1009:, such as when grappling with a suspect. Besides the head, they were also used on the elbows, wrists, shins, collarbone, and groin. The flat sap, in particular, could be used to strike large muscle groups with the edge. In the early days of use, they were favored for their ability to stun or knock a suspect unconscious with a blow to the head. By the late 1960s head-strikes with impact weapons in general were strongly discouraged by most police departments and trainers because of the risk of death or permanent injury, as well as questionable effectiveness. By the 1990s virtually all modern police departments had phased them out from their issued equipment, and most banned their use entirely.
167:
50:
750:
opened by being swung forcefully while collapsed, using inertia to extend and lock the segments by friction. Some mechanical-lock versions can also be opened by simply pulling the segments apart. Depending on the design, expandable batons may be collapsed either by being brought down (inverted) on a hard surface or by depressing a button lock and manually collapsing the shafts. Additionally, the baton, in the collapsed configuration, may be used as a control device against non-compliant subjects in conjunction with
1148:
is palm upward, and the grip is closely choked to the bulb end. Another advantage to using a flashlight as a club is that in poorly lit situations it can be used to initially dazzle the eyes of an opponent. Law enforcement officers often deliberately shine flashlight beams into the eyes of suspects at night to cause temporary night-blindness as a preemptive defensive measure, whether or not the individual is likely to behave violently. The weight of a flashlight makes it a clumsy baton, unable to be swung swiftly.
368:
second, you're numbing the one part of the body that can stop him. If you use my method with one or two strikes and step back, he realizes that the thing has gone against him, and the confrontation is over. But if you hit him in the head and put him into a state of shock where he is almost immune to pain, and now enraged beyond reason, the only thing left for you to do is beat him into the ground. This is why so many police brutality charges came about when batons were used the old-fashioned way.
493:
154:. The usual striking or bludgeoning action is not produced by a simple and direct hit, as with an ordinary blunt object, but rather by bringing the arm down sharply while allowing the truncheon to pivot nearly freely forward and downward, so moving its tip much faster than its handle. Batons are also used for non-weapon purposes such as breaking windows to free individuals trapped in a vehicle, or turning out a suspect's pockets during a search (as a precaution against sharp objects).
863:
398:
2264:
1098:
627:
688:
762:
used in the UK and many other countries as a means of gaining entry quickly to a vehicle that contains offenders. In such a situation the baton is deployed and, due to the solid end of the device, is used to strike windows and/or windscreens of the vehicle to either gain entry or to stop the driver from seeing where they are going in circumstances where the officer has hit the screen while the vehicle is still in motion.
551:
fused together during manufacturing. One-piece designs are potentially stronger than two-piece designs, and have no risk of having a locking screw loosen from its threads. Other side-handle batons are two-piece in design (common among cheaper makes); the side-handle component is screwed into the primary shaft. The side handle may be removed from the shaft by the end-user, converting the side-handle into a straight baton.
179:
696:
2080:
2046:
1993:
482:
1024:
cattle prod, requiring the tip to be held against the target and then manually triggering a shock by a switch in the handle. Some more sophisticated designs carry a charge along the shaft's entire surface, administering a shock on contact. This later design is especially useful in preventing the officer from having their weapon grabbed and taken away by an assailant.
1147:
Characteristic of a flashlight used as a baton or club is the grip employed. Flashlights are commonly held with the bulb end pointing from the thumb side of the hand, such that it is pointing outward from the body when held palm upward. When wielded as a club, the bulb end points inward when the hand
976:
as a badge of office and discipline-enforcer, so some modern sources call this weapon a "bosun's cosh". The term "blackjack" is sometimes applied by early 20th-century maritime sources to a lead weight knotted or woven into the end of a short piece of rope that serves as a handle, though most sources
844:
Since early law enforcement professionals were very reliant on their batons there was a popular movement to outfit police batons with implements like whistles, torches/flashlights and tear gas. At least four models were built with weapon-retention devices that would deploy "sharp spikes or blades" in
550:
Side-handle batons are made in both fixed and collapsible models and may be constructed from a range of materials including wood, poly-carbonate, epoxy, aluminium, or a combination of materials. Some side-handle batons are one-piece design; the side-handle component and primary shaft are permanently
262:
Straight batons of rubber have a softer impact. Some of the kinetic energy bends and compresses the rubber and bounces off when the object is struck. Rubber batons are not very effective when used on the subject's arms or legs, and can still cause injury if the head is struck. That is why most police
1001:
to differentiate it. The sap's flat profile makes it easier to carry in a pocket and spreads its impact out over a broader area, making it less likely to break bone. However, it can also be used to strike with the edge for more focused impact, though this was discouraged by most police departments
992:
Law enforcement sources from the mid-20th century preferred to divide these into two categories: "blackjacks", which have a mostly cylindrical striking head, and "saps" which have a flat, usually oval-shaped head. In common usage, however, these terms have become interchangeable, so a "sap" of this
741:
Expandable batons may have a solid tip at the outer end of the innermost shaft; the purpose of the solid tip is to maximize the power of a strike when the baton is used as an impact weapon. Expandable batons are made in both straight and side-handle configurations but are considerably more common in
424:
or wrapped grip, usually with a slightly thicker or tapering shaft and rounded tip. They are often made of hardwood, but in modern times are available in other materials such as aluminium, acrylic, and dense plastics and rubber. They range in size from short clubs less than 30 cm (1 ft) in
1165:
There are no restrictions about batons to the general public, but private security guards can only carry wooden or rubber batons (no length is specified) according to Law 7102/83. They may also carry electric shock batons if they have a Less-Lethal
Certification course. There is a general belief in
1023:
Stun batons are an unusual modern variation designed to administer an electric shock in order to incapacitate the target. They consist of an insulated handle and guard, and a rigid shaft usually a foot or more in length for delivering a shock. Many designs function like an elongated stun gun or a
