224:
1012:
576:
876:
387:
1054:
1213:
2946:
1152:
114:
945:
209:(1892, 1895) introduced several new auxiliary variables for moving observers, demonstrating why all first-order optical and electrostatic experiments have produced null results. For example, Lorentz proposed a location variable by which electrostatic fields contract in the line of motion and another variable ("local time") by which the time coordinates for moving observers depend on their current location.
999:
models include effects like time dilation of moving clocks, that compensate any measurable anisotropy. However, of all models having isotropic two-way speed, only special relativity is acceptable for the overwhelming majority of physicists since all other synchronizations are much more complicated, and those other models (such as
998:
convention makes the one-way speed equal to the two-way speed. However, there are many models having isotropic two-way speed of light, in which the one-way speed is anisotropic by choosing different synchronization schemes. They are experimentally equivalent to special relativity because all of these
993:
A series of one-way measurements were undertaken, all of them confirming the isotropy of the speed of light. However, only the two-way speed of light (from A to B back to A) can unambiguously be measured, since the one-way speed depends on the definition of simultaneity and therefore on the method of
967:
rendered the results of all experiments previous to that time inconclusive, and therefore compatible with both special relativity and emission theory. More recent experiments have definitely ruled out the emission model: the earliest were those of
Filippas and Fox (1964), using moving sources of
841:
Besides the derivation of the
Lorentz transformation, the combination of these experiments is also important because they can be interpreted in different ways when viewed individually. For example, isotropy experiments such as Michelson-Morley can be seen as a simple consequence of the relativity
1230:
Special relativity also predicts that two light rays traveling in opposite directions around a spinning closed path (e.g. a loop) require different flight times to come back to the moving emitter/receiver (this is a consequence of the independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the
30:
is not significant. Many experiments played (and still play) an important role in its development and justification. The strength of the theory lies in its unique ability to correctly predict to high precision the outcome of an extremely diverse range of experiments. Repeats of many of those
959:, according to which the speed of light depends on the velocity of the source, can conceivably explain the negative outcome of aether drift experiments. It was not until the mid-1960s that the constancy of the speed of light was definitively shown by experiment, since in 1965,
1273:(SME). RMS has three testable parameters with respect to length contraction and time dilation. From that, any anisotropy of the speed of light can be assessed. On the other hand, SME includes many Lorentz violation parameters, not only for special relativity, but for the
444:
be able to throw it into vibration, if they are oscillating or revolving at sufficient speed; otherwise they would not emit light or any kind of radiation; but in no case do they appear to drag it along, or to meet with resistance in any uniform motion through it."
908:
of the speed of light. Contrary to
Michelson-Morley, the Kennedy-Thorndike experiments employ different arm lengths, and the evaluations last several months. In that way, the influence of different velocities during Earth's orbit around the Sun can be observed.
837:
1181:. The results actually showed such a dependency but the precision necessary to distinguish between competing theories was disputed for a long time. Eventually, it was possible to definitely rule out all competing models except special relativity.
1299:
in recent years, deviations of
Lorentz invariance (possibly following from those models) are again the target of experimentalists. Because "local Lorentz invariance" (LLI) also holds in freely falling frames, experiments concerning the weak
205:(1851). It was later shown that all first-order optical experiments must give a negative result due to this coefficient. In addition, some electrostatic first-order experiments were conducted, again having negative results. In general,
94:
is constant in all directions in the aether and is independent of the velocity of the source. Thus an observer moving relative to the aether must measure some sort of "aether wind" even as an observer moving relative to air measures an
1268:
Several test theories have been developed to assess a possible positive outcome in
Lorentz violation experiments by adding certain parameters to the standard equations. These include the Robertson-Mansouri-Sexl framework (RMS) and the
1142:
perpendicular to the direction of motion, whose effects already have been observed. Consequently, both time dilation and length contraction must be considered when conducting experiments in particle accelerators.
326:). That is, the older hypothesis of a contraction of electrostatic fields was extended to intermolecular forces. However, since there was no theoretical reason for that, the contraction hypothesis was considered
462:(1905) drew the conclusion that established theories and facts known at that time only form a logical coherent system when the concepts of space and time are subjected to a fundamental revision. For instance:
201:(1818) with the introduction of an auxiliary hypothesis, the so-called "dragging coefficient", that is, matter is dragging the aether to a small extent. This coefficient was directly demonstrated by the
314:
in 1887. Two rays of light, traveling for some time in different directions were brought to interfere, so that different orientations relative to the aether wind should lead to a displacement of the
394:
The idea that the aether might be completely dragged within or in the vicinity of Earth, by which the negative aether drift experiments could be explained, was refuted by a variety of experiments.
