363:
2226:
351:
1782:
375:
2214:
3083:λ, abbreviation FIT (failures in time). This is the number of failures that can be expected in one billion (10) component-hours of operation (e.g. 1000 components for 1 million hours, or 1 million components for 1000 hours which is 1 ppm/1000 hours) at fixed working conditions during the period of constant random failures. These failure rate model implicitly assume the idea of "random failure". Individual components fail at random times but at a predictable rate. The standard operation conditions for the failure rate FIT are 40 °C and 0.5 U
491:. To achieve this, the "pellet" is submerged into a very weak solution of acid and DC voltage is applied. The total dielectric thickness is determined by the final voltage applied during the forming process. Initially the power supply is kept in a constant current mode until the correct voltage (i.e. dielectric thickness) has been reached; it then holds this voltage and the current decays to close to zero to provide a uniform thickness throughout the device and production lot. The chemical equations describing the dielectric formation process at the
1430:
606:
663:
3309:
1737:
3412:
1499:
3034:
2379:
3482:
253:
1337:
467:/g powders, which have lower average particle sizes, are used for low voltage, high capacitance parts. By choosing the correct powder type and sintering temperature, a specific capacitance or voltage rating can be achieved. For example, a 220 μF 6 V capacitor will have a surface area close to 346 cm, or 80% of the size of a sheet of paper (US Letter, 8.5×11 inch paper has area ~413 cm), although the total volume of the pellet is only about 0.0016 cm.
2725:
698:
28:
651:
1345:
form new oxide layer in weak areas of the dielectric), the dielectric thickness can be formed with much lower safety margins and consequently with much thinner dielectric than for solid types, resulting in a higher CV value per volume unit. Additionally, wet tantalum capacitors are able to operate at voltages in excess of 100 V up to 630 V, have a relatively low ESR, and have the lowest leakage current of all electrolytic capacitors.
3961:
20:
119:
2818:
manganese dioxide, due to moisture paths or due to cathode conductors (carbon, silver). This leakage current in solid electrolyte capacitors cannot be reduced by "healing" in the sense of generating new oxide because under normal conditions solid electrolytes are unable to deliver oxygen for forming processes. This statement should not be confused with the self-healing process during field crystallization, as described in
1641:
1404:. The solution R. L. Taylor and H. E. Haring from the Bell Labs found for the new miniaturized capacitor found in early 1950 was based on experience with ceramics. They ground metallic tantalum to a powder, pressed this powder into a cylindrical form and then sintered the powder particles at high temperature between 1,500 and 2,000 °C (2,730 and 3,630 °F) under vacuum conditions, into a pellet ("slug").
130:, which can form an insulating oxide layer. Applying a positive voltage to the tantalum anode material in an electrolytic bath forms an oxide barrier layer with a thickness proportional to the applied voltage. This oxide layer serves as the dielectric in an electrolytic capacitor. The properties of this oxide layer are compared with those of a niobium electrolytic capacitor oxide layer in the following table:
5385:
590:
3473:
inverse of the individual capacitor's leakage current. Since every capacitor differs a little bit in individual leakage current the capacitors with a higher leakage current will get less voltage. The voltage balance over the series connected capacitors is not symmetrically. Passive or active voltage balance has to be provided in order to stabilize the voltage over each individual capacitor.
3576:, which defer to the standards of other industry organizations for particular application characteristics, e.g. the EIA size standards, IPC solderability standards, etc. The quality and reliability standards and methods of the US MIL-STD specifications are used for components requiring a higher reliability or a less benign operating environment are required.
686:-535-BAAC standard. The different sizes can also be identified by case code letters. For some case sizes (A to E), which have been manufactured for many decades, the dimensions and case coding over all manufactures are still largely the same. However, new developments in tantalum electrolytic capacitors such as the multi-anode technique to reduce the
419:
3109:, for other temperature and voltage applied, for current load, capacitance value, circuit resistance, mechanical influences and humidity, the FIT figure can recalculated with acceleration factors standardized for industrial or military contexts. For example, higher temperature and applied voltage cause the failure rate to increase.
1485:
manganese dioxide electrolyte, which have been available since 2002. The materials and processes used to produce niobium-dielectric capacitors are essentially the same as for existing tantalum-dielectric capacitors. The characteristics of niobium electrolytic capacitors and tantalum electrolytic capacitors are roughly comparable.
1418:, Sprague's Director of Research, is considered to be the actual inventor of tantalum capacitors in 1954. His invention was supported by R. J. Millard, who introduced the "reform" step in 1955, a significant improvement in which the dielectric of the capacitor was repaired after each dip-and-convert cycle of MnO
3504:
For
Tantalum capacitors from the early 1970s the polarity is indicated by a dot. Positive lead is the lead on the right when the side with the dot is facing you. The positive lead may also be very slightly longer. Furthermore the polarity is marked on PCBs by differently-shaped solder points if there
3493:
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid electrolyte are marked at their positive terminal with a bar or a "+". Tantalum electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte (axial leaded style) are marked on the negative terminal with a bar or a "-" (minus). The polarity better can be identified on
3489:
All tantalum capacitors are polarized components, with distinctly marked positive or negative terminals. When subjected to reversed polarity (even briefly), the capacitor depolarizes and the dielectric oxide layer breaks down, which can cause it to fail even when later operated with correct polarity.
2817:
in parallel with the capacitor in the series-equivalent circuit of electrolytic capacitors. The main causes of leakage current for solid tantalum capacitors are electrical breakdown of the dielectric, conductive paths due to impurities or due to poor anodization, bypassing of dielectric due to excess
1585:
and is the value for which the capacitor has been designed. Standardized measuring condition for electrolytic capacitors is an AC measuring method with a frequency of 100 to 120 Hz. Electrolytic capacitors differ from other capacitor types, whose capacitances are typically measured at 1 kHz
1569:
The electrical characteristics of tantalum electrolytic capacitors depend on the structure of the anode and the electrolyte used. This influences the capacitance value of tantalum capacitors, which depend on operating frequency and temperature. The basic unit of electrolytic capacitors capacitance is
3295:
The extremely thin oxide film of a tantalum electrolytic capacitor, the dielectric layer, must be formed in an amorphous structure. Changing the amorphous structure into a crystallized structure is reported to increase the conductivity by 1000 times, combined with an enlargement of the oxide volume.
3112:
The most often cited source for recalculation the failure rate is the MIL-HDBK-217F, the "bible" of failure rate calculations for electronic components. SQC Online, the online statistical calculators for acceptance sampling and quality control gives an online tool for short examination to calculate
2715:
Solid tantalum electrolytic capacitors can be damaged by surge, peak or pulse currents. Tantalum capacitors, which are exposed to surge, peak or pulse currents should be used with a voltage derating up to 70% in highly inductive circuits. If possible, the voltage profile should be a ramp turn-on, as
459:
at high temperature (typically 1200 to 1800 °C) which produces a mechanically strong pellet and drives off many impurities within the powder. During sintering, the powder takes on a sponge-like structure, with all the particles interconnected into a monolithic spatial lattice. This structure is
3513:
Tantalum capacitors, like most other electronic components and if enough space is available, have imprinted markings to indicate manufacturer, type, electrical and thermal characteristics, and date of manufacture. But most tantalum capacitors are chip types so the reduced space limits the imprinted
3335:
Surge currents after soldering-induced stresses may start crystallization, leading to insulation breakdown. The only way to avoid catastrophic failures is to limit the current which can flow from the source in order to reduce the breakdown to a limited area. Current flowing through the crystallized
2978:
Dielectric absorption occurs when a capacitor that has remained charged for a long time retains some charge when briefly discharged. Although an ideal capacitor would reach zero volts after discharge, real capacitors develop a small voltage from time-delayed dipole discharging, a phenomenon that is
1710:
With a reverse voltage applied, a reverse leakage current flows in very small areas of microcracks or other defects across the dielectric layer to the anode of the electrolytic capacitor. Although the current may only be a few microamps, it represents a very high localized current density which can
1371:
Due to their relatively high price, wet tantalum electrolytic capacitors have few consumer applications. They are used in ruggedized industrial applications, such as in probes for oil exploration. Types with military approvals can provide the extended capacitance and voltage ratings, along with the
3174:
The polymer electrolyte have a small deterioration of conductivity by a thermal degradation mechanism of the conductive polymer. The electrical conductivity decreased, as a function of time, in agreement with a granular metal type structure, in which aging is due to the shrinking of the conductive
1667:
The voltage rating of electrolytic capacitors decreases with increasing temperature. For some applications it is important to use a higher temperature range. Lowering the voltage applied at a higher temperature maintains safety margins. For some capacitor types therefore the IEC standard specify a
1484:
This development to low ESR capacitors with high CV-volumes in chip style for the rapid growing SMD technology in the 1990s increased the demand on tantalum chips dramatically. However, another price explosion for tantalum in 2000/2001 forced the development of niobium electrolytic capacitors with
1344:
The main feature of modern non-solid (wet) tantalum electrolytic capacitors is their energy density compared with that of solid tantalum and wet aluminum electrolytic capacitors within the same temperature range. Due to their self-healing properties (the non-solid electrolyte can deliver oxygen to
3356:
Solid tantalum capacitors with crystallization are most likely to fail at power-on. It is believed that the voltage across the dielectric layer is the trigger mechanism for the breakdown and that the switch-on current pushes the collapse to a catastrophic failure. To prevent such sudden failures,
1506:
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors as discrete components are not ideal capacitors, as they have losses and parasitic inductive parts. All properties can be defined and specified by a series equivalent circuit composed of an idealized capacitance and additional electrical components which model all
442:
of powders is expressed in capacitance (C, usually in μF) times volts (V) per gram (g). Since the mid-1980s, manufactured tantalum powders have exhibited around a ten-fold improvement in CV/g values (from approximately 20k to 200k). The typical particle size is between 2 and 10 μm. Figure 1 shows
1690:
The surge voltage indicates the maximum peak voltage value that may be applied to electrolytic capacitors during their application for a limited number of cycles. The surge voltage is standardized in IEC/EN 60384-1. For tantalum electrolytic capacitors the surge voltage shall be 1.3 times of the
522:
The dielectric layer thickness generated by the forming voltage is directly proportional to the voltage proof of electrolytic capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors are manufactured with a safety margin in oxide layer thickness, which is the ratio between voltage used for electrolytical creation of
518:
The oxide forms on the surface of the tantalum, but it also grows into the material. For each unit thickness of oxide growth, one third grows out and two thirds grows in. Due to the limits of oxide growth, there is a limit on the maximum voltage rating of tantalum oxide for each of the presently
3472:
need higher voltages than aluminum electrolytic capacitors usually offer. For such applications electrolytic capacitors can be connected in series for increased voltage withstanding capability. During charging, the voltage across each of the capacitors connected in series is proportional to the
1348:
The original wet tantalum capacitors developed in the 1930s were axial capacitors, having a wound cell consisting of a tantalum anode and foil cathode separated by a paper stripe soaked with an electrolyte, mounted in a silver case and non-hermetic elastomer sealed. Because of the inertness and
526:
The safety margin for solid tantalum capacitors with manganese dioxide electrolyte is typically between 2 and 4. That means that for a 25 V tantalum capacitor with a safety margin of 4 the dielectric voltage proof can withstand 100 V to provide a more robust dielectric. This very high
3119:
Tantalum capacitors are reliable components. Continuous improvement in tantalum powder and capacitor technologies have resulted in a significant reduction in the amount of impurities present, which formerly have caused most of the field crystallization failures. Commercially available tantalum
1448:
Although solid tantalum capacitors offered lower ESR and leakage current values than the aluminum electrolytics, in 1980 a price shock for tantalum in the industry dramatically reduced the usability of tantalum capacitors, especially in consumer entertainment electronics. In search of cheaper
336:. However, in comparing the permittivities of different oxide materials, it is seen that tantalum pentoxide has an approximately 3 times higher permittivity than aluminum oxide. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors of a given CV value can therefore be smaller than aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
3543:
Version 2: coding with year code/month code. The year codes are: "R" = 2003, "S"= 2004, "T" = 2005, "U" = 2006, "V" = 2007, "W" = 2008, "X" = 2009, "A" = 2010, "B" = 2011, "C" = 2012, "D" = 2013, "E" = 2014 etc. Month codes are: "1" to "9" = Jan. to Sept., "O" = October, "N" = November, "D" =
3291:
Tantalum capacitors are reliable on the same very high level as other electronic components with very low failure rates. However, they have a single unique failure mode called "field crystallization". Field crystallization is the major reason for degradation and catastrophic failures of solid
3941:
at high frequency. Tantalum capacitors can replace aluminum electrolytic capacitors in situations where the external environment or dense component packing results in a sustained hot internal environment and where high reliability is important. Equipment such as medical electronics and space
3300:
is characterized by a sudden rise in leakage current within a few milliseconds, from nanoamp magnitude to amp magnitude in low-impedance circuits. Increasing current flow can accelerate in an "avalanche effect" and rapidly spread through the metal/oxide. This can result in various degrees of
3331:
Impurities, tiny mechanical damages, or imperfections in the dielectric can affect the structure, changing it from amorphous to crystalline structure and thus lowering the dielectric strength. The purity of the tantalum powder is one of the most important parameters for defining its risk of
328:
All etched or sintered anodes have a much larger total surface area compared to a smooth surface of the same overall dimensions. This surface area increase boosts the capacitance value by a factor of up to 200 (depending on the rated voltage) for solid tantalum electrolytic capacitors.