761:
The expandable baton is provided to most officers in the
British police forces, the idea being that should violence suddenly escalate, the baton can be easily deployed but can be stowed neatly away so as not to affect movement due to its mounting point on the officer's clothing. It is also commonly
432:
Straightsticks tend to be heavier and have more weight concentrated in the striking end than other designs. This makes them less maneuverable, but theoretically would deliver more kinetic energy on impact. Most agencies have replaced the straightstick with other batons because of inconvenience to
367:
I've trained over 200 police departments, comprising over ten thousand men. In every class, I ask the officers if they've ever seen a subject subdued with one blow to the head. None of them ever have. What you're doing when you hit a man in the head is first, creating a serious danger of death, and
362:
tends to be narrow and unpredictable. Second, there were problems with reliability, as resistance to cerebral concussion varies widely between individuals, and head strikes that did not disable the suspect were found to merely escalate the encounter. Officer Arthur Lamb, a well-known trainer on the
1174:
There is no law that prohibits batons; except for spring-loaded batons, which are defined as a prohibited weapon under a regulation entitled "Regulations
Prescribing Certain Firearms and other Weapons, Components and Parts of Weapons, Accessories, Cartridge Magazines, Ammunition and Projectiles as
388:
around the world include many different designs, such as fixed-length straight batons, blackjacks, fixed-length side-handle batons, collapsible straight batons, and other more exotic variations. All types have their advantages and disadvantages. The design and popularity of specific types of baton
798:
A collapsible baton is essentially a heavy steel rod with usually a slightly wider tip, that concentrates the force of a blow more effectively and to a smaller area than a polycarbonate baton. This results in a strike that impacts harder to the muscle and causes deeper pain, removing the need for
774:
The collapsible shaft makes it easier for the officer to carry it and to sit in a car seat wearing it since when collapsed it is between 150 and 250 mm (6 and 10 in) long. This is contrasted with non-collapsible batons, which the officer may, as a measure of convenience, often resort to
1139:
Police officers may often choose to use such flashlights because they are viewed primarily as illumination devices; thus, if a police officer carries one in their hands during nighttime encounters with potentially violent subjects, it would be less likely to escalate the situation (by making the
984:
In the 20th century newer shorter (and more readily concealable) designs emerged that were predominantly made of stitched or braided leather, with a flexible spring inside the handle to impart a whip-like action to compensate for leverage and acceleration sacrificed to reduced overall length. To
749:
Depending on the holster or scabbard design, it may be possible to carry an expandable baton in either collapsed or expanded position, which would be helpful if an officer needed to holster an expanded baton and it was not possible or convenient to collapse it at the time. An expandable baton is
585:
When the side-handle baton is used as a simple bludgeon (without gripping the side-handle), it is less effective than a straight baton. Also, if an officer uses it incorrectly and strikes the subject with the end of the side handle while holding the baton from the other end it can cause serious
823:
Fixed batons may be inherently faster to bring into action because they do not need to be extended before usage as an impact weapon (unless one wishes to use a collapsible baton in collapsed form). It is, however, possible to deliver a strike whilst opening the baton in one fluid motion if the
570:
Due to its design, a side handle baton is generally used in a more defensive and less offensive manner than a straight baton, and thus it is less likely for an officer to "instinctively" use a side-handle baton as a simple bludgeon and direct indiscriminate strikes against a suspect. Also, the
1027:
Most batons of this design were not intended to be used as impact weapons and will break if used in this way, though a few were built to withstand occasional lighter impacts. They are rarely issued to patrol officers in modern times due to their price and the other associated problems with
433:
carry, and a desire for their officers to look less threatening to the community they serve. Despite having been replaced by side-handle and expandable batons in many (if not most) law enforcement agencies, straightsticks remain in use by many major departments in the US, such as the
290:
used to use two kinds of batons depending on the time. The one for daytime was called a day-stick and was 280 mm (11 in) in length. Another baton, that was used at night, was 660 mm (26 in) long and called a night-stick, which is the origin of the word
794:
A collapsible baton may be deployed against a suspect whether expanded or collapsed; expanded, the baton's reach is extended, but collapsed, the baton is handier in close quarters. This provides greater versatility in a wider range of environments over the fixed-length
1348:
opinion. Jurisdictions with general prohibitions will sometimes make exceptions for persons employed as security guards or bodyguards, will provide for permits to be obtained for legal carry, or make exceptions for persons who complete an appropriate training course.
778:
Non-collapsible batons are typically carried in a ring-type belt attachment. Fixed batons carried in such holders may easily fall out of the holder when the officer wearing the baton sprints. Neither holding the baton down in the ring with a hand nor holding the baton
319:. The baton is swung in fast, "snapping" strikes to these areas, sometimes only making contact with the tip. Taken together, these are intended to impair the subject's ability to continue advancing (by striking the leg) or attack (by striking the arm) by causing
512:
Side-handle batons (sometimes referred to as T-batons) are batons with a short side handle at a right angle to the shaft, about 150 mm (6 in) from one end. The main shaft is typically 61 cm (24 in) in length. They are derived from the
827:
If an expandable baton is of friction-lock design, as most are, there is an inherent risk that the baton may inadvertently close at an inopportune moment while being used to strike. This also prevents expandable batons from being used to prod or
1050:
above the handle. It was used in a similar manner to modern police batons and it continued to be issued in Japan to some police departments until the early 20th century. The jitte eventually inspired an early form of expandable baton called a
1306:, passed in May 2019, prohibits possession even in a private dwelling (e.g. home, closed off building site, behind a sales counter, etc.) previously, possession in private was permitted after meeting certain conditions based on ownership.
1002:
for precisely this reason. Alternatively, some variants use lead shot, powdered metal, or even sand for the weight inside the head, usually called a "soft sap", which reduces the likelihood of bone fractures, particularly of the skull.