1417:
of distant astronomical objects, but also of terrestrial sources, Lorentz violations could lead to alterations in the standard values for the processes following from that energy, such as Vacuum
1134:
is hard to achieve in practice since the dimensions of the observed particles are vanishingly small. However, there are indirect confirmations; for example, the behavior of colliding heavy
686:
440:
Lodge expressed the paradoxical situation in which physicists found themselves as follows: "...at no practicable speed does ... matter any appreciable viscous grip upon the ether. Atoms
1250:. Although this effect was initially understood as giving evidence of a nearly stationary aether or a partial aether drag it can easily be explained with special relativity by using the
842:
principle, according to which any inertially moving observer can consider himself as at rest. Therefore, by itself, the MM experiment is compatible to
Galilean-invariant theories like
390:
Lodge's ether machine. The steel disks were one yard in diameter. White light was split by a beam splitter and ran three times around the apparatus before reuniting to form fringes.
695:
968:
gamma rays, and Alväger et al. (1964), which demonstrated that photons did not acquire the speed of the high speed decaying mesons which were their source. In addition, the
543:
The rate of a clock C (= any periodic process) traveling between two synchronized clocks A and B at rest in an inertial frame is retarded with respect to the two clocks.
300:
195:
1037:. They are not restricted to the photon sector as Michelson-Morley but directly determine any anisotropy of mass, energy, or space by measuring the ground state of
258:
154:
1095:, the maximum measured deviation of time dilation from the relativistic prediction has been limited to ≤ 10. Other confirmations of time dilation include
2692:
2109:
1103:
were sent from the middle of a rotating disc to a receiver at the edge of the disc, so that the transverse
Doppler effect can be evaluated by means of the
1003:) are based on extreme and implausible assumptions concerning some dynamical effects, which are aimed at hiding the "preferred frame" from observation.
2756:
891:
884:
2429:
850:, which also contain some sort of relativity principle. However, when other experiments that exclude the Galilean-invariant theories are considered (
2791:
1138:
can be explained if their increased density due to
Lorentz contraction is considered. Contraction also leads to an increase of the intensity of the
231:
The stationary aether theory, however, would give positive results when the experiments are precise enough to measure magnitudes of second order in
2473:
1748:
2723:
1163:. (Cross-section through the axis of a circular capacitor with a beta-source at its center, at an angle α with respect to the magnetic field H)
1304:
belong to this class of tests as well. The outcomes are analyzed by test theories (as mentioned above) like RMS or, more importantly, by SME.
2276:
1172:
307:
529:
Any uniformly moving observer in an inertial frame cannot determine his "absolute" state of motion by a co-moving experimental arrangement.
2507:
2382:
197:) and which thus should have demonstrated the relative motion of the aether. Yet the results were negative. An explanation was provided by
2323:
604:
of the measuring device can be tested. It establishes the relation between longitudinal lengths and the duration of time of moving bodies.
2395:
415:
using a common-path interferometer, one arm of which was enclosed by a thick-walled pipe plugged with lead, while the other arm was free.
1961:
Alväger, T.; Farley, F. J. M.; Kjellman, J.; Wallin, L. (1964), "Test of the second postulate of special relativity in the GeV region",
2240:
2142:
1096:
929:
128:(1810), a series of optical experiments had been conducted, which should have given a positive result for magnitudes of first order in
895:
345:
intended to measure some consequences of length contraction in the laboratory frame, for example the assumption that it would lead to
2456:
2302:
2271:
2102:
1168:
433:
2147:
1123:
that a clock moving from A to B back to A is retarded with respect to the initial clock. However, in this experiment the effects of
31:
experiments are still being conducted with steadily increased precision, with modern experiments focusing on effects such as at the
2766:
2680:
1342:
1251:
2901:
2827:
2208:
1432:
432:
The assumption that aether drag is proportional to mass and thus only occurs with respect to Earth as a whole was refuted by the
1632:
Will, C.M (2005). "Special
Relativity: A Centenary Perspective". In T. Damour; O. Darrigol; B. Duplantier; V. Rivasseau (eds.).
1111:
in the atmosphere and in particle accelerators, the time dilation of moving particles was also verified. On the other hand, the
594:
of the measuring device can be tested. It establishes the relation between longitudinal and transverse lengths of moving bodies.
1084:
921:
are used, reducing the possibility of any anisotropy of the speed of light to the 10 level. In addition to terrestrial tests,
2822:
2245:
2203:
2178:
1675:
1537:
1447:
1384:
1290:
1066:
972:(1913) was repeated by Brecher (1977) under consideration of the extinction theorem, ruling out a source dependence as well.
964:
1390:
Astronomical tests are conducted in connection with the flight time of photons, where
Lorentz violating factors could cause
360:
To explain all experiments conducted before 1904, Lorentz was forced to again expand his theory by introducing the complete
39:
sector. Their results are consistent with the predictions of special relativity. Collections of various tests were given by
2970:
2834:
2579:
2546:
2318:
2095:
1235:. Currently, the consideration of this effect is necessary for many experimental setups and for the correct functioning of
1045:
have been provided. Thus these experiments are among the most precise verifications of Lorentz invariance ever conducted.