2958:
2963:
The value of the leakage current depends on the voltage applied, on temperature of the capacitor, on measuring time, and on influence of moisture caused by case sealing conditions. They normally have a very low leakage current, most much lower than the specified worst-case.
3517:
Smaller capacitors use a shorthand notation. The most commonly used format is: XYZ J/K/M "V", where XYZ represents the capacitance (calculated as XY × 10 pF), the letters K or M indicate the tolerance (±10% and ±20% respectively) and "V" represents the working voltage.
3071:
and is divided into three areas: Early failures or infant mortality failures, constant random failures and wear out failures. Failure types included in the total failure rate are short circuit, open circuit, and degradation failures (exceeding electrical parameters).
1476:
are better by a factor of 1000 than that of manganese dioxide, and are close to the conductivity of metals. In 1993 NEC introduced their SMD polymer tantalum electrolytic capacitors, called "NeoCap". In 1997 Sanyo followed with their "POSCAP" polymer tantalum chips.
232:
After forming a dielectric oxide on the rough anode structures, a cathode is needed. An electrolyte acts as the cathode of electrolytic capacitors. There are many different electrolytes in use. Generally, the electrolytes will be distinguished into two species,
81:
Tantalum capacitors are inherently polarized components. Reverse voltage can destroy the capacitor. Non-polar or bipolar tantalum capacitors are made by effectively connecting two polarized capacitors in series, with the anodes oriented in opposite directions.
1480:
A new conductive polymer for tantalum polymer capacitors was presented by Kemet at the "1999 Carts" conference. This capacitor used the newly developed organic conductive polymer PEDT Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), also known as PEDOT (trade name
Baytron).
4798:
3455:
Small or low voltage electrolytic capacitors may be safely connected in parallel. Large sizes capacitors, especially large sizes and high voltage types should be individually protected against sudden discharge of the whole bank due to a failed capacitor.
1586:
or higher. For tantalum capacitors a DC bias voltage of 1.1 to 1.5 V for types with a rated voltage of ≤2.5 V or 2.1 to 2.5 V for types with a rated voltage of >2.5 V may be applied during the measurement to avoid reverse voltage.
2576:
The ripple current is specified as an effective (RMS) value at 100 or 120 Hz or at 10 kHz at upper category temperature. Non-sinusoidal ripple currents have to be analyzed and separated into their component sinusoidal frequencies by means of
476:
536:
1891:
447:
1589:
The percentage of allowed deviation of the measured capacitance from the rated value is called capacitance tolerance. Electrolytic capacitors are available in different tolerance series classifications, whose values are specified in the
4606:
Y. K. ZHANG, J. LIN,Y. CHEN, Polymer
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors with Chemically-Polymerized Polypyrrole (PPy) as Cathode Materials Part I. Effect of Monomer Concentration and Oxidant on Electrical Properties of the Capacitors,
3301:
destruction from rather small, burned areas on the oxide to zigzag burned streaks covering large areas of the pellet or complete oxidation of the metal. If the current source is unlimited a field crystallization may cause a capacitor
1425:
This first solid electrolyte manganese dioxide had 10 times better conductivity than all other types of non-solid electrolyte capacitors. In the style of tantalum pearls, they soon found wide use in radio and new television devices.
3490:
If the failure is a short circuit (the most common occurrence), and current is not limited to a safe value, catastrophic thermal runaway may occur. This failure can even result in the capacitor forcefully ejecting its burning core.
3175:
polymer grains. The life time of polymer electrolytic capacitors is specified in similar terms to the non-solid electrolytic caps, but its life time calculation follows other rules which lead to much longer operational life times.
1711:
cause a tiny hot-spot. This can cause some conversion of amorphous tantalum pentoxide to the more conductive crystalline form. When a high current is available, this effect can avalanche and the capacitor may become a total short.
639:
362:
3505:
are no "+" or "-" signs printed on the PCB. For example a square-shaped solder point is used for positive polarity (needs to be verified on particular case measuring connection against ground, negative or positive voltage pins)
690:
or the "face down" technique to reduce the inductance have led to a much wider range of chip sizes and their case codes. These departures from EIA standards mean devices from different manufacturers are no longer always uniform.
5054:
E. Vitoratos, S. Sakkopoulos, E. Dalas, N. Paliatsas, D. Karageorgopoulos, F. Petraki, S. Kennou, S.A. Choulis, Thermal degradation mechanisms of PEDOT:PSS, Organic
Electronics, Volume 10, Issue 1, February 2009, Pages 61–66,
2706:
In solid tantalum electrolytic capacitors the heat generated by the ripple current influences the reliability of the capacitors. Exceeding the limit tends to result in catastrophic failures with shorts and burning components.
2156:
2701:
527:
safety factor is substantiated by the failure mechanism of solid tantalum capacitors, "field crystallization". For tantalum capacitors with solid polymer electrolyte the safety margin is much lower, typically around 2.
454:
The powder is compressed around a tantalum wire (known as the riser wire) to form a "pellet". The riser wire ultimately becomes the anode connection to the capacitor. This pellet/wire combination is subsequently vacuum
1904:. Regarding to the IEC/EN 60384-1 standard, the impedance values of tantalum electrolytic capacitors are measured and specified at 10 kHz or 100 kHz depending on the capacitance and voltage of the capacitor.
3532:
Capacitance, tolerance and date of manufacture can be indicated with a short code specified in IEC/EN 60062. Examples of short-marking of the rated capacitance (microfarads): μ47 = 0,47 μF, 4μ7 = 4.7 μF, 47μ = 47 μF
3101:
as reference conditions and expressed as per cent failed components per thousand hours (n %/1000 h). That is "n" number of failed components per 10 hours or in FIT the ten-thousand-fold value per 10 hours.
543:
The next stage for solid tantalum capacitors is the application of the cathode plate (wet tantalum capacitors use a liquid electrolyte as a cathode in conjunction with their casing). This is achieved by pyrolysis of
3183:
Tantalum capacitors show different electrical long-term behaviors depending on the electrolyte used. Application rules for types with an inherent failure mode are specified to ensure high reliability and long life.
2244:) summarizes all resistive losses of the capacitor. These are the terminal resistances, the contact resistance of the electrode contact, the line resistance of the electrodes, the electrolyte resistance, and the
97:, and where reliability is crucial. Due to its reliability, durability and performance under extreme conditions, it is used in medical equipment, aerospace and military applications. Other applications include
2845:
2225:
3929:
circuits to achieve long hold duration, and some long duration timing circuits where precise timing is not critical. They are also often used for power supply rail decoupling in parallel with film or
1699:
Transient voltage or a current spike applied to tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid manganese dioxide electrolyte can cause some tantalum capacitors to fail and may directly lead to a short.
575:
This process is repeated several times through varying specific gravities of nitrate solution, to build up a thick coat over all internal and external surfaces of the "pellet", as shown in Figure 4.
2345:
2556:
1407:
These first sintered tantalum capacitors used a liquid electrolyte. In 1952 Bell Labs researchers discovered the use manganese dioxide as a solid electrolyte for a sintered tantalum capacitor.
316:
3336:
area causes heating in the manganese dioxide cathode near the fault. At increased temperatures a chemical reaction then reduces the surrounding conductive manganese dioxide to the insulating
1896:
The impedance is a frequency dependent AC resistance and possesses both magnitude and phase at a particular frequency. In data sheets of electrolytic capacitors, only the impedance magnitude
1714:
Nevertheless, tantalum electrolytic capacitors can withstand for short instants a reverse voltage for a limited number of cycles. The most common guidelines for tantalum reverse voltage are:
3405:
3398:
2049:
325:
per volt. Despite this, the dielectric strengths of these oxide layers are quite high. Thus, tantalum capacitors can achieve a high volumetric capacitance compared to other capacitor types.
1393:
The first tantalum electrolytic capacitors with wound tantalum foils and non-solid electrolyte were developed in 1930 by
Tansitor Electronic Inc. (US), and were used for military purposes.
3391:
3292:
tantalum capacitors. More than 90% of the today's rare failures in tantalum solid-state electrolytic capacitors are caused by shorts or increased leakage current due to this failure mode.
1982:
3548:
For very small capacitors no marking is possible, only the component's packaging or the assembly manufacturer's records of the components used can be used to identify a component fully.