737:
inner shafts (typically 2 or 3, depending on the design) that lock into each other when expanded. The shafts are usually made of steel, but lightweight baton models may have their shafts made from other materials such as aluminum alloy.
358:. However, this practice had two major liabilities. First, there was a high risk and incidence of death or permanent injury, as the difference in force between that required to concuss a suspect into non-resistance and that which would
925:
The terminology applied to these weapons can be imprecise, depends on the source and time period, and may refer to an improvised device accomplishing the same result. Blackjacks have long been a favorite of the criminal element as a
1124:, still in use by some law enforcement and security personnel. Use of such flashlights as a club or baton is generally officially discouraged by the manufacturers and law enforcement officials, but its use is an option. As with all
157:
Some criminals use batons as weapons because of their simple construction and easy concealment. The use or carrying of batons or improvised clubs by people other than law enforcement officers is restricted by law in many countries.
812:
Some police may prefer to carry a fixed baton due to the greater intimidation it may provide. Similarly, a fixed baton serves better as a conspicuous symbol of authority (i.e., "badge of office") than a collapsed expandable
210:' as the Royal Crest attached to it indicated the policeman's authority. This was always removed when the equipment left official service (often with the person who used it). Earlier on, the word was used in vulgar Latin (
834:
Most expandable batons have most of their weight concentrated at the grip and the tip tends to be the lightest part since it is the thinnest part of the baton. As such it may deliver less forceful blows than a fixed
610:
It is a version of the side-handle baton released in the mid-1990s. It tries to address some of the disadvantages of straight, side and expandable batons and combine them with the strengths of the aforementioned.
1156:
Batons are legal for sworn law enforcement and military in most countries around the world. However, the legality of civilian carry for purpose-built batons varies greatly by country, and by local jurisdictions.
786:
In theory, the mere display of extending the baton may in some instances be terrifying to an aggressive person (due to both the sight and sound of the action, with a similar intimidation technique as used with
389:
have evolved over the years and are influenced by a variety of factors. These include inherent compromises in the dual (and competing) goals of control effectiveness and safety (for both officer and subject).
221:
The
Victorian original has since developed into the multitude of varieties available today. The typical truncheon is a straight stick made from wood or a synthetic material, approximately 32 mm (
1299:– defined as being a truncheon which extends automatically by hand pressure applied to a button, spring or other device in or attached to its handle – was banned in the original 1988 order.
1144:
canister instead. This permits the officer to appear less threatening while having an impact weapon in hand and ready for instantaneous action, should the situation indeed turn violent.
775:
removing from their belt when seating themselves in a vehicle. This often results in leaving the baton behind when an officer is exiting the vehicle, and not readily expecting trouble.
1322:, allow for legal carry in the absence of unlawful behavior or criminal intent. Others previously prohibited possession but constitutional challenges have overturned the bans, e.g.
2305:
579:
More training is required for an officer to fully utilize the potential of a side-handle baton compared to a straight baton. Its use is not as instinctive as the straight batons.
346:
Before the 1970s, a common use of the police baton was to strike a suspect's head with a full-force overhand motion in order to stun them or knock them unconscious by cerebral
567:
Subjectively, some officers may be able to deliver a strike of greater power with the side-handle baton (when used in conjunction with a "power stroke") over a straight baton.
816:
Fixed batons may often be less expensive than their collapsible counterparts of identical or similar quality. Because of this, some law enforcement departments, such as the
1335:
783:
the hand is a good solution. The typical collapsible straight baton and its scabbard do not suffer this and remain secure regardless of the wearing officer's movement.
1283:, where they were added in 2005), which prohibited their manufacture, sale, hire, offering for sale or hire, lending or giving to any other person under Section 141
235: in) in diameter and 460–910 mm (18–36 in) long, with a fluted handle to aid in gripping. Truncheons are often ornamented with their organizations'
1607:
1136:. The use of flashlights as improvised impact weapons is subject to the same use of force regulations as the use of purpose-designed impact weapons like batons.
1266:
2122:
416:
A straight, fixed-length baton (also commonly referred to as a "straightstick") is the oldest and simplest police baton design, known as far back as ancient
2329:
952:
A type used by 19th and early 20th century sailors for both self-defense and aggression was weighted with a lead ball at one or both ends of a piece of
949:, meaning "stick" or "piece of wood". The term "blackjack" referring to a hand weapon is of unknown etymology, and the earliest text reference is 1889.
845:
case a suspect tried to grab an officer's baton. There is even a mention of two early 20th century patents for batons with guns built into the frame in
1643:
1629:
571:
typically defensive stance the side-handle baton is used with is generally believed to present a more community-friendly image than a straight baton.
524:, and are used with a similar technique (although tonfa are usually used in pairs, whereas side-handle batons are not). The best-known example is the
1175:
Prohibited or
Restricted" (also capable of being referred to by its registration number: SOR 98–462). However, it is a crime under section 90 of the
595:
283:
is issued except for public order duties, where a fixed, acrylic baton is used. Side-handled batons were issued for a while, but fell out of favour.
561:
The side-handle component may aid in weapon retention, making it more difficult for a suspect to take the baton away from the officer in a struggle.
1695:
Broadsword And
Singlestick: with Chapters on Quarter-Staff, Bayonet, Cudgel, Shillalah, Walking-Stick, Umbrella, and Other Weapons of Self-Defense
1334:" weapons by non-law enforcement. Constitutional challenges to California's law had failed prior to the United States Supreme Court's decision in
941:" due to its wood handle), or euphemistically as a "life-preserver". The term "cosh" may also originate with this weapon, being derived from the
820:, may issue a fixed-length baton but have their officers/deputies purchase expandable batons at the option and expense of the individual officer.
558:
There is a far greater number of defensive techniques/maneuvers that may be used with the side-handle baton in contrast with the straight baton.