2924:
2891:
2344:
1711:
1481:
1454:. The latter is investigated to find possible deviations of Lorentz invariance that could drive the photons out of phase.
1263:
1177:
Starting with 1901, a series of measurements was conducted aimed at demonstrating the velocity dependence of the mass of
472:
859:
847:
2697:
2031:
Fermi LAT Collaboration (2009). "A limit on the variation of the speed of light arising from quantum gravity effects".
583:
The effects of special relativity can phenomenologically be derived from the following three fundamental experiments:
2594:
2569:
2444:
2434:
2424:
2213:
2193:
1371:(whose violation represents a violation of Lorentz invariance as well) can be determined in experiments with neutral
502:. Here, the Lorentz transformation is no longer a mere collection of auxiliary hypotheses but reflects a fundamental
342:
2774:
2485:
2375:
2152:
2137:
969:
949:
901:
625:
597:
2255:
1070:
218:
2730:
2668:
2502:
2468:
2132:
1189:
587:
311:
108:
2599:
2497:
2198:
2162:
1440:
922:
350:
2906:
2687:
2653:
2606:
2250:
1476:
1112:
932:
in the 1960s, by which the anisotropy of the Doppler effect on a rotating disc can be observed by using the
2975:
2675:
2648:
2626:
2584:
2480:
2235:
2188:
2183:
1309:
1080:
1062:
1030:
1024:
956:
855:
843:
607:
334:
1029:
Clock-comparison experiments (periodic processes and frequencies can be considered as clocks) such as the
2980:
2949:
2919:
2663:
2611:
2368:
1471:
1019:
O. The sharp, unsplit NMR line of this isotope of lithium is evidence for the isotropy of mass and space.
495:
223:
67:
979:
also demonstrated that the speed of light is independent of the frequency and energy of the light rays.
2779:
2641:
2531:
2451:
1703:
402:
353:
conducted in 1908 also gave a negative result when measuring the influence of length contraction on an
333:
Besides the optical Michelson–Morley experiment, its electrodynamic equivalent was also conducted, the
322:(1889) and Lorentz (1892) that matter is contracted in the line of motion with respect to the aether (
2886:
2855:
2735:
2631:
2526:
1236:
1076:
319:
862:), Lorentz-invariant theories and thus special relativity are the only theories that remain viable.
466:
Maxwell-Lorentz's electrodynamics (independence of the speed of light from the speed of the source),
2911:
2784:
2740:
2658:
2636:
2490:
2349:
1270:
995:
879:
Michelson-Morley experiment with cryogenic optical resonators of a form such as was used by MĂĽller
619:
2817:
2519:
2461:
2439:
557:
507:
499:
369:
2339:
1092:
988:
381:
361:
264:
159:
1641:
2812:
2807:
2761:
2618:
2417:
1428:
1422:
1301:
1221:
1011:
832:{\displaystyle x'=\gamma (x-vt),\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\gamma \left(t-{\frac {vx}{c^{2}}}\right)}
1633:
2412:
2050:
2005:
1970:
1935:
1893:
1858:
1821:
1771:
1655:
1581:
1407:
1391:
1196:
and energy is not only precisely measured but also necessary to understand the behavior of
1185:
1000:
354:
1246:), it is also necessary to consider Fresnel's dragging coefficient as demonstrated by the
8:
2865:
1418:
510:. There is a large number of possible tests of the predictions and the second postulate:
483:
426:
315:
303:
235:
131:
79:
2054:
2009:
1974:
1939:
1897:
1862:
1825:
1775:
1659:
1585:
1308:
Besides the mentioned variations of Michelson–Morley and Kennedy–Thorndike experiments,
1104:
933:
2860:
2541:
2391:
2227:
2074:
2040:
1996:
Brecher, K. (1977). "Is the speed of light independent of the velocity of the source".
1909:
1787:
1742:
1681:
1645:
1604:
1571:
1559:
1526:
1278:
1131:
1124:
1034:
549:
491:
323:
63:
26:
that plays a fundamental role in the description of all physical phenomena, as long as
19:
2931:
2850:
2536:
2514:
2404:
2292:
2157:
2078:
2066:
1982:
1913:
1791:
1732:
1671:
1634:
1609:
1533:
1361:
1325:
1247:
1225:
918:
479:
412:
318:. But the result was negative again. The way out of this dilemma was the proposal by
202:
117:
1685:
1505:
Laub, Jakob (1910). "Über die experimentellen Grundlagen des Relativitätsprinzips".