2485:
This internal generated heat, in addition to the ambient temperature and possibly other external heat sources, leads to a capacitor body temperature having a temperature difference of
1410:
Although the fundamental inventions came from the Bell Labs, the innovations for manufacturing commercially viable tantalum electrolytic capacitors were done by the researchers of the
2480:
1679:
Lower voltage applied may have positive influences for tantalum electrolytic capacitors. Lowering the voltage applied increases the reliability and reduces the expected failure rate.
3595:
The tests and requirements to be met by aluminum and tantalum electrolytic capacitors for use in electronic equipment for approval as standardized types are set out in the following
4245:
1672:". The category voltage is the maximum DC voltage or peak pulse voltage that may be applied continuously to a capacitor at any temperature within the category temperature range T
3497:
A particular cause of confusion is that on surface mount tantalum capacitors the positive terminal is marked with a bar. Whereas on aluminium surface mount capacitors it is the
1797:
at a particular frequency in an AC circuit. In this sense impedance is a measure of the ability of the capacitor to attenuate alternating currents and can be used like Ohms law
350:
3052:
and can be described qualitatively and quantitatively; it is not directly measurable. The reliability of electrolytic capacitors are empirically determined by identifying the
2573:. The temperature of the capacitor, which is established on the balance between heat produced and distributed, should not exceed the capacitors maximum specified temperature.
374:
3305:. In this circumstance, the failure can be catastrophic if there is nothing to limit the available current, as the series resistance of the capacitor can become very low.
1803:
552:. The "pellet" is dipped into an aqueous solution of nitrate and then baked in an oven at approximately 250 °C to produce the dioxide coat. The chemical equation is:
2762:
4611:
1907:
Besides measuring, the impedance can also be calculated using the idealized components out of a capacitor's series-equivalent circuit, including an ideal capacitor
4785:
P. Vasina, T. Zednicek, Z. Sita, J. Sikula, J. Pavelka, AVX, Thermal and
Electrical Breakdown Versus Reliability of Ta2O5 Under Both – Bipolar Biasing Conditions
4421:
2782:
4195:
4086:
Tantalum electrolytic fixed capacitors from Japan : determination of no injury in investigation no. AA1921-159 under the
Antidumping Act, 1921, as amended
4572:
4527:
4331:
1728:
These guidelines apply for short excursion and should never be used to determine the maximum reverse voltage under which a capacitor can be used permanently.
443:
powders of successively finer grain, resulting in greater surface area per unit volume. Note the very great difference in particle size between the powders.
5307:
650:
3020:
circuits. However, in most applications where tantalum electrolytic capacitors are supporting power supply lines, dielectric absorption is not a problem.
4146:
I. Horacek, T. Zednicek, S. Zednicek, T. Karnik, J. Petrzilek, P. Jacisko, P. Gregorova, AVX, "High CV Tantalum
Capacitors: Challenges and Limitations"
682:
style as tantalum chip capacitors. It has contact surfaces on the end faces of the case and is manufactured in different sizes, typically following the
3188:
Long-term electrical behavior, failure modes, self-healing mechanism, and application rules of the different types of tantalum electrolytic capacitors
1415:
1390:
patented a capacitor using aluminum electrodes and a liquid electrolyte. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors were commercially manufactured in the 1930s.
2064:
2587:
3132:
is this failure rate for a 100 μF/25 V tantalum chip capacitor used with a series resistance of 0.1 Ω the failure rate is 0.02 FIT.
1364:
which led to increasing leakage currents and short circuits, new styles of wet tantalum capacitors use a sintered tantalum pellet cell and a gelled
4497:
4059:
4645:
3809:
602:
The picture below shows the production flow of tantalum electrolytic chip capacitors with sintered anode and solid manganese dioxide electrolyte.
4687:
3831:
368:
Schematic representation of the structure of a sintered tantalum electrolytic capacitor with solid electrolyte and the cathode contacting layers
4759:
4740:
4718:
4630:
3643:
The market of tantalum electrolytic capacitors in 2008 was approximately US$ 2.2 billion, which was roughly 12% of the total capacitor market.
2810:
is a special characteristic for electrolytic capacitors other conventional capacitors don't have. This current is represented by the resistor
4313:
P. Vasina, T. Zednicek, AVX, J. Sikula, J. Pavelka, AVX, Failure Modes of
Tantalum Capacitors made by Different Technologies, CARTS US 2001
5229:
5166:
A. Teverovsky, Derating of Surge
Currents for Tantalum Capacitors, Dell Services Federal Government, Inc. NASA/GSFC Greenbelt, MD 20771, US
2255:
behind smoothing and may influence the circuit functionality. Related to the capacitor ESR is accountable for internal heat generation if a
2213:
1691:
rated voltage, rounded off to the nearest volt. The surge voltage applied to tantalum capacitors may influence the capacitors failure rate.
122:
Basic principle of the anodic oxidation, in which, by applying a voltage with a current source, an oxide layer is formed on a metallic anode
4891:
3040:
with times of "early failures", "random failures", and wear-out failures". The time of random failures is the time of constant failure rate
2953:{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {Leak} }=0{.}01\,\mathrm {{A} \over {V\cdot F}} \cdot U_{\mathrm {R} }\cdot C_{\mathrm {R} }+3\,\mathrm {\mu A} }
4992:
1660:
is the maximum DC voltage or peak pulse voltage that may be applied continuously at any temperature within the rated temperature range T
5023:
4916:
4558:
4358:
1437:
In 1971, Intel launched its first microcomputer (the MCS 4) and 1972 Hewlett Packard launched one of the first pocket calculators (the
5177:
D. Liu, MEI Technologies, Inc. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Failure Modes in Capacitors When Tested Under a Time-Varying Stress
4824:
4665:
Ch. Schnitter, A. Michaelis, U. Merker, H.C. Starck, Bayer, New Niobium Based Materials for Solid Electrolyte Capacitors, Carts 2002
3787:
3565:
1785:
Typical impedance curves for different capacitance values over frequency. As higher the capacitance as lower the resonance frequency.
1558:
694:
An overview of the dimensions of conventional tantalum rectangular chip capacitors and their coding is shown in the following table:
609:
Representation of the production flow of tantalum electrolytic capacitors with sintered anode and solid manganese dioxide electrolyte
5082:
4775:
4596:
460:
of predictable mechanical strength and density, but is also highly porous, producing a large internal surface area (see Figure 2).
4686:
Y. Pozdeev-Freeman, P. Maden, Vishay, Solid-Electrolyte Niobium Capacitors Exhibit Similar Performance to Tantalum, Feb 1, 2002,
1707:
Tantalum electrolytic are polarized and generally require anode electrode voltage to be positive relative to the cathode voltage.
1620:
The required capacitance tolerance is determined by the particular application. Electrolytic capacitors, which are often used for
4863:
4809:
4510:
1756:
or similar applications, capacitors are seen as a storage component to store electrical energy. But for smoothing, bypassing, or
1507:
losses and inductive parameters of a capacitor. In this series-equivalent circuit the electrical characteristics are defined by:
628:
Axial-leaded tantalum capacitors, with solid and non-solid electrolyte, mostly used for military, medical and space applications.
63:
dielectric layer, the tantalum capacitor distinguishes itself from other conventional and electrolytic capacitors in having high
4755:
A. Teverovsky, Perot Systems Code 562, NASA GSFCE, Effect of Surge Current Testing on Reliability of Solid Tantalum Capacitors
1740:
Simplified series-equivalent circuit of a capacitor for higher frequencies (above); vector diagram with electrical reactances X
1628:
capacitors don't have the need for narrow tolerances because they are mostly not used for accurate frequency applications like
3048:
of a component is a property that indicates how well a component performs its function in a time interval. It is subject to a
4368:
2305:
1594:
specified in IEC 60063. For abbreviated marking in tight spaces, a letter code for each tolerance is specified in IEC 60062.
2825:
The specification of the leakage current in datasheets often will be given by multiplication of the rated capacitance value
5389:
4626:
U. Merker, K. Wussow, W. Lövenich, H. C. Starck GmbH, New Conducting Polymer Dispersions for Solid Electrolyte Capacitors,
4608:
4420:
E. K. Reed, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Characterization of Tantalum Polymer Capacitors, NEPP Task 1.21.5, Phase 1, FY05]
1771:
to filter undesired AC components from voltage rails. For this (biased) AC function the frequency dependent AC resistance (
4411:
R. L. Taylor and H. E. Haring, "A metal semi-conductor capacitor," J. Electrochem. Soc., vol. 103, p. 611, November, 1956.
3494:
the shaped side of the case, which has the positive terminal. The different marking styles can cause dangerous confusion.
2401:) after rectifying an AC voltage and flows as charge and discharge current through the decoupling or smoothing capacitor.
4347:
3120:
capacitors now have reached as standard products the high MIL standard "C" level which is 0.01%/1000h at 85 °C and U
2277:. The dissipation factor is determined by the tangent of the phase angle between the subtraction of capacitive reactance
586:
to provide a good connection from the manganese dioxide cathode plate to the external cathode termination(see Figure 5).
5188:
2510:
1400:
in the early 1950s as a miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly invented
282:
4952:
IEC/EN 61709, Electric components. Reliability. Reference conditions for failure rates and stress models for conversion
3635:
are working together to raise awareness of the relationship between consumer electronic devices and conflict minerals.
2581:
and the equivalent ripple current calculated as the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual currents.
638:
5345:
4460:
A. Fraioli, Recent Advances in the Solid-State Electrolytic Capacitor, IRE Transactions on Component Parts, June 1958
4042:
3061:
2397:
value of a superimposed AC current of any frequency upon a DC current. It arises mainly in power supplies (including
2003:
1648:
Referring to IEC/EN 60384-1 standard the allowed operating voltage for tantalum capacitors is called "rated voltage U
5320:
Conference Record of 1998 IEEE Industry Applications Conference. Thirty-Third IAS Annual Meeting (Cat. No.98CH36242)
5178:
4980:
4314:
4579:
4534:
4384:
4383:
Manufacturer's Cross Reference and Tantalum Chip Capacitor Part Numbering Systems; F3075D; Kemet; November 2004>
4328:
4107:
5167:
5100:
4875:
4327:
Y. Pozdeev-Freeman, Vishay, How Far Can We Go with High CV Tantalum Capacitors, PCI, January/February 2005, p. 6,
1939:
5200:
4962:
4131:
Tomáš Kárník, AVX, NIOBIUM OXIDE FOR CAPACITOR MANUFACTURING, METAL 2008, 13. –15. 5. 2008, Hradec nad Moravicí
3989:
3974:
3875:
75:
55:, covered by an insulating oxide layer that forms the dielectric, surrounded by liquid or solid electrolyte as a
4299:
T.Zednicek, AVX, A Study of Field Crystallization in Tantalum Capacitors and its effect on DCL and Reliability,
3853:
2259:
flows over the capacitor. This internal heat may influence the reliability of tantalum electrolytic capacitors.