1862:
2284:
2241:
2203:
817:
1736:
From Romani kašt, piece of wood, timber; akin to
Sanskrit kāṣṭham, perhaps hypercorrection of Prakrit kaṭṭha, from earlier Indic *kṣṭa
446:
2139:
648:
275:. In Russia, traffic batons are striped in black and white for the same reason, and in Sweden they are white. Until the mid-1990s,
2279:
2299:
1892:
279:
officers carried traditional wooden truncheons of a sort that had changed little from
Victorian times. Since the late 1990s, the
2073:
2039:
1986:
1819:
1703:
1512:
1461:
1005:
Blackjacks and saps were popular among law enforcement for a time due to their low profile, small size, and effectiveness in
1063:
Some non-purpose-built items have been used by law enforcement over the centuries as impact weapons. Some examples include:
2181:
2316:
867:
582:
The side-handle slightly increases overall weight and bulk of the baton compared to a straight baton of identical length.
1451:
2372:
1603:
1673:
1559:
1046:
police weapon consisting of a round or octagonal metal rod about 30–61 cm (12–24 in) long with a hook-like
674:
564:
The side-handle component prevents the baton from rolling far away if inadvertently dropped, unlike a straight baton.
914:
from the swing to it. The blow can be directed at any normal blunt force target, but delivered to the head induces
791:), and may thus de-escalate the situation through fear-motivated submission of the target without physical violence.
656:
263:
departments have stopped issuing them. The
Russian police standard-issue baton is rubber, except in places such as
1257:
All types of batons can be owned but not carried in public spaces by private citizens according to law (1988:254).
17:
1720:
458:
287:
539:
One end, and the intersection between the shaft and the handle used to catch a long swung blunt or sharp weapon.
323:(temporary muscle pain, spasm and paralysis due to nerve injury). Modern systems strictly prohibit hitting the
652:
454:
2326:
1576:
1191:, any person who has possession of any prohibited items commits an offence, which includes expandable batons.
754:
control techniques, such as to remove a driver refusing to exit his or her vehicle. It can be used as a large
295:. The night-stick was longer so it could provide extra protection which was thought to be necessary at night.
2377:
831:
In a situation in which stealth is required, a collapsed baton may rattle, revealing the officer's position.
1836:
742:
the straight configuration. The best-known example of the straight expandable baton is the ASP Baton, from
501:
442:
2310:
434:
1237:) that is used during riot controlling or used when a person is arrested or for self or public defence.
1303:
1906:
1344:
found that
California's ban on club-like weapons was unconstitutional in light of the Supreme Court's
1117:
designed specifically to be useful as an emergency weapon, the best-known example is the large, metal
937:-covered lead ball as the head. This weapon is referred to by some sources as a "sap" (derived from "
271:
and break if struck. The traffic baton is red to make it more visible as a signaling aid in directing
1665:
1284:
1006:
985:
balance forces and minimize unintended damage, this style came to employ a flexible material such as
918:. While usually meant to stun or knock out the subject, head strikes have a high risk of causing a
637:
438:
2382:
734:
641:
206:. The meaning "policeman's club" is first recorded 1856. The truncheon acted as the policeman's '
139:
104:
339:
unless such an attack is conducted in defense of life, with many jurisdictions considering this
2367:
1870:
1581:
1399:
1176:
919:
2182:"Federal judge in San Diego reverses self, rules California's billy-club ban unconstitutional"
1958:
1754:
2233:
2211:
799:
several strikes when targeting large muscle groups. Striking bones will cause serious damage.
529:
466:
462:
450:
2097:
2063:
1364:
1296:
788:
497:
8:
1246:
1018:
525:
2029:
2068:
2034:
2016:
1981:
116:
49:
1516:
518:
166:
1815:
1742:
1699:
1669:
1555:
1540:
1457:
1384:
1276:
1272:
543:
303:
In modern police training, the primary targets are large nerve clusters, such as the
31:
2340:
964:
and varnished over. Some carefully made examples were likely to have been used by a
2346:
1551:
933:
A late 19th-century type is a wooden shaft about one foot long, with a leather- or
591:
373:
332:
2333:
1976:
1809:
1693:
1414:
1140:
subject feel threatened) than if the officer were to be equipped with a baton or
942:
927:
751:
470:
405:
351:
304:
252:
248:
143:
2156:
2362:
1496:
1491:
1379:
1230:
1222:
1125:
1086:
1067:
973:
969:
911:
359:
276:
203:
112:
108:
1795:
1662:
The Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-century Land Warfare: An Illustrated World View
1166:
Brazil that rubber batons are less prone to break bones than the wooden ones.
532:
within the law enforcement and security communities for this type of product.
2356:
2275:
2270:
2084:
2050:
1997:
1657:
1547:
1404:
1341:
1331:
1214:
986:
903:
895:
492:
401:
328:
244:
187:
92:
1769:"blackjack | Origin and meaning of blackjack by Online Etymology Dictionary"
1768:
691:
ASP 53 cm (21 in) expandable baton in expanded and collapsed state
1314:
Legality is determined by the laws of the individual states. Some, such as
1141:
1129:
1072:
875:
590:
Side-handle batons have been involved in high-profile incidents of alleged
340:
240:
207:
100:
96:
41:
1939:
961:
957:
862:
554:
The advantages of a side-handle baton over a straight baton are numerous:
2321:
2011:
1478:"Baton | Origin and meaning of baton by Online Etymology Dictionary"
1209:
599:
542:
The side handle, and the long shaft held against the hand and forearm to
324:
320:
2064:"Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons) Order 1988: Schedule"
1477:
824:
officer is correctly trained. This is called a "rapid response strike".
425:
length to 90-centimetre-long (3 ft) "riot batons" commonly used in
397:
1374:
1327:
1204:
1114:
1043:
915:
770:
The advantages of a collapsible baton over a fixed baton are numerous:
347:
312:
1977:"Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons) (Amendment) Order 2004"
934:
1691:
1359:
1249:, telescopic truncheons are classified as illegal offensive weapons.