365:
125:
2870:
2058:
2013:
1978:
1943:
1901:
1866:
1829:
1779:
1663:
1599:
1589:
1414:
1357:
1139:
503:
337:. By that it should be demonstrated that a moving condenser must be subjected to a
198:
575:
1960:
1926:
Filippas, T.A.; Fox, J.G. (1964). "Velocity of Gamma Rays from a Moving Source".
1328:
1296:
976:
459:
206:
51:
23:
2360:
2017:
2896:
2558:
1274:
1079:
and consequently time dilation was directly observed for the first time in the
1038:
689:
561:
553:
532:
In all inertial frames the measured speed of light is equal in all directions (
91:
2087:
1947:
1905:
1834:
1809:
936:(those experiments can also be utilized to measure time dilation, see below).
875:
2964:
2297:
2223:
1395:
1349:, and those experiments are valid in the electron, proton, and photon sector.
1243:
1232:
925:
have also been conducted as a variation of the Kennedy-Thorndike-experiment.
611:
522:
419:
408:
386:
346:
96:
44:
1884:
MartĂnez, Alberto A. (2004), "Ritz, Einstein, and the Emission Hypothesis",
1667:
2070:
1783:
1613:
1376:
1368:
1353:
1338:
1116:
1088:
1053:
401:(1893) found that rapidly whirling steel disks above and below a sensitive
398:
32:
952:, later repeated by Brecher under consideration of the extinction theorem.
368:
declared in 1905 that the impossibility of demonstrating absolute motion (
1458:
1201:
59:
27:
2062:
1594:
1242:
If such experiments are conducted in moving media (e.g. water, or glass
1231:
source, see above). This effect was actually observed and is called the
1212:
486:(both implying modified velocity addition and no complete aether drag).
40:
1870:
1650:
1576:
560:
and the experimental predictions of relativistic theories such as the
1451:
1403:
1204:
etc., by which particles are accelerated near to the speed of light.
1197:
1100:
960:
494:
theory, which is based on the constancy of the speed of light in all
469:
the negative aether drift experiments (no preferred reference frame),
1762:
Lämmerzahl, C. (2005). "Special Relativity and Lorentz Invariance".
536:), independent of the speed of the source, and cannot be reached by
422:
showed that aether wind caused by earth drag cannot be demonstrated.
78:
The predominant theory of light in the 19th century was that of the
16:
Experiments probing the accuracy of special relativity's predictions
1436:
1321:
1193:
1184:
Today, special relativity's predictions are routinely confirmed in
1178:
1151:
905:
533:
36:
2045:
1810:"Postulate versus Observation in the Special Theory of Relativity"
1281:
as well; thus it has a much larger number of testable parameters.
113:
86:
medium in which light propagates in a manner analogous to the way
1346:
1317:
944:
1155:
Bucherer's experimental setup for measuring the specific charge
349:. Though all of those experiments led to negative results. (The
1399:
1313:
338:
327:
436:, which demonstrated the Sagnac effect through Earth's motion.
1372:
939:
914:
910:
87:
1380:
1108:
537:
73:
1849:
Fox, J. G. (1965), "Evidence Against Emission Theories",
1443:) are being investigated for possible Lorentz violations.
1335:
1312:
are continuing to be conducted for isotropy tests in the
1135:
1042:
90:
propagates through air. By analogy, it follows that the
2030:
1704:"What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?"
1446:
Other candidates for astronomical observations are the
1048:
618:
From these three experiments and by using the Poincaré-
600:, by which the dependence of the speed of light on the
590:, by which the dependence of the speed of light on the
1006:
628:
375:
1295:
Due to the developments concerning various models of
698:
267:
238:
162:
134:
1883:
622:, the complete Lorentz transformation follows, with
58:, to all phenomena without significant influence of
1528:
Special Relativity and Its Experimental Foundations
1146:
506:and forms the basis of successful theories such as
219:
Luminiferous aether § Second order experiments
1702:Roberts, T; Schleif, S (2007). Dlugosz, JM (ed.).
1525:
865:
831:
680:
294:
252:
189:
148:
109:Luminiferous aether § First order experiments
2390:
1925:
1523:
2962:
1807:
1557:
2117:
413:failed to find any evidence for aether dragging
1761:
1701:
870:
681:{\textstyle \gamma =1/{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}
2376:
2103:
1320:sector. To detect possible deviations in the
928:Another type of isotropy experiments are the
429:was inconsistent with aether drag hypothesis.
1747:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1192:. For example, the increase of relativistic
1159:of β electrons as a function of their speed
405:failed to produce a measurable fringe shift.