662:
5369:
4004:
1752:
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors, as well as other conventional capacitors, have two electrical functions. For
683:
2428:
2231:
Typical impedance and ESR curves over frequency for different electrolytic capacitor styles compared with MLCC
4147:
3632:
2367:
1606:
1599:
1591:
1349:
stability of the tantalum dielectric oxide layer against strong acids, the wet tantalum capacitors could use
332:
The volume of an electrolytic capacitor is defined by the product of capacitance and voltage, the so-called
5123:
4852:
4840:
4786:
4698:
4675:
3934:
2237:
1550:
1537:
1442:
687:
23:
Tantalum capacitors in different styles: axial, radial and SMD-chip versions (size comparison with a match)
5067:
4903:
4507:
Larry E. Mosley, Intel Corporation, Capacitor Impedance Needs For Future Microprocessors, CARTS USA 2006,
4346:
R. Faltus, AVX Corp.EET Asia, Choosing the right capacitors to ensure long-term control-circuit stability
4191:
4132:
3332:
crystallization. Since the mid-1980s, manufactured tantalum powders have exhibited an increase in purity.
3128:. Recalculated in FIT with the acceleration factors coming from MIL HDKB 217F at 40 °C and 0.5 U
3148:, load life or useful life of tantalum electrolytic capacitors depends entirely on the electrolyte used:
242:
1386:
The group of "valve metals" capable of forming an insulating oxide film was discovered in 1875. In 1896
4797:
A. Berduque, Kemet, Low ESR Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors for Medium to High Voltage Applications,
4450:
3469:
3091:
3009:
Dielectric absorption can cause a problem in circuits where very small currents are used, such as long-
2398:
1445:(ESR) for bypass and decoupling capacitors of standard electrolytic capacitors needed to be decreased.
1381:
1886:{\displaystyle Z={\frac {\hat {u}}{\hat {\imath }}}={\frac {U_{\mathrm {eff} }}{I_{\mathrm {eff} }}}.}
5056:
4820:
Vishay BCcomponents, Introduction Aluminum Capacitors, Revision: 10-Sep-13 1 Document Number: 28356,
1577:
The capacitance value specified in the data sheets of the manufacturers is called rated capacitance C
1468:
in 1975 was a break-through in point of lower ESR. The conductivities of conductive polymers such as
5328:
5306:
Electronic Capacitors, SIC 3675, NAICS 334414: Electronic Capacitor Manufacturing, Industry report:
4756:
4737:
4715:
4627:
4173:
4279:
H. W. Holland, Kemet, Solid Tantalum Capacitor Failure Mechanism and Determination of Failure Rates
4009:
3979:
1411:
4525:
W. Serjak, H. Seyeda, Ch. Cymorek, Tantalum Availability: 2000 and Beyond, PCI, March/April 2002,
4496:
K. Lischka, Spiegel 27.09.2007, 40 Jahre Elektro-Addierer: Der erste Taschenrechner wog 1,5 Kilo,
4172:
H. Haas, H. C. Starck GmbH, Magnesium Vapour Reduced Tantalum Powders with Very High Capacitances
2839:
together with an addendum figure, measured after a measuring time of 2 or 5 minutes, for example:
622:
Tantalum chip capacitors: SMD style for surface mounting, 80% of all tantalum capacitors are SMDs
4736:
A. Teverovsky, NASA, Effect of Surge Current Testing on Reliability of Solid Tantalum Capacitors
3569:
3528:
476M 100V implies a capacitance of 47 × 10 pF = 47 μF (M = ±20%) with a working voltage of 100 V.
3348:) and insulates the crystallized oxide in the tantalum oxide layer, stopping local current flow.
3076:
3045:
2383:
3949:
on computer motherboards and in peripherals, due to their small size and long-term reliability.
3525:
105K 330V implies a capacitance of 10 × 10 pF = 1 μF (K = ±10%) with a working voltage of 330 V.
5323:
3984:
3573:
679:
40:
5137:
R. Faltus, AVX, Advanced capacitors ensure long-term control-circuit stability, 7/2/2012, EDT
4999:
3617:
Surface mount fixed tantalum electrolytic capacitors with conductive polymer solid electrolyte
3097:
For tantalum capacitors, often the failure rate is specified at 85 °C and rated voltage U
2731:
134:
Characteristics of the different oxide layers in tantalum and niobium electrolytic capacitors
4264:
B. Goudswaard, F. J. J. Driesens, "Failure Mechanism of Solid Tantalum Capacitors", Philips,
3605:
Surface mount fixed tantalum electrolytic capacitors with manganese dioxide solid electrolyte
2980:
2973:
2807:
1524:
439:
385:
A typical tantalum capacitor is a chip capacitor and consists of tantalum powder pressed and
102:
5122:
J.Gill, T. Zednicek, AVX, VOLTAGE DERATING RULES FOR SOLID TANTALUM AND NIOBIUM CAPACITORS,
4920:
4300:
3721:
2199:
of the capacitor. At this point, the capacitor begins to behave primarily as an inductance.
1557:
Using a series equivalent circuit rather than a parallel equivalent circuit is specified by
356:
The capacitor cell of a tantalum electrolytic capacitor consists of sintered tantalum powder
4821:
3938:
3337:
3297:
1781:
1772:
1757:
1625:
1361:
126:
Electrolytic capacitors use a chemical feature of some special metals, historically called
4656:
F. Jonas, H.C.Starck, Baytron, Basic chemical and physical properties, Präsentation 2003,
3743:
1441:). The requirements for capacitors increased, especially the demand for lower losses. The
8:
5405:
4979:
SQC online table calculator, Capacitor Failure Rate Model, MIL-HDBK-217, Rev. F—Notice 2
4697:
Ch. Reynolds, AVX, Technical Information, Reliability Management of Tantalum Capacitors,
3627:
Tantalum capacitors are the main use of the element tantalum. Tantalum ore is one of the
2252:
1765:
487:
is then formed over all the tantalum particle surfaces by the electrochemical process of
380:
Construction of a typical SMD tantalum electrolytic chip capacitor with solid electrolyte
256:
A dielectric material is placed between two conducting plates (electrodes), each of area
5149:
5079:
4990:
Hitachi, Precautions in using Tantalum Capacitors, 4.2 Failure Rate Calculation Formula
4674:
T. Zednicek, W. A. Millman, Ch. Reynolds, AVX, Tantalum and Niobium Technology Roadmap
5351:
4014:
3966:
3049:
2767:
2570:
2266:
1682:
Applying a higher voltage than specified may destroy tantalum electrolytic capacitors.
1453:
1429:
394:
249:. The oxide layer may be destroyed if the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed.
86:
44:
31:
10 μF 30 VDC-rated tantalum capacitors, solid electrolyte epoxy-dipped style.
4508:
3942:
equipment that require high quality and reliability makes use of tantalum capacitors.
1553:
which is the effective self-inductance of the capacitor, usually abbreviated as "ESL".
1422:
deposition. This dramatically reduced the leakage current of the finished capacitors.
5341:
5138:
5017:
4552:
4364:
4229:
4089:
4038:
3999:
3994:
3945:
An especially common application for low-voltage tantalum capacitors is power supply
3930:
3628:
3536:
The date of manufacture is often printed in accordance with international standards.
3116:
Some manufacturers of tantalum capacitors may have their own FIT calculation tables.
3105:
For conditions other than the standard operation conditions 40 °C and 0.5 U
2562:
2404:
Ripple currents generate heat inside the capacitor body. This dissipation power loss
2245:
1676:. The relation between both voltages and temperatures is given in the picture right.
1621:
1397:
605:
549:
545:
98:
71:
5355:
4774:
I. Bishop, J. Gill, AVX Ltd., Reverse Voltage Behavior of Solid Tantalum Capacitors
4159:
1748:
and resistance ESR and for illustration the impedance Z and dissipation factor tan δ
1449:
alternatives, the industry switched back to using aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
5333:
5212:
3946:
2578:
2394:
2355:
1465:
1357:
74:. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors are considerably more expensive than comparable
3411:
3308:
345:
Construction of a solid tantalum chip capacitor with manganese dioxide electrolyte
321:
The dielectric thickness of electrolytic capacitors is very thin, in the range of
5104:
5086:
4941:
4828:
4763:
4744:
4722:
4634:
4615:
4514:
4449:
Sprague, Dr. Preston Robinson Granted 103rd Patent Since Joining Company In 1929
4335:
3926:
3465:
3017:
2382:
The high ripple current across the smoothing capacitor C1 in a power supply with
2354:
is used for capacitors with very low losses in frequency determining circuits or
1461:
1340:
Cross section of a non-solid all tantalum electrolytic capacitor, hermetic sealed
523:
dielectric and rated voltage of the capacitor, to ensure reliable functionality.
435:
94:
4595:
About the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000, Advanced Information, October 10, 2000,
3579:
The definition of the characteristics and the procedure of the test methods for
2195:. With frequencies above the resonance the impedance increases again due to the
2151:{\displaystyle Z={\sqrt {{ESR}^{2}+(X_{\mathrm {C} }+(-X_{\mathrm {L} }))^{2}}}}
1736:
1540:
which summarizes all ohmic losses of the capacitor, usually abbreviated as "ESR"
430:
Tantalum capacitors are manufactured from a powder of relatively pure elemental
3540:
Version 1: coding with year/week numeral code, "1208" is "2012, week number 8".
3404:
3397:
3057:
3033:
2696:{\displaystyle I_{R}={\sqrt {{i_{1}}^{2}+{i_{2}}^{2}+{i_{3}}^{2}+{i_{n}}^{2}}}}
1790:
1668:"temperature derated voltage" for a higher temperature, the "category voltage U
1498:
1457:
589:
339:
5290:"Beuth Verlag – Normen, Standards & Fachliteratur kaufen | seit 1924"
4213:
1644:
Relation between rated and category voltage and rated and category temperature
5399:
5318:
Prymak, J.D. (1998). "New tantalum capacitors in power supply applications".
4839:
I. Salisbury, AVX, Thermal Management of Surface Mounted Tantalum Capacitors
3897:
3647:
Product programs of larger manufacturers of tantalum electrolytic capacitors
3481:
3390:
3302:
3068:
3037:
3010:
2386:
causes significant internal heat generation corresponding to the capacitor's
2378:
1372:
high quality levels required for avionics, military, and space applications.
1365:
1350:
5337:
4914:"Understand Capacitor Soakage to Optimize Analog Systems" by Bob Pease 1982
4360:
Tantalum and Niobium-Based Capacitors: Science, Technology, and Applications
3925:
The low leakage and high capacity of tantalum capacitors favor their use in
3312:
If the current is limited in tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid MnO
1336:
475:
4469:
R. J. Millard, Sprague, US Patent 2936514, October 24, 1955 – May 17, 1960
4093:
4033:
Dhanasekharan Natarajan (2015). "Selection and Application of Components".