1188:
1118:
1102:
978:
965:
743:
725:
239:. Longer truncheons are called "riot batons" because of their use in
171:
1097:
626:
2012:
Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons) (Scotland) Order 2005
1280:
1110:
409:
355:
236:
2269:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
687:
420:. It consists of little more than a long cylinder with a molded,
2302:—a UK government document comparing various types of baton] (PDF)
2083:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
2049:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
1996:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
1893:"Use of Force Regulations for Flashlights Used as Impact weapons"
1685:
1389:
1319:
1315:
1267:
Police uniforms and equipment in the United Kingdom § Batons
1133:
1121:
1047:
938:
930:
weapon, and are illegal to privately own in many jurisdictions.
907:
871:
755:
505:
272:
268:
264:
256:
178:
151:
1680:
A weapon with a short shaft and weighted end used as a bludgeon.
1179:
to carry any weapon, including a baton, in a concealed fashion.
733:) is typically composed of a cylindrical outer shaft containing
202:, this name was first recorded in 1848 as slang for a burglars'
1287:. A loophole exists by way of martial arts weapons such as the
1081:
953:
695:
521:
385:
316:
308:
191:
135:
40:"Police club" redirects here. For the Iraqi football club, see
1394:
1369:
1288:
1200:
1037:
586:
injury (especially if the end of the handle is a large ball).
546:
and shield the arm against an expected blow from an attacker.
514:
486:
421:
417:
336:
1337:
New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen
95:
made of wood, rubber, plastic, or metal. It is carried as a
1938:
Equality, The Department of Justice and (25 January 2019).
1409:
1275:(PR-24) and friction-lock batons were added to the list of
899:
426:
2098:"FindLaw's Supreme Court of Connecticut case and opinions"
1291:
being legal to own, which is the exact same design as the
1128:, there have been many examples of misuse, such as in the
243:. Truncheons may have developed as a marriage between the
2322:
Article on "USE-OF-FORCE TACTICS AND NON-LETHAL WEAPONRY"
2123:"Second Amendment protects dirk knives and police batons"
1863:"Flashlights and Liability Reduction for Law Enforcement"
1077:
902:) weight attached to the end of a short shaft. A form of
481:
267:, where it can be cold enough that the rubber may become
147:
1537:
1330:
has a general prohibition against the carrying of all "
1807:
150:, or bludgeon), and it can aid in the application of
2317:
Article on the virtues of the telescopic steel baton
2306:
State of California Penal Code sections 12020—12040
1207:, police often carry a large bamboo stick called a
2345:is available for free viewing and download at the
2157:"People v. Davis, 214 Cal.App.4th 1322 | Casetext"
1539:
1187:According to Cap 217 (Weapons Ordinance), Laws of
993:latter kind is sometimes more precisely called a
2354:
1927:. Linguistic Society of India. 1975. p. 31.
1837:"Blackjacks off the table for Pittsburgh police"
1692:R.C. Allanson-Winn; C. Phillipps-Wolley (1890).
894:refer to any of several short, easily concealed
1719:Company, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing.
1449:
866:Two blackjacks and a hinged club on display at
53:A 1968-era Chicago Police helmet and billy club
30:"Billy Club" redirects here. For the film, see
1860:
1721:"The American Heritage Dictionary entry: cosh"
1644:"Beyond the baton: 5 forgotten police weapons"
1630:"Beyond the baton: 5 forgotten police weapons"
307:in the mid-thigh and large, easily targetable
194:carried truncheons about one foot long called
956:, which was then wrapped in woven or plaited
575:Side-handle batons have a few disadvantages:
404:riot officers with straightsticks during the
2288:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2030:"Criminal Justice Act 1988: Section 141"
1453:Fundamentals of Modern Police Impact Weapons
1340:. However, in 2024, US District Court Judge
1113:in the 1970s appears to have been the third
170:Early-20th-century police truncheons in the
2234:"California Penal Code Section 12020–12040"
2204:"California Penal Code Section 12000-12003"
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
808:Expandable batons have some disadvantages:
655:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
376:resulted in revised training for officers.
2300:Assessing the Expandable Side Handle Baton
1801:
502:33rd G8 summit#Protests and demonstrations
465:Police Departments. They also are used by
372:As a result, civil lawsuits and claims of
1907:"Cap 217, Weapons Ordinance of Hong Kong"
1828:
1761:
1712:
699:Swedish riot police with expandable baton
675:Learn how and when to remove this message
2274:
1937:
1428:
1096:
906:, these use a handle to accelerate the
861:
694:
686:
491:
480:
396:
177:
165:
48:
1957:(eISB), electronic Irish Statute Book.
1656:
1577:"Meurant's Red Squad baton up for sale"
1574:
818:Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department
605:
350:, similar to the pre-baton practice of
119:. The name baton comes from the French
14:
2355:
2244:from the original on 16 September 2008
1959:"electronic Irish Statute Book (eISB)"
1610:from the original on 18 September 2008
1510:
1240:
1194:
857:
977:would consider this weapon a type of
429:or by officers mounted on horseback.
2336:—Article on the Rapid Rotation Baton
2184:. Associated Press. 26 February 2024
868:The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum
839:
653:adding citations to reliable sources
620:
138:a baton may be used defensively (to
1834:
1784:The hand-weapon so called from 1889
1718:
1604:"Police Baton (Minto Bar) for sale"
1538:Thorpe, Nick; James, Peter (1995).
24:
1956:
852:
504:in the protests against the G8 in
25:
2394:
2327:"Where have all the batons gone?"
2293:
1260:
920:permanent, disabling brain injury
707:(also referred to variously as a
123:(stick), derived from Old French
2311:"TSB45: The Baton of the Future"
2262:
2078:
2044:
1991:
1861:Gundy, Jess W. (9 August 2001).