310:in 1881, followed by the more sophisticated
1995:
1919:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1504:
212:
2383:
2369:
2110:
2096:
1848:
1507:Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik
1345:, by observation of the Doppler effect of
940:No dependence on source velocity or energy
570:
102:
2272:Tests of relativistic energy and momentum
2044:
1833:
1649:
1631:
1603:
1593:
1575:
1169:Tests of relativistic energy and momentum
1041:. Upper limit of such anisotropies of 10
982:
904:have been conducted in order to test the
1724:
1546:
1211:
1150:
1052:
1010:
943:
900:Modern variants of Michelson-Morley and
874:
856:various refutations of emission theories
574:
548:Also other relativistic effects such as
385:
222:
112:
74:Experiments paving the way to relativity
2209:Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations
1433:Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations
1057:Ives–Stilwell experiment (1938).)
860:refutations of complete aether dragging
403:common path interferometric arrangement
2963:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1398:leading to a dependency of photons on
579:The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment
2364:
2277:Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments
2246:Experimental testing of time dilation
2204:Antimatter tests of Lorentz violation
2179:Modern searches for Lorentz violation
2091:
1803:
1801:
1730:
1697:
1695:
1385:Antimatter Tests of Lorentz Violation
1364:in electrostatic and magnetic fields.
1291:Modern searches for Lorentz violation
1284:
1173:Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments
1067:Experimental testing of time dilation
448:
2835:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
1560:"Modern Tests of Lorentz Invariance"
1517:
1334:Time dilation is confirmed in heavy
1207:
1049:Time dilation and length contraction
896:Recent Kennedy–Thorndike experiments
885:Recent optical resonator experiments
50:Special relativity is restricted to
2345:Test theories of special relativity
1755:
1712:University of California, Riverside
1620:
1493:
1482:Test theories of special relativity
1264:Test theories of special relativity
1071:Confirmations of length contraction
1007:Isotropy of mass, energy, and space
892:Recent Michelson-Morley experiments
475:(only relative motion is relevant),
473:Moving magnet and conductor problem
376:Refutations of complete aether drag
62:. The latter lies in the domain of
13:
1842:
1798:
1692:
14:
2992:
2303:Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment
2214:Lorentz-violating electrodynamics
2194:Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace
1015:Li-NMR spectrum of LiCl (1M) in D
434:Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment
372:) is apparently a law of nature.
343:Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace
2945:
2944:
2256:Length contraction confirmations
2153:de Sitter double star experiment
1737:. New York: Harper and Brothers.
1257:
1147:Relativistic momentum and energy
1115:confirmed the resolution of the
1085:modern Ives-Stilwell experiments
970:de Sitter double star experiment
950:de Sitter double star experiment
2024:
1989:
1954:
1877:
1190:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider
1107:. By measuring the lifetime of
963:showed that the effects of the
923:Lunar Laser Ranging Experiments
866:Constancy of the speed of light
848:complete aether drag hypothesis
519:Constancy of the speed of light
227:Michelson-Morley interferometer
2324:Refutations of emission theory
2163:Measurements of neutrino speed
1640:. Basel: Birkhauser. pp.
1441:measurements of neutrino speed
1216:Original Sagnac interferometer
854:the Ives–Stilwell experiment,
728:
713:
283:
268:
178:
163:
1:
1487:
1477:History of special relativity
1448:Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit
1127:also play an essential role.
902:Kennedy–Thorndike experiments
308:first experiment of this kind
2319:Refutations of aether theory
2241:Moessbauer rotor experiments
2143:Moessbauer rotor experiments
2138:Kennedy–Thorndike experiment
1983:10.1016/0031-9163(64)91095-9
598:Kennedy–Thorndike experiment
496:inertial frames of reference
7:
2971:Tests of special relativity
2757:Cosmic microwave background
2133:Michelson–Morley experiment
2119:Tests of special relativity
2018:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.1051
1851:American Journal of Physics
1731:Lodge, Oliver, Sir (1909).
1472:Tests of general relativity
1465:
1097:Mössbauer rotor experiments
1033:provide stringent tests of
930:Mössbauer rotor experiments
871:Interferometers, resonators
588:Michelson–Morley experiment
453:
312:Michelson–Morley experiment
124:Beginning with the work of
68:tests of general relativity
10:
2997:
2199:Trouton–Rankine experiment
1524:Zhang, Yuan Zhong (1997).
1288:
1261:
1219:
1166:
1060:
1022:
986:
889:
379:
351:Trouton–Rankine experiment
216:
106:
2940:
2879:
2843:
2800:
2749:
2713:
2557:
2403:
2332:
2311:
2285:
2264:
2251:Hafele–Keating experiment
2222:
2171:
2125:
1948:10.1103/PhysRev.135.B1071
1906:10.1007/s00016-003-0195-6
1835:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.378
1814:Reviews of Modern Physics
1808:Robertson, H. P. (1949).
1558:Mattingly, David (2005).