3145:
3141:
3080:
3053:
2265:
Discussions of electrolytic capacitors historically sometimes refer to the
2208:
Typical impedance and ESR curves as a function of frequency and temperature
1761:
1387:
535:
273:
252:
60:
4902:
R. W. Franklin, AVX, ANALYSIS OF SOLID TANTALUM CAPACITOR LEAKAGE CURRENT
4233:
697:
678:
More than 90% of all tantalum electrolytic capacitors are manufactured in
446:
4440:
Preston Robinson, Sprague, US Patent 3066247, 25 Aug. 1954 – 27 Nov. 1962
3561:
2724:
1469:
90:
64:
5199:
Epcos, Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, General technical informations
4246:"J. Qazi, Kemet, An Overview of Failure Analysis of Tantalum Capacitors"
3699:
2262:
Generally, the ESR decreases with increasing frequency and temperature.
5097:
4269:
3557:
3013:
2566:
2489:
against the ambient. This heat has to be distributed as thermal losses
1995:
1629:
1613:
1401:
484:
398:
272:
whose capacitance is greater the larger the electrode area, A, and the
578:
In traditional construction, the "pellet" is successively dipped into
27:
3765:
3580:
2728:
general leakage behavior of electrolytic capacitors: leakage current
2163:
706:
Standard dimensions for surface-mount (SMD) tantalum chip capacitors
618:
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors are made in three different styles:
488:
456:
418:
386:
189:
5271:
4083:
2561:
The internal generated heat has to be distributed to the ambient by
625:
Tantalum "pearls", resin-dipped, single-ended style for PCB mounting
5037:
3960:
2359:
2358:
where the reciprocal value of the dissipation factor is called the
1768:
579:
431:
118:
48:
19:
1353:
as an electrolyte, thus providing them with a relatively low ESR.
1327:
Note: EIA 3528 metric is also known as EIA 1411 imperial (inches).
4810:
Joelle Arnold, Uprating of Electrolytic Capacitors, DfR Solutions
4479:
4431:
D. A. McLean, F. S. Power, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs. 44 (1956) 872
4160:"H.C. Starck GmbH, Product Information Tantalum capacitor powder"
3367:
using of circuits with slow power-up modes (soft-start circuits).
1640:
402:
276:, ε, are and the thinner the thickness, d, of the dielectric is.
56:
3591:
IEC/EN 60384-1: Fixed capacitors for use in electronic equipment
3316:
electrolyte, a self-healing process can take place, reducing MnO
5384:
2415:
and is the squared value of the effective (RMS) ripple current
1794:
583:
241:
electrolytes. Non-solid electrolytes are a liquid medium whose
5253:
4942:"Modeling Dielectric Absorption in Capacitors", by Ken Kundert
4851:
R.W. Franklin, AVX, Ripple Rating of Tantalum Chip Capacitors
4398:
D. F. Tailor, Tantalum and Tantalum Compounds, Fansteel Inc.,
3611:
fixed tantalum capacitors with non-solid and solid electrolyte
1724:
1% of rated voltage to a maximum of 0.1 V at 125 °C.
3556:
Standard definitions of characteristics and test methods for
1753:
1721:
3% of rated voltage to a maximum of 0.5 V at 85 °C,
1571:
1564:
1473:
1438:
492:
390:
322:
52:
5066:
Nichicon, Technical Guide, Calculation Formula of Lifetime
4646:
John Prymak, Kemet, Replacing MnO2 with Polymers, 1999 CARTS
1793:
ratio of the voltage to the current with both magnitude and
1718:
10% of rated voltage to a maximum of 1 V at 25 °C,
340:
Basic construction of solid tantalum electrolytic capacitors
4963:"MIL-HDBK-217 F NOTICE-2 RELIABILITY PREDICTION ELECTRONIC"
4088:. United States International Trade Commission. p. 1.
3178:
463:
Larger surface areas produce higher capacitance; thus high
5289:
5230:"1uF 35V Radial Dipped Tantalum Dip Capacitor Color Coded"
3156:
have a life time specification. (When hermetically sealed)
1923:
therefore is given by the geometric (complex) addition of
105:, telecommunications equipment, and computer peripherals.
67:
per volume (high volumetric efficiency) and lower weight.
4917:"Understand Capacitor Soakage to Optimize Analog Systems"
4864:
KEMET, Ripple Current Capabilities, Technical Update 2004
3564:
components and related technologies are published by the
2299:
is small, the dissipation factor can be approximated as:
246:
85:
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors are extensively used in
2987:
Values of dielectric absorption for tantalum capacitors
5213:"REVERSE VOLTAGE BEHAVIOR OF SOLID TANTALUM CAPACITORS"
4876:"R.W. Franklin, AVX, AN EXPLORATION OF LEAKAGE CURRENT"
4032:
3514:
signs to capacitance, tolerance, voltage and polarity.
3000:
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid electrolyte
2710:
2340:{\displaystyle \tan \delta ={\mbox{ESR}}\cdot \omega C}
1502:
Series-equivalent circuit model of a tantalum capacitor
1396:
Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by
3361:
50% application voltage derating against rated voltage
2322:
1919:. In this case the impedance at the angular frequency
1356:
Because in the past, silver casings had problems with
5078:
Estimating of Lifetime FUJITSU MEDIA DEVICES LIMITED
4108:"Tantalum Capacitor Characteristics And Applications"
3113:
given failure rate values to application conditions.
2848:
2770:
2734:
2716:
this reduces the peak current seen by the capacitor.
2590:
2513:
2431:
2308:
2067:
2006:
1942:
1806:
1433:
Conductivity of non-solid and solid used electrolytes
285:
5098:
NIC Technical Guide, Calculation Formula of Lifetime
4190:
J. Gill, AVX, Basic Tantalum Capacitor Technology,
3956:
3485:
Polarity marking of tantalum electrolytic capacitors
2219:
Typical impedance and ESR as a function of frequency
4402:, Vol. 19, 2nd ed. 1969 John Wiley & sons, Inc.
3583:for use in electronic equipment are set out in the
2202:
408:
401:, and a solid manganese dioxide electrolyte as the
5189:Jim Keith, What a cap-astrophe!, EDN, May 27, 2010
2967:
2952:
2776:
2756:
2695:
2551:{\displaystyle P_{th}=\Delta T\cdot A\cdot \beta }
2550:
2474:
2339:
2150:
2043:
1976:
1885:
311:{\displaystyle C=\varepsilon \cdot {\frac {A}{d}}}
310:
268:Every electrolytic capacitor in principle forms a
4714:J. Gill, AVX, Surge in Solid Tantalum Capacitors,
2191:), then the impedance will only be determined by
5397:
613:
5118:
5116:
5114:
5112:
4691:
2819:
2044:{\displaystyle X_{L}=\omega L_{\mathrm {ESL} }}
593:Figure 5: Solid tantalum cathode cross section.
59:. Because of its very thin and relatively high
4060:"Tantalum Capacitors for Medical Applications"
3279:in the dielectric by oxidation or evaporation
673:
4260:
4258:
4084:Harold M. Graves, Susan Daniel Tripp (1980).
3124:or 1 failure per 10 hours at 85 °C and U
3028:
2251:ESR influences the remaining superimposed AC
1635:
1488:
1368:electrolyte mounted in a pure tantalum case.
5317:
5109:
3023:
1977:{\displaystyle X_{C}=-{\frac {1}{\omega C}}}
1778:) is as important as the capacitance value.
1493:
5362:
4732:
4730:
4710:
4708:
4706:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4218:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4180:
3159:Those using manganese dioxide electrolytes
3062:Reliability engineering#Reliability testing
519:available tantalum powders (see Figure 3).
5311:
4323:
4321:
4255:
4228:. 4. Auflage. Roederstein, Landshut 1991,
3364:using a series resistance of 3 Ω/V or
1565:Capacitance standard values and tolerances
1331:
393:of the capacitor, with the oxide layer of
5327:
5133:
5131:
4814:
4394:
4392:
4309:
4307:
4208:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4142:
4140:
3566:International Electrotechnical Commission
3371:
2941:
2884:
2273:, in the relevant data sheets instead of
2166:, in which the both reactive resistances
701:Dimensioning of a tantalum chip capacitor
5193:
4727:
4703:
4282:
4177:
3480:
3307:
3296:The field crystallization followed by a
3179:Failure modes and self-healing mechanism
3032:
2723:
2475:{\displaystyle P_{L}=I_{R}^{2}\cdot ESR}
2377:
1780:
1735:
1639:
1497:
1428:
1335:
696:
604:
588:
534:
474:
445:
417:
251:
117:
26:
18:
4892:Kemet, Polymer Tantalum Chip Capacitors
4318:
4273:
4266:Electrocomponent Science and Technology
4057:
4035:Reliable Design of Electronic Equipment
3468:with DC-link for frequency controls in
3079:prediction is generally expressed in a
3067:The reliability normally is shown in a
633:Different styles of tantalum capacitors
5398:
5128:
5022:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
4557:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
4389:
4304:
4199:
4137:
3450:
1764:, the capacitors work additionally as
4125:
3508:
1382:Electrolytic capacitor § History
5370:Choosing and Using Bypass Capacitors
3459:
3376:
3351:
2832:with the value of the rated voltage
2784:for different kinds of electrolytes
2711:Current surge, peak or pulse current
1900:is specified, and simply written as
1694:
108:
47:. It consists of a pellet of porous
5322:. Vol. 2. pp. 1129–1137.
4803:
4400:Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
3476:
3238:by reduction of the electrolyte MnO
2789: non solid, high water content
2256:
13:
3551:
3544:December. "X5" is then "2009, May"
3252:if current availability is limited
2946:
2929:
2914:
2899:
2893:
2888:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2719:
2530:
2127:
2106:
2035:
2032:
2029:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1702:
1523:, the resistance representing the
1514:, the capacitance of the capacitor
656:Tantalum "pearls" for PCB mounting
597:
113:
14:
5417:
5377:
4212:VISHAY, DC Leakage Failure Mode,
3572:, non-governmental international
3166:Those using polymer electrolytes
2983:, "soakage" or "battery action".
2373:
2366:) which represents a resonator's
1616:, tolerance ±10%, letter code "K"
1609:, tolerance ±20%, letter code "M"
1602:, tolerance ±20%, letter code "M"
539:Figure 4: Manganese dioxide layer
5383:
3959:
3410:
3403:
3396:
3389:
3152:Those using liquid electrolytes
2295:. If the capacitor's inductance
2224:
2212:
2203:ESR and dissipation factor tan δ
1685:
661:
649:
637:
409:Materials, production and styles
373:
361:
349:
76:aluminum electrolytic capacitors
5300:
5282:
5264:
5246:
5222:
5205:
5182:
5171:
5160:
5142:
5091:
5072:
5060:
5048:
5030:
4984:
4973:
4955:
4946:
4934:
4908:
4896:
4885:
4868:
4857:
4845:
4833:
4791:
4779:
4768:
4749:
4680:
4668:
4659:
4650:
4639:
4620:
4600:
4589:
4565:
4519:
4501:
4490:
4472:
4463:
4454:
4443:
4434:
4425:
4414:
4405:
4377:
4351:
4340:
4238:
4058:Geismar, Lizzie (Sep 1, 2017).
