5a
1957:10.34778/3e
1569:Text mining
1495:categorizes
1475:communicate
1467:enumeration
1459:unitization
1425:readability
1090:Reliability
923:qualitative
803:Terminology
772:Baudrillard
648:Tocqueville
562:Comparative
557:Qualitative
527:Victimology
357:Immigration
342:Generations
257:Criminology
4037:Categories
4002:Wikisource
3847:Paul Ekman
3682:Kurt Lewin
3576:Competence
3498:Interviews
3478:Case study
3355:Humanistic
3335:Ergonomics
3320:Counseling
3295:Assessment
3277:psychology
3226:Perception
3186:Ecological
3102:psychology
3080:Philosophy
3064:Psychology
2860:0803938632
2804:(5): E28.
2663:0471360937
2638:0761919783
2507:2018-12-09
2288:0761915451
1597:References
1394:Recipient
1248:inferences
1240:categories
1183:analysis,
1165:authorship
1140:hypertexts
983:television
907:meaningful
828:By country
582:Historical
507:Technology
447:Punishment
432:Philosophy
407:Mathematic
397:Literature
362:Industrial
352:Historical
277:Demography
197:Positivism
122:Popularity
77:Key themes
4022:Wikibooks
4012:Wikiquote
3882:Ed Diener
3667:Carl Jung
3571:Cognition
3400:Political
3310:Community
3140:Cognitive
2836:214767536
2779:242764761
2494:145177394
2379:140499059
2371:0094-7679
2336:144174429
2328:1573-7845
2259:144076335
2191:143292050
2183:1077-6990
2109:235520184
2101:2673-8597
2064:248329276
2056:2673-8597
2019:235551271
2011:2673-8597
1974:233683109
1966:2673-8597
1929:2673-8597
1898:1559-0682
1889:2142/3670
1850:0033-362X
1796:1442-2018
1630:746155102
1499:enumerate
1397:To whom?
1290:Question
1220:abduction
1197:new media
1161:philology
1029:Codebooks
921:, or use
891:documents
644:Martineau
587:Interview
512:Terrorism
492:Sociology
437:Political
377:Knowledge
297:Education
39:Sociology
4017:Wikinews
3974:Timeline
3596:Feelings
3591:Emotions
3551:Behavior
3542:Concepts
3420:Religion
3405:Positive
3395:Pastoral
3380:Military
3345:Forensic
3340:Feminist
3325:Critical
3315:Consumer
3305:Coaching
3300:Clinical
3275:Applied
3171:Cultural
3110:Abnormal
2981:17354453
2973:14769454
2903:. Sage.
2828:32241774
2549:34182315
1812:10881485
1804:23480423
1715:. SAGE.
1553:See also
1487:unitized
1444:Berelson
1423:Measure
1373:Message
1323:process
1321:Encoding
1287:Element
1284:Purpose
1269:paradigm
1209:semiosis
1193:big data
1106:validity
995:homonyms
991:synonyms
823:Timeline
808:Journals
776:Bourdieu
768:Habermas
764:Luhmann
760:Foucault
704:Mannheim
684:Durkheim
457:Religion
417:Military
382:Language
367:Internet
322:Feminist
306:Jealousy
292:Economic
287:Disaster
282:Deviance
225:Branches
103:Identity
3949:Outline
3445:Traffic
3440:Systems
3375:Medical
3201:Gestalt
3075:History
2927:4110403
2819:7228155
1906:6342233
1354:Channel
1301:Source
1261:effects
1147:History
780:Giddens
778:·
774:·
766:·
754:·
752:Goffman
748:Schoeck
734:·
726:·
702:·
700:Du Bois
698:·
690:·
686:·
678:·
672:Tönnies
670:·
656:Spencer
654:·
632:·
545:Methods
522:Utopian
467:Science
412:Medical
402:Marxist
392:Leisure
302:Emotion
267:Culture
83:Society
62:Outline
57:History
3979:Topics
3425:School
3350:Health
3251:Social
3154:Social
3100:Basic
3085:Portal
2979:
2971:
2925:
2915:
2857:
2834:
2826:
2816:
2777:
2660:
2635:
2547:
2537:
2492:
2448:
2377:
2369:
2334:
2326:
2285:
2257:
2220:
2189:
2181:
2107:
2099:
2062:
2054:
2017:
2009:
1972:
1964:
1927:
1904:
1896:
1848:
1810:
1802:
1794:
1751:
1719:
1685:
1653:
1628:
1618:
1483:stroke
1465:) for
1376:What?
1216:traces
1039:before
1035:during
917:using
818:People
756:Bauman
736:Nisbet
732:Merton
724:Gehlen
720:Adorno
713:1900s:
688:Addams
680:Simmel
676:Veblen
668:Pareto
660:Le Bon
641:1800s:
634:Sieyès
627:1700s:
607:Survey
532:Visual
442:Public
347:Health
337:Gender
327:Fiscal
317:Family
3926:Lists
3385:Music
3370:Media
3365:Legal
3216:Moral
2977:S2CID
2923:S2CID
2832:S2CID
2775:S2CID
2545:S2CID
2501:(PDF)
2490:S2CID
2470:(PDF)
2444:–89.
2399:(PDF)
2375:S2CID
2332:S2CID
2255:S2CID
2187:S2CID
2105:S2CID
2060:S2CID
2015:S2CID
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