1367:Possible deviations from
1356:to observe deviations of
1341:, such as the TSR at the
1310:Hughes–Drever experiments
1113:Hafele–Keating experiment
1077:transverse Doppler effect
1031:Hughes–Drever experiments
547:
320:George Francis FitzGerald
295:{\displaystyle (v/c)^{2}}
190:{\displaystyle (v/c)^{1}}
2350:Standard-Model Extension
2236:Ives–Stilwell experiment
2189:Trouton–Noble experiment
2184:Hughes–Drever experiment
1271:Standard-Model Extension
1252:velocity composition law
1081:Ives–Stilwell experiment
1063:Ives–Stilwell experiment
1025:Hughes–Drever experiment
996:Einstein synchronization
620:Einstein synchronization
608:Ives–Stilwell experiment
335:Trouton–Noble experiment
213:Second-order experiments
2892:Chandrasekhar–Eddington
2818:Golden age of cosmology
2750:On specific discoveries
2698:Lorentz transformations
1998:Physical Review Letters
1668:10.1007/3-7643-7436-5_2
1130:Direct confirmation of
614:can be directly tested.
571:Fundamental experiments
516:Principle of relativity
508:Quantum electrodynamics
500:principle of relativity
370:principle of relativity
103:First-order experiments
47:, and Roberts/Schleif.
2823:Medieval Islamic world
2566:Computational physics
2508:Variational principles
2435:Electrical engineering
2340:One-way speed of light
1886:Physics in Perspective
1784:10.1002/andp.200410127
1421:, or modifications of
1352:Other experiments use
1217:
1164:
1093:saturated spectroscopy
1058:
1020:
989:One-way speed of light
983:One-way speed of light
953:
887:
833:
682:
580:
391:
382:Aether drag hypothesis
362:Lorentz transformation
296:
254:
228:
191:
150:
121:
66:and the corresponding
2813:Golden age of physics
2808:Copernican Revolution
2148:Resonator experiments
1636:Poincare Seminar 2005
1461:sector are under way.
1429:Neutrino oscillations
1423:synchrotron radiation
1302:Equivalence principle
1222:Sagnac interferometer
1215:
1186:particle accelerators
1154:
1056:
1014:
994:synchronization. The
947:
878:
834:
683:
578:
425:The existence of the
389:
297:
255:
226:
192:
151:
116:
2916:Relativity priority
2771:Subatomic particles
2731:Loop quantum gravity
2720:Quantum information
2669:Quantum field theory
2469:Gravitational theory
1532:. World Scientific.
1457:Observations in the
1392:anomalous dispersion
1001:Lorentz ether theory
696:
626:
355:electromagnetic coil
316:interference fringes
265:
236:
160:
132:
70:must be considered.
43:, Zhang, Mattingly,
2976:Physics experiments
2880:Scientific disputes
2866:Via Panisperna boys
2767:Gravitational waves
2714:Recent developments
2445:Maxwell's equations
2265:Relativistic energy
2063:10.1038/nature08574
2055:2009Natur.462..331A
2010:1977PhRvL..39.1051B
1975:1964PhL....12..260A
1940:1964PhRv..135.1071F
1898:2004PhP.....6....4M
1863:1965AmJPh..33....1F
1826:1949RvMP...21..378R
1776:2005AnP...517...71L
1660:2006eins.book...33W
1595:10.12942/lrr-2005-5
1586:2005LRR.....8....5M
1564:Living Rev. Relativ
1435:) and the speed of
1419:Cherenkov radiation
484:aberration of light
427:aberration of light
341:. In addition, the
304:Albert A. Michelson
253:{\displaystyle v/c}
149:{\displaystyle v/c}
80:luminiferous aether
2981:Special relativity
2925:General relativity
2920:Special relativity
2861:Oxford Calculators
2688:Special relativity
2607:General relativity
2392:History of physics
2228:Length contraction
2172:Lorentz invariance
1934:(4B): B1071-1075.
1764:Annalen der Physik
1734:The Ether of Space
1708:Usenet Physics FAQ
1285:Other modern tests
1279:General relativity
1218:
1165:
1132:length contraction
1125:general relativity
1059:
1035:Lorentz invariance
1021:
965:extinction theorem
954:
919:optical resonators
888:
829:
678:
581:
550:length contraction
492:special relativity
449:Special relativity
392:
324:length contraction
292:
250:
229:
187:
146:
122:
64:general relativity
20:Special relativity
2958:
2957:
2932:Transfermium Wars
2851:Harvard Computers
2676:Subatomic physics
2649:Quantum mechanics
2585:Superconductivity
2576:Condensed matter
2405:Classical physics
2358:
2357:
2298:Sagnac experiment
2293:Fizeau experiment
2158:Hammar experiment
2039:(7271): 331–334.
2004:(17): 1051–1054.
1871:10.1119/1.1971219
1677:978-3-7643-7435-8
1539:978-981-02-2749-4
1362:Larmor precession
1248:Fizeau experiment
1226:Fizeau experiment
1208:Sagnac and Fizeau
957:Emission theories
822:
776:
756:
736:
676:
568:
567:
564:can be measured.