3990:List of capacitor manufacturers
3975:Aluminum electrolytic capacitor
3622:
3170:have a life time specification.
3163:have a life time specification.
3090:The reciprocal value of FIT is
2968:Dielectric absorption (soakage)
2248:in the dielectric oxide layer.
37:tantalum electrolytic capacitor
4363:. Springer. 13 December 2021.
4166:
4152:
4100:
4077:
4051:
4026:
4005:Solid aluminum capacitor (SAL)
3633:non-governmental organizations
3382:Electrolytic capacitor symbols
3268:Deterioration of conductivity,
2137:
2133:
2115:
2097:
1987:and by an inductive reactance
1830:
1820:
16:Type of electrolytic capacitor
1:
5368:Tamara Schmitz and Mike Wong
5272:"Welcome to the IEC Webstore"
4020:
3234:Thermally induced insulating
614:Styles of tantalum capacitors
470:
4268:, 1976, Vol. 3. pp. 171–179
3501:terminal that is so marked.
3257:Series resistance 3 Ω/V
3236:of faults in the dielectric
3135:
2496:over the capacitors surface
2399:switched-mode power supplies
2238:equivalent series resistance
1927:, by a capacitive reactance
1731:
1551:equivalent series inductance
1538:equivalent series resistance
1443:equivalent series resistance
7:
3952:
3056:in production-accompanying
2500:and the thermal resistance
674:Chip capacitors (case size)
479:Figure 3: Dielectric layer.
10:
5422:
4226:Der Elektrolyt-Kondensator
4112:Advanced Refractory Metals
3281:of the polymer electrolyte
3092:mean time between failures
3029:Reliability (failure rate)
2971:
2820:Reliability (failure rate)
2393:A "ripple current" is the
1636:Rated and category voltage
1489:Electrical characteristics
1379:
1375:
530:
422:Figure 1: Tantalum powder
5038:"KEMET – A YAGEO Company"
3876:Samsung Electro-Mechanics
3654:
3651:
3638:
3357:manufacturers recommend:
3265:solid polymer electrolyte
3024:Reliability and life time
2284:from inductive reactance
1494:Series-equivalent circuit
668:Axial tantalum capacitors
450:Figure 2: Sintered anode.
260:and with a separation of
43:, a passive component of
4037:. Springer. p. 21.
4010:Surface-mount technology
3980:Coltan mining and ethics
3597:sectional specifications
3195:electrolytic capacitors
2795: non solid, organic
2757:{\displaystyle I_{leak}}
1581:or nominal capacitance C
1412:Sprague Electric Company
644:Tantalum chip capacitors
413:
5338:10.1109/IAS.1998.730289
5234:West Florida Components
3920:
3464:Some applications like
2384:half-wave rectification
2350:The dissipation factor
2162:In the special case of
1652:" or "nominal voltage U
1332:Wet tantalum capacitors
3985:Electrolytic capacitor
3574:standards organization
3486:
3372:Additional information
3328:
3041:
2995:Dielectric Absorption
2954:
2803:
2778:
2764:as a function of time
2758:
2697:
2552:
2476:
2390:
2341:
2152:
2045:
1978:
1887:
1786:
1749:
1656:". The rated voltage U
1645:
1503:
1434:
1341:
702:
610:
594:
540:
480:
451:
427:
312:
265:
176:Tantalum pentoxide, Ta
123:
41:electrolytic capacitor
32:
24:
4484:www.computerposter.ch
4064:Medical Design Briefs
3585:Generic specification
3484:
3311:
3277:Insulating of faults
3273:Field crystallization
3255:Voltage derating 50%
3230:Field crystallization
3036:
2981:dielectric relaxation
2974:Dielectric absorption
2955:
2779:
2759:
2727:
2698:
2553:
2477:
2381:
2342:
2180:have the same value (
2153:
2046:
1979:
1888:
1789:The impedance is the
1784:
1760:applications like in
1739:
1643:
1501:
1432:
1339:
700:
608:
592:
538:
478:
449:
440:volumetric efficiency
421:
389:into a pellet as the
313:
255:
207:Niobium pentoxide, Nb
121:
103:measuring instruments
30:
22:
5392:at Wikimedia Commons
5154:www.elna-america.com
3338:manganese(III) oxide
3298:dielectric breakdown
3284:Voltage derating 20%
3200:electrical behavior
2846:
2801: solid, polymer
2768:
2732:
2588:
2511:
2429:
2306:
2065:
2004:
1940:
1915:, and an inductance
1804:
283:
89:that require stable
5390:Tantalum capacitors
5150:"ELNA AMERICA, INC"
3655:Available versions
3648:
3451:Parallel connection
3189:
2988:
2459:
1612:rated capacitance,
1605:rated capacitance,
1598:rated capacitance,
1454:conducting polymers
1452:The development of
707:
135:
45:electronic circuits
5103:2013-09-15 at the
5085:2013-12-24 at the
4827:2016-01-26 at the
4762:2014-12-14 at the
4743:2014-12-14 at the
4721:2015-01-09 at the
4633:2016-03-04 at the
4614:2014-12-14 at the
4585:on August 8, 2014.
4513:2014-12-14 at the
4334:2016-01-24 at the
4224:K. H. Thiesbürger:
4015:Types of capacitor
3967:Electronics portal
3933:which provide low
3931:ceramic capacitors
3646:
3509:Imprinted markings
3487:
3329:
3320:into insulating Mn
3243:into insulating Mn
3187:
3050:stochastic process
3042:
2992:Type of capacitor
2986:
2950:
2808:DC leakage current
2804:
2774:
2754:
2693:
2571:thermal conduction
2548:
2472:
2445:
2391:
2337:
2326:
2267:dissipation factor
2148:
2041:
1974:
1883:
1787:
1750:
1664:(IEC/EN 60384-1).
1646:
1504:
1435:
1342:
705:
703:
611:
595:
541:
499:2 Ta → 2 Ta + 10 e
481:
452:
428:
395:tantalum pentoxide
308:
266:
133:
124:
99:power supply units
87:electronic devices
33:
25:
5388:Media related to
4370:978-3-030-89514-3
4000:Polymer capacitor
3995:Niobium capacitor
3918:
3917:
3722:Cornell-Dubillier
3629:conflict minerals
3470:three-phase grids
3460:Series connection
3448:
3447:
3377:Capacitor symbols
3352:Failure avoidance
3289:
3288:
3007:
3006:
2903:
2777:{\displaystyle t}
2691:
2563:thermal radiation
2356:resonant circuits
2325:
2246:dielectric losses
2146:
1972:
1878:
1835:
1833:
1823:
1695:Transient voltage
1398:Bell Laboratories
1324:
1323:
550:manganese dioxide
546:manganese nitrate
502:2 Ta + 10 OH → Ta
306:
230:
229:
109:Basic information
72:conflict resource
5413:
5387:
5372:
5366:
5360:
5359:
5331:
5315:
5309:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5286:
5280:
5279:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5250:
5244:
5243:
5241:
5240:
5226:
5220:
5219:
5217:
5209:
5203:
5197:
5191:
5186:
5180:
5175:
5169:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5146:
5140:
5135:
5126:
5120:
5107:
5095:
5089:
5076:
5070:
5064:
5058:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5034:
5028:
5027:
5021:
5013:
5011:
5010:
5004:
4998:. Archived from
4997:
4988:
4982:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4959:
4953:
4950:
4944:
4938:
4932:
4931:
4929:
4928:
4919:. Archived from
4912:
4906:
4900:
4894:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4880:
4872:
4866:
4861:
4855:
4849:
4843:
4837:
4831:
4818:
4812:
4807:
4801:
4795:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4772:
4766:
4753:
4747:
4734:
4725:
4712:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4684:
4678:
4672:
4666:
4663:
4657:
4654:
4648:
4643:
4637:
4624:
4618:
4604:
4598:
4593:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4578:. Archived from
4577:
4569:
4563:
4562:
4556:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4539:
4533:. Archived from
4532:
4523:
4517:
4505:
4499:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4476:
4470:
4467:
4461:
4458:
4452:
4447:
4441:
4438:
4432:
4429:
4423:
4418:
4412:
4409:
4403:
4396:
4387:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4355:
4349:
4344:
4338:
4325:
4316:
4311:
4302:
4297:
4280:
4277:
4271:
4262:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4242:
4236:
4222:
4216:
4210:
4197:
4188:
4175:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4156:
4150:
4144:
4135:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4104:
4098:
4097:
4081:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4030:
3969:
3964:
3963:
3649:
3645:
3615:IEC/EN 60384-24—
3609:IEC/EN 60384-15—
3477:Polarity marking
3466:AC/AC converters
3414:
3407:
3400:
3393:
3386:
3385:
3263:Tantalum e-caps
3218:Tantalum e-caps
3190:
3186:
2989:
2985:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2949:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2904:
2902:
2891:
2886:
2880:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2763:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2689:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2605:
2600:
2599:
2579:Fourier analysis
2557:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2526:
2525:
2504:to the ambient.