1309:
1292:
803:
625:
392:
2226:
2196:
2174:
2149:
2132:
2115:
2090:
2056:
2022:
2003:
1969:
1950:
1931:
1917:
1899:
1885:
1854:
1808:Clifford Warren Ashley (1944).
1789:
1650:
744:Armament Systems and Procedures
298:
288:New York City Police Department
280:
214:—a stick helping walking, from
2313:—An article on the TSB45 Baton
1911:Hong Kong Police official site
1636:
1622:
1596:
1575:Gregory, Angela (6 May 2005).
1568:
1531:
1504:
1484:
1470:
1092:
496:Side-handle baton used by the
476:
27:Club of less than arm's length
13:
1:
1421:
1058:
898:consisting of a dense (often
765:
614:
1940:"Frequently Asked Questions"
1182:
528:PR-24; "PR-24" has become a
7:
2342:The Expandable Baton (1997)
1352:
1151:
1012:
594:, such as in New Zealand's
200:Online Etymology Dictionary
91:) is a roughly cylindrical
10:
2399:
2042:, 1988 c. 33 (s. 141)
1666:W. W. Norton & Company
1304:Offensive Weapons Act 2019
1264:
1035:
1016:
498:German intervention forces
469:officers, as well as many
379:
161:
39:
29:
2373:Law enforcement equipment
1606:. Trade Me. 25 May 2005.
1285:Criminal Justice Act 1988
1252:
1234:
1226:
1218:
1169:
1160:
1042:The jitte was a Japanese
847:American Police Equipment
473:forces around the world.
1811:The Ashley Book of Knots
1450:Massad F. Ayoob (1978).
1031:
384:Batons in common use by
105:law-enforcement officers
2285:Encyclopædia Britannica
1963:www.irishstatutebook.ie
1400:Weighted-knuckle gloves
1324:Connecticut v. DeCiccio
1582:The New Zealand Herald
1106:
1028:electroshock weapons.
879:
700:
692:
509:
489:
413:
370:
321:transitory neurapraxia
183:
175:
54:
2076:, SI 1988/2019 (sch.)
2074:The National Archives
2040:The National Archives
2009:Scottish Parliament.
1987:The National Archives
1100:
865:
698:
690:
530:genericized trademark
495:
484:
467:NYPD Auxiliary Police
400:
365:
354:with the handle of a
305:common peroneal nerve
182:A modern wooden baton
181:
169:
142:) or offensively (to
52:
2378:Riot control weapons
2332:3 March 2016 at the
1895:. 10 September 2021.
1798:. frayedknotarts.com
1365:Flexible baton round
1297:telescopic truncheon
789:pump-action shotguns
649:improve this section
606:Rapid Rotation Baton
363:baton, once stated:
360:fracture their skull
311:groups, such as the
174:Police Centre Museum
2140:"Yukutake v. Lopez"
1835:Harding, Margaret.
1646:. 29 November 2016.
1632:. 29 November 2016.
1511:Brunisholz, Corey.
1326:(2009) and Hawaii.
1247:Republic of Ireland
1241:Republic of Ireland
1195:Indian subcontinent
1019:Electroshock weapon
995:flat sap, slap jack
858:Blackjacks and saps
596:1981 Springbok Tour
535:It can be held by:
198:. According to the
2214:on 1 December 2008
2069:legislation.gov.uk
2035:legislation.gov.uk
2017:legislation.gov.uk
1982:legislation.gov.uk
1925:Indian Linguistics
1753:has generic name (
1542:Ancient inventions
1302:Section 46 of the
1107:
910:core and transfer
880:
701:
693:
510:
490:
427:civil disturbances
414:
184:
176:
117:military personnel
109:correctional staff
55:
1821:978-0-385-04025-9
1796:Nautical Antiques
1705:978-1-58160-512-9
1698:. Paladin Press.
1463:978-0-398-03748-2
1385:Shillelagh (club)
1277:offensive weapons
840:Multi-tool batons
709:collapsible baton
685:
684:
677:
281:collapsible baton
16:(Redirected from
2390:
2347:Internet Archive
2289:
2268:
2266:
2265:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2210:. Archived from
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2136:
2130:
2121:Volokh, Eugene.
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2026:
2020:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1869:. Archived from
1858:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1752:
1748:
1746:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1725:ahdictionary.com
1716:
1710:
1709:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1552:Ballantine Books
1545:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1515:. Archived from
1508:
1502:
1501:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1447:
1279:in 2004 (except
1236:
1228:
1220:
1007:very close range
713:telescopic baton
705:expandable baton
680:
673:
669:
666:
660:
629:
621:
592:police brutality
374:police brutality
234:
233:
229:
226:
101:defensive weapon
21:
18:Telescopic baton
2398:
2397:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2353:
2352:
2339:The short film
2334:Wayback Machine
2296:
2278:, ed. (1911). "
2263:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2247:
2245:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2217:
2215:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2185:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2163:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2127:Washington Post
2120:
2116:
2106:
2104:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2079:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2045:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2008:
2004:
1992:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1955:
1951:
1936:
1932:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1876:
1874:
1859:
1855:
1845:
1843:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1806:
1802:
1794:
1790:
1777:
1775:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1750:
1749:
1740:
1739:
1729:
1727:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1690:
1686:
1676:
1668:. p. 109.
1655:
1651:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1613:
1611:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1585:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1536:
1532:
1522:
1520:
1519:on 2 April 2012
1509:
1505:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1448:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1415:Kanak war clubs
1355:
1312:
1269:
1263:
1255:
1243:
1197:
1185:
1172:
1163:
1154:
1095:
1087:Pickaxe handles
1061:
1040:
1034:
1021:
1015:
989:as a weight.
928:concealed carry
922:or a fatality.