480:Fizeau experiment
203:Fizeau experiment
118:Fizeau experiment
2988:
2948:
2947:
2871:Women in physics
2623:Nuclear physics
2547:Perpetual motion
2481:Material science
2425:Electromagnetism
2385:
2378:
2371:
2362:
2361:
2112:
2105:
2098:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2048:
2028:
2022:
2021:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1805:
1796:
1795:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1746:
1738:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1699:
1690:
1689:
1653:
1639:
1629:
1618:
1617:
1607:
1597:
1579:
1555:
1544:
1543:
1531:
1521:
1515:
1514:
1502:
1415:threshold energy
1413:With respect to
1358:cyclotron motion
1329:torsion balances
1105:Mössbauer effect
977:Gamma-ray bursts
975:Observations of
934:Mössbauer effect
838:
836:
835:
830:
828:
824:
823:
821:
820:
811:
803:
784:
774:
764:
754:
744:
734:
706:
687:
685:
684:
679:
677:
675:
674:
665:
660:
659:
644:
642:
513:
512:
504:Lorentz symmetry
301:
299:
298:
293:
291:
290:
278:
259:
257:
256:
251:
246:
199:Augustin Fresnel
196:
194:
193:
188:
186:
185:
173:
155:
153:
152:
147:
142:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2954:
2936:
2907:Joule–von Mayer
2875:
2839:
2796:
2745:
2709:
2600:Big Bang theory
2553:
2452:Fluid mechanics
2399:
2389:
2359:
2354:
2328:
2307:
2281:
2260:
2226:
2218:
2167:
2121:
2116:
2086:
2029:
2025:
1994:
1990:
1963:Physics Letters
1959:
1955:
1928:Physical Review
1924:
1920:
1882:
1878:
1847:
1843:
1806:
1799:
1760:
1756:
1740:
1739:
1729:
1725:
1716:
1714:
1700:
1693:
1678:
1630:
1621:
1556:
1547:
1540:
1522:
1518:
1503:
1494:
1490:
1468:
1297:Quantum gravity
1293:
1287:
1266:
1260:
1228:
1220:Main articles:
1210:
1175:
1167:Main articles:
1149:
1073:
1061:Main articles:
1051:
1027:
1018:
1009:
991:
985:
942:
898:
873:
868:
844:emission theory
816:
812:
804:
802:
795:
791:
777:
757:
737:
699:
697:
694:
693:
670:
666:
661:
655:
651:
643:
638:
627:
624:
623:
573:
460:Albert Einstein
456:
451:
384:
378:
286:
282:
274:
266:
263:
262:
242:
237:
234:
233:
221:
215:
207:Hendrik Lorentz
181:
177:
169:
161:
158:
157:
138:
133:
130:
129:
111:
105:
76:
24:physical theory
17:
12:
11:
5:
2994:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2952:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2914:
2912:Shapley–Curtis
2909:
2904:
2902:Leibniz–Newton
2899:
2897:Galileo affair
2894:
2889:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2794:
2792:Speed of light
2789:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2736:Nanotechnology
2733:
2728:
2727:
2726:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2646:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2621:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2582:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2563:
2561:
2559:Modern physics
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2527:Thermodynamics
2524:
2523:
2522:
2512:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2488:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2459:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2409:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2388:
2387:
2380:
2373:
2365:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2232:
2230:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2129:
2127:
2126:Speed/isotropy
2123:
2122:
2115:
2114:
2107:
2100:
2092:
2085:
2084:
2023:
1988:
1969:(3): 260–262,
1953:
1918:
1876:
1841:
1820:(3): 378–382.
1797:
1754:
1723:
1691:
1676:
1619:
1545:
1538:
1516:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1455:
1444:
1426:
1411:
1388:
1365:
1350:
1332:
1326:spin-polarized
1289:Main article:
1286:
1283:
1275:Standard model
1262:Main article:
1259:
1256:
1209:
1206:
1148:
1145:
1050:
1047:
1016:
1008:
1005:
987:Main article:
984:
981:
941:
938:
872:
869:
867:
864:
827:
819:
815:
810:
807:
801:
798:
794:
790:
787:
783:
780:
773:
770:
767:
763:
760:
753:
750:
747:
743:
740:
733:
730:
727:
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
709:
705:
702:
690:Lorentz factor
673:
669:
664:
658:
654:
650:
647:
641:
637:
634:
631:
616:
615:
605:
595:
572:
569:
566:
565:
562:Standard Model
554:Doppler effect
545:
544:
541:
530:
526:
525:
520:
517:
490:The result is
488:
487:
476:
470:
467:
455:
452:
450:
447:
438:
437:
430:
423:
416:
406:
380:Main article:
377:
374:
366:Henri Poincaré
306:conducted the
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
270:
249:
245:
241:
217:Main article:
214:
211:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
165:
145:
141:
137:
126:François Arago
107:Main article:
104:
101:
92:speed of light
75:
72:
52:flat spacetime
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2993:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2951:
2943:
2942:
2939:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2887:Bohr–Einstein
2885:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2799:
2793:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2741:String theory
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2674:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2605:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2491:Metamaterials
2489:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2381:
2379:
2374:
2372:
2367:
2366:
2363:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2286:Fizeau/Sagnac
2284:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2225:
2224:Time dilation
2221:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2108:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1845:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1802:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1770:(1): 71–102.