2481:
2479:
2478:
2473:
2458:
2453:
2441:
2440:
2346:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2327:
2323:
2228:
2216:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2075:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2016:
2015:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1960:
1952:
1951:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1826:
1824:
1816:
1814:
1527:of the capacitor
1466:Hideki Shirakawa
1416:Preston Robinson
1358:silver migration
708:
704:
665:
653:
641:
495:are as follows:
434:metal. A common
377:
365:
353:
317:
315:
314:
309:
307:
299:
164:Dielectric layer
136:
132:
5421:
5420:
5416:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5411:
5410:
5396:
5395:
5380:
5375:
5367:
5363:
5348:
5329:10.1.1.369.4789
5316:
5312:
5305:
5301:
5288:
5287:
5283:
5276:webstore.iec.ch
5270:
5269:
5265:
5252:
5251:
5247:
5238:
5236:
5228:
5227:
5223:
5215:
5211:
5210:
5206:
5198:
5194:
5187:
5183:
5176:
5172:
5165:
5161:
5148:
5147:
5143:
5136:
5129:
5121:
5110:
5105:Wayback Machine
5096:
5092:
5087:Wayback Machine
5077:
5073:
5065:
5061:
5053:
5049:
5036:
5035:
5031:
5015:
5014:
5008:
5006:
5002:
4995:
4993:"Archived copy"
4991:
4989:
4985:
4978:
4974:
4961:
4960:
4956:
4951:
4947:
4939:
4935:
4926:
4924:
4915:
4913:
4909:
4901:
4897:
4890:
4886:
4878:
4874:
4873:
4869:
4862:
4858:
4850:
4846:
4838:
4834:
4829:Wayback Machine
4819:
4815:
4808:
4804:
4796:
4792:
4784:
4780:
4773:
4769:
4764:Wayback Machine
4754:
4750:
4745:Wayback Machine
4735:
4728:
4723:Wayback Machine
4713:
4704:
4696:
4692:
4685:
4681:
4673:
4669:
4664:
4660:
4655:
4651:
4644:
4640:
4635:Wayback Machine
4625:
4621:
4616:Wayback Machine
4605:
4601:
4594:
4590:
4582:
4575:
4571:
4570:
4566:
4550:
4549:
4543:
4541:
4537:
4530:
4528:"Archived copy"
4526:
4524:
4520:
4515:Wayback Machine
4506:
4502:
4495:
4491:
4478:
4477:
4473:
4468:
4464:
4459:
4455:
4448:
4444:
4439:
4435:
4430:
4426:
4419:
4415:
4410:
4406:
4397:
4390:
4382:
4378:
4371:
4357:
4356:
4352:
4345:
4341:
4336:Wayback Machine
4326:
4319:
4312:
4305:
4298:
4283:
4278:
4274:
4263:
4256:
4248:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4223:
4219:
4211:
4200:
4189:
4178:
4171:
4167:
4158:
4157:
4153:
4145:
4138:
4130:
4126:
4116:
4114:
4106:
4105:
4101:
4082:
4078:
4068:
4066:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4031:
4027:
4023:
3965:
3958:
3955:
3927:sample and hold
3923:
3693:
3688:
3686:
3683:Axial-solid-MnO
3679:
3677:
3670:
3665:
3663:
3641:
3625:
3603:IEC/EN 60384-3—
3554:
3552:Standardization
3511:
3479:
3462:
3453:
3443:
3441:
3436:
3434:
3429:
3427:
3422:
3420:
3379:
3374:
3354:
3347:
3343:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3285:
3280:
3278:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3258:
3256:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3212:
3207:
3199:
3194:
3181:
3138:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3108:
3100:
3086:
3058:endurance tests
3031:
3026:
3018:sample-and-hold
2976:
2970:
2942:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2892:
2887:
2885:
2876:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2837:
2830:
2815:
2802:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2739:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2722:
2720:Leakage current
2713:
2685:
2678:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2663:
2656:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2641:
2634:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2619:
2612:
2608:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2595:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2518:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2494:
2454:
2449:
2436:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2420:
2409:
2376:
2321:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2289:
2282:
2257:#ripple current
2232:
2229:
2220:
2217:
2205:
2189:
2185:
2178:
2171:
2140:
2136:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2088:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2011:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1992:
1964:
1959:
1947:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1840:
1825:
1815:
1813:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1747:
1743:
1734:
1705:
1703:Reverse voltage
1697:
1688:
1675:
1671:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1638:
1584:
1580:
1567:
1548:
1535:
1525:leakage current
1522:
1496:
1491:
1462:Alan MacDiarmid
1421:
1384:
1378:
1334:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
676:
669:
666:
657:
654:
645:
642:
616:
600:
598:Production flow
571:
567:
563:
559:
533:
513:
509:
505:
473:
436:figure of merit
416:
411:
381:
378:
369:
366:
357:
354:
342:
298:
284:
281:
280:
270:plate capacitor
214:
210:
203:
183:
179:
167:
165:
160:
158:
153:
148:
140:
116:
114:Basic principle
111:
95:leakage current
17:
12:
11:
5:
5419:
5409:
5408:
5394:
5393:
5379:
5378:External links
5376:
5374:
5373:
5361:
5346:
5310:
5299:
5281:
5263:
5245:
5221:
5204:
5192:
5181:
5170:
5159:
5141:
5127:
5108:
5090:
5071:
5059:
5047:
5029:
4983:
4972:
4954:
4945:
4933:
4907:
4895:
4884:
4867:
4856:
4844:
4832:
4813:
4802:
4790:
4778:
4767:
4748:
4726:
4702:
4690:
4679:
4667:
4658:
4649:
4638:
4619:
4599:
4588:
4564:
4518:
4500:
4489:
4471:
4462:
4453:
4442:
4433:
4424:
4413:
4404:
4388:
4376:
4369:
4350:
4339:
4317:
4303:
4281:
4272:
4254:
4237:
4217:
4198:
4176:
4165:
4151:
4136:
4124:
4099:
4076:
4050:
4043:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3954:
3951:
3922:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3903:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3890:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3872:
3871:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3846:
3843:
3840:
3837:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3802:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3777:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3730:
3727:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3705:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3694:MIL-PRF-39006
3690:
3684:
3681:
3675:
3672:
3667:
3661:
3657:
3656:
3653:
3640:
3637:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3613:
3607:
3593:
3592:
3553:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3510:
3507:
3478:
3475:
3461:
3458:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3442:electrolytic-
3438:
3431:
3424:
3416:
3415:
3408:
3401:
3394:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3353:
3350:
3345:
3341:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3287:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3271:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3239:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3203:Failure modes
3201:
3196:
3180:
3177:
3172:
3171:
3164:
3157:
3137:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3106:
3098:
3084:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3005:
3004:
3001:
2997:
2996:
2993:
2972:Main article:
2969:
2966:
2961:
2960:
2948:
2945:
2940:
2937:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2911:
2907:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2890:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2852:
2835:
2828:
2813:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2773:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2742:
2738:
2721:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2704:
2703:
2688:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2666:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2644:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2622:
2615:
2611:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2559:
2558:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2492:
2483:
2482:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2418:
2407:
2375:
2374:Ripple current
2372:
2360:quality factor
2348:
2347:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2287:
2280:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2201:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2010:
1990:
1985:
1984:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1930:
1894:
1893:
1882:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1845:
1839:
1832:
1829:
1822:
1819:
1812:
1809:
1762:power supplies
1745:
1741:
1733:
1730:
1726:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1704:
1701:
1696:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1637:
1634:
1618:
1617:
1610:
1603:
1582:
1578:
1566:
1563:
1555:
1554:
1546:
1541:
1533:
1528:
1520:
1515:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1458:Alan J. Heeger
1419:
1380:Main article:
1377:
1374:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1166:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
988:
984:
983:
980:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
958:
957:
954:
951:
948:
945:
942:
939:
936:
932:
931:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
910:
906:
905:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
884:
880:
879:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
861:
858:
854:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
828:
827:
824:
821:
818:
815:
812:
809:
806:
802:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
786:
783:
780:
776:
775:
772:
769:
766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
750:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
714:
675:
672:
671:
670:
667:
660:
658:
655:
648:
646:
643:
636:
634:
630:
629:
626:
623:
615:
612:
599:
596:
573:
572:
569:
565:
561:
557:
532:
529:
516:
515:
511:
507:
503:
500:
472:
469:
438:for comparing
415:
412:
410:
407:
383:
382:
379:
372:
370:
367:
360:
358:
355:
348:
346:
341:
338:
319:
318:
305:
302:
297:
294:
291:
288:
228:
227:
224:
221:
218:
215:
212:
208:
205:
199:
198:
195:
192:
187:
184:
181:
177:
174:
170:
169:
162:
155:
150:
145:
142:
115:
112:
110:
107:
70:Tantalum is a
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5418:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5391:
5386:
5382:
5381:
5371:
5365:
5357:
5353:
5349:
5347:0-7803-4943-1
5343:
5339:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5321:
5314:
5308:
5303:
5295:
5291:
5285:
5277:
5273:
5267:
5259:
5255:
5249:
5235:
5231:
5225:
5214:
5208:
5202:
5196:
5190:
5185:
5179:
5174:
5168:
5163:
5155:
5151:
5145:
5139:
5134:
5132:
5125:
5119:
5117:
5115:
5113:
5106:
5102:
5099:
5094:
5088:
5084:
5081:
5075:
5069:
5063:
5057:
5051:
5043:
5042:www.kemet.com
5039:
5033:
5025:
5019:
5005:on 2014-12-14
5001:
4994:
4987:
4981:
4976:
4968:
4967:everyspec.com
4964:
4958:
4949:
4943:
4937:
4923:on 2010-01-23
4922:
4918:
4911:
4905:
4899:
4893:
4888:
4877:
4871:
4865:
4860:
4854:
4848:
4842:
4836:
4830:
4826:
4823:
4817:
4811:
4806:
4800:
4794:
4788:
4782:
4776:
4771:
4765:
4761:
4758:
4752:
4746:
4742:
4739:
4733:
4731:
4724:
4720:
4717:
4711:
4709:
4707:
4700:
4694:
4688:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4662:
4653:
4647:
4642:
4636:
4632:
4629:
4623:
4617:
4613:
4610:
4603:
4597:
4592:
4581:
4574:
4568:
4560:
4554:
4540:on 2014-08-08
4536:
4529:
4522:
4516:
4512:
4509:
4504:
4498:
4493:
4485:
4481:
4475:
4466:
4457:
4451:
4446:
4437:
4428:
4422:
4417:
4408:
4401:
4395:
4393:
4386:
4380:
4372:
4366:
4362:
4361:
4354:
4348:
4343:
4337:
4333:
4330:
4324:
4322:
4315:
4310:
4308:
4301:
4296:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4276:
4270:
4267:
4261:
4259:
4247:
4241:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4221:
4215:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4203:
4196:
4193:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4174:
4169:
4161:
4155:
4149:
4143:
4141:
4134:
4128:
4113:
4109:
4103:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4080:
4065:
4061:
4054:
4046:
4044:9783319091105
4040:
4036:
4029:
4025:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3968:
3962:
3957:
3950:
3948:
3943:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3913:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3891:
3888:
3885:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3869:
3866:
3863:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3844:
3841:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3744:Exxelia Group
3742:
3741:
3737:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3697:
3691:
3689:MIL-PRF-39003
3682:
3673:
3668:
3659:
3658:
3652:Manufacturer
3650:
3644:
3636:
3634:
3630:
3618:
3614:
3612:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3590:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3549:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3522:
3519:
3515:
3506:
3502:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3483:
3474:
3471:
3467:
3457:
3439:
3435:electrolytic
3432:
3428:electrolytic
3425:
3421:electrolytic
3418:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3406:
3402:
3399:
3395:
3392:
3388:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3358:
3349:
3339:
3333:
3310:
3306:
3304:
3303:short circuit
3299:
3293:
3283:
3276:
3272:
3270:ESR increases
3267:
3262:
3261:
3254:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3217:
3216:
3210:
3205:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3191:
3185:
3176:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3143:
3133:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3095:
3093:
3088:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3070:
3069:bathtub curve
3065:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3039:
3038:Bathtub curve
3035:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3012:
3011:time-constant
3003:2 to 3%, 10%
3002:
2999:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2984:
2982:
2975:
2965:
2943:
2938:
2935:
2924:
2920:
2909:
2905:
2896:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2850:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2831:
2823:
2821:
2816:
2809:
2771:
2749:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2726:
2717:
2708:
2686:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2664:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2642:
2635:
2631:
2625:
2620:
2613:
2609:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2527:
2522:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2414:
2411:is caused by
2410:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2227:
2222:
2215:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2179:
2172:
2165:
2141:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2101:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2071:
2068:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2008:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1911:, a resistor
1910:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1880:
1861:
1843:
1837:
1827:
1817:
1810:
1807:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1783:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1738:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1700:
1692:
1686:Surge voltage
1683:
1680:
1677:
1665:
1642:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1587:
1575:
1573:
1562:
1561:/EN 60384-1.