860:
855:
853:Similar weapons
842:
806:
768:
752:pain-compliance
681:
670:
664:
661:
646:
630:
617:
608:
519:Okinawan kobudō
479:
471:Military Police
412:in October 2008
395:
382:
301:
253:staff of office
231:
227:
224:
222:
164:
113:security guards
97:compliance tool
45:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2396:
2386:
2385:
2383:Clubs (weapon)
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2351:
2350:
2337:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2308:
2303:
2295:
2294:External links
2292:
2291:
2290:
2276:Chisholm, Hugh
2256:
2255:
2225:
2195:
2173:
2148:
2131:
2114:
2089:
2055:
2021:
2015:as made, from
2002:
1989:, SI 2004/1271
1968:
1949:
1944:www.justice.ie
1930:
1916:
1898:
1884:
1873:on 11 May 2009
1853:
1827:
1820:
1800:
1788:
1773:etymonline.com
1760:
1711:
1704:
1684:
1674:
1658:Farwell, Byron
1649:
1635:
1621:
1595:
1567:
1560:
1530:
1513:"NYPD History"
1503:
1497:Dictionary.com
1483:
1469:
1462:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1311:
1308:
1262:
1261:United Kingdom
1259:
1254:
1251:
1242:
1239:
1196:
1193:
1184:
1181:
1171:
1168:
1162:
1159:
1153:
1150:
1126:police weapons
1094:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1084:
1075:
1070:
1060:
1057:
1055:in the 1960s.
1036:Main article:
1033:
1030:
1017:Main article:
1014:
1011:
999:beavertail sap
970:master-at-arms
912:kinetic energy
859:
856:
854:
851:
841:
838:
837:
836:
832:
829:
825:
821:
814:
805:
802:
801:
800:
796:
792:
784:
776:
767:
764:
717:tactical baton
683:
682:
633:
631:
624:
616:
613:
607:
604:
588:
587:
583:
580:
573:
572:
568:
565:
562:
559:
548:
547:
540:
478:
475:
394:
391:
381:
378:
300:
297:
277:British police
163:
160:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2395:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2368:Melee weapons
2366:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2348:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2271:public domain
2260:
2259:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2183:
2177:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2141:
2135:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2086:
2085:public domain
2075:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2059:
2052:
2051:public domain
2041:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2025:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2006:
1999:
1998:public domain
1988:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1972:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1926:
1920:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1894:
1888:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1857:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1823:
1817:
1814:. Doubleday.
1813:
1812:
1804:
1797:
1792:
1785:
1774:
1770:
1764:
1756:
1744:
1737:
1726:
1722:
1715:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1696:
1688:
1681:
1677:
1675:0-393-04770-9
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1645:
1639:
1631:
1625:
1609:
1605:
1599:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1571:
1563:
1561:0-345-40102-6
1557:
1553:
1549:
1548:New York City
1544:
1543:
1534:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1479:
1473:
1465:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1427:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1342:Roger Benitez
1339:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1310:United States
1307:
1305:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1268:
1258:
1250:
1248:
1238:
1232:
1224:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1192:
1190:
1180:
1178:
1177:Criminal Code
1167:
1158:
1149:
1145:
1143:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1109:Although the
1104:
1099:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1073:Baseball bats
1071:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1056:
1054:
1053:tokushu keibo
1049:
1045:
1039:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1010:
1008:
1003:
1000:
996:
990:
988:
982:
980:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
931:
929:
923:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
877:
873:
869:
864:
850:
848:
833:
830:
826:
822:
819:
815:
811:
810:
809:
804:Disadvantages
797:
793:
790:
785:
782:
777:
773:
772:
771:
763:
759:
757:
753:
747:
745:
739:
736:
732:
728:
727:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
697:
689:
679:
676:
668:
665:December 2021
658:
654:
650:
644:
643:
639:
634:This section
632:
628:
623:
622:
619:
612:
603:
601:
597:
593:
584:
581:
578:
577:
576:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
556:
555:
552:
545:
541:
538:
537:
536:
533:
531:
527:
523:
520:
516:
507:
503:
499:
494:
488:
483:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
459:San Francisco
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
430:
428:
423:
419:
411:
407:
403:
402:Sussex Police
399:
393:Straightstick
390:
387:
377:
375:
369:
364:
361:
357:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
296:
294:
289:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
260:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
237:coats of arms
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
188:Victorian era
180:
173:
168:
159:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:
130:
127:, from Latin
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
85:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
51:
47:
43:
36:
34:
19:
2341:
2283:
2248:23 September
2246:. Retrieved
2237:
2228:
2218:23 September
2216:. Retrieved
2212:the original
2207:
2198:
2186:. Retrieved
2176:
2164:. Retrieved
2161:casetext.com
2160:
2151:
2134:
2126:
2117:
2105:. Retrieved
2101:
2092:
2067:
2058:
2033:
2024:
2010:
2005:
1980:
1971:
1962:
1952:
1943:
1933:
1924:
1919:
1910:
1901:
1887:
1877:23 September
1875:. Retrieved
1871:the original
1867:The Educator
1866:
1856:
1844:. Retrieved
1841:TribLIVE.com
1840:
1830:
1810:
1803:
1791:
1783:
1776:. Retrieved
1772:
1763:
1735:
1728:. Retrieved
1724:
1714:
1694:
1687:
1679:
1661:
1652:
1638:
1624:
1614:23 September
1612:. Retrieved
1598:
1588:23 September
1586:. Retrieved
1580:
1570:
1541:
1533:
1521:. Retrieved
1517:the original
1506:
1495:
1486:
1472:
1452:
1345:
1336:
1323:
1313:
1301:
1273:side-handled
1270:
1256:
1244:
1208:
1198:
1186:
1173:
1164:
1155:
1146:
1142:pepper spray
1138:
1130:Malice Green
1108:
1101:A Maglite 2
1062:
1052:
1041:
1026:
1022:
1004:
998:
994:
991:
983:
951:
946:
932:
924:
896:club weapons
891:
887:
883:
881:
876:Bedfordshire
846:
843:
807:
780:
769:
760:
748:
740:
730:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
702:
671:
662:
647:Please help
635:
618:
609:
589:
574:
553:
549:
534:
511:
455:Philadelphia
431:
415:
408:protests in
383:
371:
366:
345:
341:deadly force
302:
299:Target areas
292:
285:
261:
247:or military
241:riot control
220:
215:
211:
208:Warrant Card
199:
195:
190:, police in
185:
156:
133:
128:
124:
120:
88:
87:, or simply
83:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
56:
46:
42:Al-Shorta SC
32:
2166:18 November
2107:18 November
1751:|last=
1293:PR-24 baton
1132:beating in
1093:Flashlights
974:ship's mate
735:telescoping
721:spring cosh
600:Rodney King
508:(June 2007)
477:Side-handle
196:billy clubs
2357:Categories
1456:. Thomas.