1769:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1744:
1736:
1735:
1727:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1651:gr-qc/0504085
1647:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1577:gr-qc/0502097
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1541:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1520:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1492:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1396:birefringence
1393:
1389:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:Penning traps
1374:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1354:Penning traps
1351:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1339:storage rings
1337:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1298:
1292:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1265:
1258:Test theories
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1244:optical fiber
1240:
1238:
1234:
1233:Sagnac effect
1227:
1223:
1214:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1144:
1141:
1140:Coulomb field
1137:
1133:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1089:storage rings
1087:in heavy ion
1086:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1068:
1064:
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612:time dilation
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523:Time dilation
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420:Sagnac effect
417:
414:
410:
409:Gustaf Hammar
407:
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383:
373:
371:
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356:
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347:birefringence
344:
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100:
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97:apparent wind
93:
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45:Clifford Will
42:
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2856:The Martians
2702:
2520:Spectroscopy
2462:Aerodynamics
2440:Field theory
2312:Alternatives
2118:
2036:
2032:
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2001:
1997:
1991:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1931:
1927:
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1707:
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1408:polarization
1369:CPT symmetry
1294:
1267:
1241:
1229:
1202:synchrotrons
1188:such as the
1183:
1176:
1160:
1156:
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1120:
1117:twin paradox
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880:
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458:Eventually,
457:
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399:Oliver Lodge
393:
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230:
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33:Planck scale
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2780:Higgs boson
1892:(1): 4–28,
1857:(1): 1–17,
1083:(1938). In
610:, by which
60:gravitation
35:and in the
28:gravitation
2965:Categories
2801:By periods
2619:Geophysics
2591:Cosmology
1717:2010-10-31
1513:: 405–463.
1488:References
1452:Airy disks
1198:cyclotrons
1101:gamma rays
1023:See also:
890:See also:
688:being the
558:aberration
261:(i.e., of
156:(i.e., of
84:stationary
41:Jakob Laub
2844:By groups
2828:Astronomy
2664:Molecules
2498:Mechanics
2413:Astronomy
2079:205218977
2046:0908.1832
1914:123043585
1792:119383407
1743:cite book
1437:neutrinos
1404:frequency
1331:are used.
1179:electrons
1099:in which
961:J. G. Fox
800:−
789:γ
720:−
711:γ
649:−
630:γ
592:direction
2950:Category
2775:timeline
2762:Graphene
2724:timeline
2693:timeline
2681:timeline
2654:timeline
2595:timeline
2580:timeline
2570:timeline
2532:timeline
2503:timeline
2486:timeline
2474:timeline
2457:timeline
2430:timeline
2418:timeline
2396:timeline
2071:19865083
1686:17329576
1614:28163649
1570:(5): 5.
1466:See also
1324:sector,
1322:electron
1194:momentum
906:isotropy
782:′
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704:′
602:velocity
540:bodies.
534:isotropy
498:and the
482:and the
454:Overview
37:neutrino
2785:Neutron
2642:Weapons
2627:Fission
2542:Entropy
2333:General
2051:Bibcode
2006:Bibcode
1971:Bibcode
1936:Bibcode
1894:Bibcode
1859:Bibcode
1822:Bibcode
1772:Bibcode
1656:Bibcode
1605:5253993
1582:Bibcode
1347:lithium
1318:neutron
846:or the
538:massive
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2632:Fusion
2537:Energy
2515:Optics
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2033:Nature
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1400:energy
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1373:mesons
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1069:, and
1039:nuclei
881:et al.
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339:torque
328:ad hoc
120:, 1851
2703:tests
2659:Atoms
2637:Power
2612:tests
2075:S2CID
2041:arXiv
1910:S2CID
1788:S2CID
1682:S2CID
1646:arXiv
1644:–58.
1572:arXiv
1459:Higgs
1439:(see
1431:(see
1381:muons
1109:muons
915:maser
911:Laser
88:sound
22:is a
2067:PMID
1749:link
1672:ISBN
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1534:ISBN
1450:and
1394:and
1379:and
1360:and
1343:MPIK
1316:and
1277:and
1224:and
1200:and
1171:and
1136:ions
1121:i.e.
1075:The
948:The
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852:i.e.
478:the
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2059:doi
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