1422:References
1375:Knobkierie
1328:California
1271:Straight,
1265:See also:
1205:Bangladesh
1115:flashlight
1105:flashlight
1059:Improvised
1044:Edo period
968:or ship's
916:concussion
882:The terms
766:Advantages
731:extendable
615:Expandable
485:A pair of
447:Long Beach
443:Sacramento
352:buffaloing
348:concussion
313:quadriceps
293:nightstick
75:billystick
71:billy club
67:nightstick
33:Billy Club
1360:Espantoon
1227:குறுந்தடி
1189:Hong Kong
1183:Hong Kong
987:lead shot
979:slungshot
966:boatswain
884:blackjack
636:does not
602:beating.
526:Monadnock
463:Riverside
451:Santa Ana
435:Baltimore
172:Edinburgh
63:truncheon
2330:Archived
2242:Archived
1846:30 March
1778:30 March
1743:cite web
1730:30 March
1660:(2001).
1608:Archived
1523:22 March
1353:See also
1281:Scotland
1152:Legality
1111:Kel-Lite
1068:Crowbars
1013:Stunguns
904:bludgeon
598:and the
410:Brighton
356:revolver
251:and the
218:—hold).
152:armlocks
2273::
2238:FindLaw
2208:FindLaw
2102:Findlaw
1492:"Baton"
1390:Sjambok
1320:Arizona
1316:Vermont
1245:In the
1134:Detroit
1122:Maglite
1082:Paddles
962:codline
958:marline
939:sapling
935:macramé
872:Bedford
828:thrust.
756:kubotan
657:removed
642:sources
506:Rostock
380:Designs
329:sternum
273:traffic
269:brittle
265:Siberia
257:sceptre
230:⁄
204:crowbar
186:In the
162:History
2267:
1818:
1702:
1672:
1558:
1460:
1295:. The
1253:Sweden
1170:Canada
1161:Brazil
1119:D-cell
1103:D cell
954:baleen
943:Romani
890:, and
878:, U.K.
835:baton.
813:baton.
795:baton.
544:splint
522:weapon
461:, and
439:Denver
422:turned
386:police
317:biceps
309:muscle
192:London
144:strike
136:weapon
129:bastum
125:Baston
61:(also
35:(film)
2363:Crime
2280:Baton
2188:1 May
2143:(PDF)
1395:Tonfa
1380:Lathi
1370:Jitte
1346:Bruen
1289:Tonfa
1231:Hindi
1223:Tamil
1219:ବାଡ଼ି
1210:lathi
1201:India
1048:guard
1038:Jitte
1032:Jitte
945:word
908:dense
729:, or
517:, an
515:tonfa
487:tonfa
418:Egypt
337:groin
335:, or
333:spine
325:skull
216:basta
212:bastο
140:block
134:As a
121:bâton
89:stick
84:lathi
59:baton
2250:2008
2220:2008
2190:2024
2168:2019
2109:2019
1879:2008
1848:2018
1816:ISBN
1780:2018
1755:help
1732:2018
1700:ISBN
1670:ISBN
1616:2008
1590:2008
1556:ISBN
1525:2012
1458:ISBN
1410:Patu
1405:Sali
1332:club
1235:लाठी
1215:Odia
1203:and
1078:Oars
947:kašt
900:lead
888:cosh
640:any
638:cite
315:and
286:The
249:mace
245:club
115:and
99:and
93:club
79:cosh
2282:".
1318:or
1199:In
1080:or
997:or
972:or
960:or
892:sap
870:in
726:ASP
703:An
651:by
500:in
406:EDO
148:jab
131:.
103:by
2359::
2240:.
2236:.
2206:.
2159:.
2125:.
2100:.
2072:,
2066:,
2038:,
2032:,
1985:,
1979:,
1961:.
1942:.
1909:.
1865:.
1839:.
1782:.
1771:.
1747::
1745:}}
1741:{{
1734:.
1723:.
1678:.
1664:.
1579:.
1554:.
1550::
1546:.
1494:.
1430:^
1233::
1229:,
1225::
1221:,
1217::
981:.
886:,
874:,
849:.
781:in
758:.
746:.
723:,
719:,
715:,
711:,
457:,
453:,
449:,
445:,
441:,
437:,
343:.
331:,
327:,
259:.
146:,
111:,
107:,
81:,
77:,
73:,
69:,
65:,
57:A
2349:.
2252:.
2222:.
2192:.
2170:.
2145:.
2129:.
2111:.
2087:.
2053:.
2019:.
2000:.
1965:.
1946:.
1913:.
1881:.
1850:.
1824:.
1757:)
1708:.
1618:.
1592:.
1564:.
1527:.
1500:.
1480:.
1466:.
1213:(
678:)
672:(
667:)
663:(
659:.
645:.
255:/
232:4
228:1
225:+
223:1
44:.
37:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.JPG)