1560:
1552:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1500:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1383:
1373:
1369:
1367:
1366:sulfuric acid
1363:
1359:
1354:
1352:
1351:sulfuric acid
1346:
1338:
1326:
1325:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1271:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
985:
981:
978:
975:
972:
969:
966:
963:
960:
959:
955:
952:
949:
946:
943:
940:
937:
934:
933:
929:
926:
923:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
907:
903:
900:
897:
894:
891:
888:
885:
882:
881:
877:
874:
871:
868:
865:
862:
859:
856:
855:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
830:
829:
825:
822:
819:
816:
813:
810:
807:
804:
803:
799:
796:
793:
790:
787:
784:
781:
778:
777:
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
758:
755:
752:
751:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
709:
699:
695:
692:
689:
685:
681:
664:
659:
652:
647:
640:
635:
632:
631:
627:
624:
621:
620:
619:
607:
603:
591:
587:
585:
581:
576:
555:
554:
553:
551:
547:
537:
528:
524:
520:
501:
498:
497:
496:
494:
490:
486:
477:
468:
466:
461:
458:
448:
444:
441:
437:
433:
425:
420:
406:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
376:
371:
364:
359:
352:
347:
344:
343:
337:
335:
330:
326:
324:
303:
300:
295:
292:
289:
286:
279:
278:
277:
275:
271:
263:
259:
254:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
225:
222:
219:
216:
206:
204:Niobium oxide
201:
200:
196:
193:
191:
188:
185:
175:
172:
171:
163:
156:
151:
149:permittivity
146:
143:
138:
137:
131:
129:
120:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
83:
79:
77:
73:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
29:
21:
5364:
5319:
5313:
5302:
5294:www.beuth.de
5293:
5284:
5275:
5266:
5257:
5248:
5237:. Retrieved
5233:
5224:
5207:
5195:
5184:
5173:
5162:
5153:
5144:
5093:
5074:
5062:
5050:
5041:
5032:
5007:. Retrieved
5000:the original
4986:
4975:
4966:
4957:
4948:
4936:
4925:. Retrieved
4921:the original
4910:
4898:
4887:
4870:
4859:
4847:
4835:
4816:
4805:
4793:
4781:
4770:
4751:
4693:
4682:
4670:
4661:
4652:
4641:
4622:
4602:
4591:
4580:the original
4567:
4542:. Retrieved
4535:the original
4521:
4503:
4492:
4483:
4480:"Startseite"
4474:
4465:
4456:
4445:
4436:
4427:
4416:
4407:
4399:
4379:
4359:
4353:
4342:
4275:
4265:
4240:
4225:
4220:
4168:
4154:
4127:
4115:. Retrieved
4111:
4102:
4085:
4079:
4067:. Retrieved
4063:
4053:
4034:
4028:
3944:
3924:
3642:
3626:
3623:Tantalum ore
3616:
3610:
3604:
3596:
3594:
3584:
3578:
3555:
3547:
3535:
3531:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3503:
3498:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3463:
3454:
3381:
3380:
3355:
3334:
3330:
3294:
3290:
3211:Application
3206:Self-healing
3182:
3173:
3167:
3160:
3153:
3146:service life
3139:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3104:
3096:
3089:
3081:failure rate
3074:
3066:
3054:failure rate
3043:
3008:
2979:also called
2977:
2962:
2833:
2826:
2824:
2811:
2805:
2714:
2705:
2575:
2560:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2486:
2484:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2403:
2392:
2387:
2363:
2351:
2349:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2250:
2241:
2235:
2196:
2192:
2181:
2174:
2167:
2161:
2058:is given by
2055:
2053:
2000:
1988:
1986:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1895:
1788:
1775:
1751:
1727:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1698:
1689:
1681:
1678:
1666:
1647:
1619:
1588:
1576:
1568:
1556:
1543:
1530:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1483:
1479:
1451:
1447:
1436:
1424:
1409:
1406:
1395:
1392:
1388:Karol Pollak
1385:
1370:
1355:
1347:
1343:
1299:EIA 7361-438
693:
677:
617:
601:
577:
574:
542:
525:
521:
517:
482:
464:
462:
453:
429:
423:
384:
333:
331:
327:
320:
274:permittivity
269:
267:
261:
257:
243:conductivity
238:
234:
231:
128:valve metals
127:
125:
84:
80:
69:
61:permittivity
51:metal as an
36:
34:
3669:Ta-Polymer-
3433:Polarized-
3426:Polarized-
3419:Polarized-
3224:electrolyte
3077:reliability
3046:reliability
3014:integrators
1630:oscillators
1470:polypyrrole
1273:EIA 7361-38
1247:EIA 7360-38
1221:EIA 7343-43
1195:EIA 7343-40
1169:EIA 7343-31
1143:EIA 7343-30
1117:EIA 7343-20
1091:EIA 7343-15
1065:EIA 6032-28
1039:EIA 6032-20
1013:EIA 6032-15
987:EIA 3528-21
961:EIA 3528-15
935:EIA 3528-12
909:EIA 3216-18
883:EIA 3216-12
857:EIA 3216-10
831:EIA 2012-15
805:EIA 2012-12
779:EIA 1608-10
753:EIA 1608-08
489:anodization
144:Dielectric
91:capacitance
65:capacitance
5406:Capacitors
5258:www.iec.ch
5254:"Homepage"
5239:2023-04-11
5009:2015-01-02
4927:2010-01-26
4544:2015-01-02
4021:References
3788:NCC-Matsuo
3692:Axial-Wet-
3581:capacitors
3570:non-profit
3562:electronic
3558:electrical
3521:Examples:
3444:capacitor
3208:mechanism
3198:Long-term
2567:convection
2291:, and the
1996:Inductance
1758:decoupling
1614:E12 series
1572:microfarad
1402:transistor
746:Case Code
741:Case Code
736:Case Code
485:dielectric
471:Dielectric
399:dielectric
323:nanometers
202:Niobium or
166:thickness
154:structure
5324:CiteSeerX
4234:313492506
3947:filtering
3939:reactance
3810:NEC/Tokin
3671:SMD-Chips
3666:SMD-Chips
3568:(IEC), a
3437:capacitor
3430:capacitor
3423:capacitor
3220:solid MnO
3142:life time
3136:Life time
2944:μ
2921:⋅
2906:⋅
2897:⋅
2546:β
2543:⋅
2537:⋅
2531:Δ
2461:⋅
2368:bandwidth
2332:ω
2329:⋅
2316:δ
2313:
2164:resonance
2119:−
2021:ω
1966:ω
1957:−
1831:^
1828:ı
1821:^
1773:impedance
1769:resistors
1732:Impedance
1626:bypassing
1622:filtering
1607:E6 series
1600:E3 series
1472:(PPy) or
711:EIA Code
582:and then
334:CV-volume
296:⋅
293:ε
235:non-solid
220:Amorphous
190:Amorphous
157:Breakdown
141:material
5400:Category
5356:17192531
5101:Archived
5083:Archived
5018:cite web
4825:Archived
4760:Archived
4741:Archived
4719:Archived
4631:Archived
4612:Archived
4553:cite web
4511:Archived
4332:Archived
4117:June 30,
4069:June 30,
3953:See also
3937:and low
3499:negative
3440:Bipolar
3193:Type of
3094:(MTBF).
1592:E series
1362:whiskers
731:EIA Code
580:graphite
457:sintered
432:tantalum
387:sintered
173:Tantalum
147:Relative
49:tantalum
4094:6686521
3631:. Some
3060:, see
1791:complex
1376:History
748:Vishay
721:W ± 0,2
716:L ± 0,2
531:Cathode
403:cathode
168:(nm/V)
161:(V/μm)
159:voltage
57:cathode
5354:
5344:
5326:
4573:"None"
4367:
4232:
4092:
4041:
3898:Vishay
3680:radial
3674:Ta-MnO
3660:Ta-MnO
3639:Market
3227:stable
3213:rules
3161:do not
3154:do not
2799:
2793:
2787:
2569:, and
2253:ripple
1754:timers
1574:(μF).
1549:, the
1536:, the
878:Q, A0
800:M, M0
733:inches
713:metric
584:silver
568:+ 2 NO
139:Anode-
93:, low
39:is an
5352:S2CID
5216:(PDF)
5003:(PDF)
4996:(PDF)
4879:(PDF)
4583:(PDF)
4576:(PDF)
4538:(PDF)
4531:(PDF)
4249:(PDF)
3766:Kemet
2352:tan δ
2271:tan δ
2054:Then
1795:phase
1744:and X
1474:PEDOT
1439:HP-35
743:Kemet
726:H max
564:→ MnO
556:Mn(NO
548:into
510:+ 5 H
493:anode
414:Anode
397:as a
391:anode
247:ionic
239:solid
152:Oxide
53:anode
5342:ISBN
5024:link
4559:link
4365:ISBN
4230:OCLC
4119:2024
4090:OCLC
4071:2024
4039:ISBN
3921:Uses
3854:ROHM
3560:and
3140:The
3075:The
3044:The
2814:leak
2806:The
2236:The
2173:and
1624:and
1521:leak
1464:and
1360:and
1311:2924
1285:2924
1259:2623
1233:2917
1207:2917
1181:2917
1155:2917
1129:2917
1103:2917
1077:2312
1051:2312
1025:2312
999:1210
973:1210
947:1210
921:1206
895:1206
869:1206
843:0805
837:1.35
834:2.05
817:0805
811:1.35
808:2.05
791:0603
788:1.05
785:0.85
765:0603
728:(mm)
723:(mm)
718:(mm)
483:The
237:and
226:2.5
197:1.7
5334:doi
5201:PDF
5124:PDF
5080:PDF
5068:PDF
4904:PDF
4853:PDF
4841:PDF
4822:PDF
4799:PDF
4787:PDF
4757:PDF
4738:PDF
4716:PDF
4699:PDF
4676:PDF
4628:PDF
4609:PDF
4385:PDF
4329:PDF
4214:PDF
4194:or
4192:PDF
4148:PDF
4133:PDF
3935:ESR
3832:NIC
3700:AVX
3340:(Mn
3016:or
2487:Δ T
2413:ESR
2395:RMS
2388:ESR
2324:ESR
2310:tan
2297:ESL
2293:ESR
2275:ESR
2242:ESR
2197:ESL
2193:ESR
1925:ESR
1917:ESL
1913:ESR
1902:"Z"
1898:|Z|
1776:"Z"
1742:ESL
1559:IEC
1547:ESL
1534:ESR
1456:by
1308:4.3
1305:6.1
1302:7.3
1282:3.8
1279:6.1
1276:7.3
1256:3.8
1253:6.0
1250:7.3
1230:4.3
1227:4.3
1224:7,3
1204:4.0
1201:4.3
1198:7.3
1178:3.1
1175:4.3
1172:7.3
1152:3.0
1149:4.3
1146:7.3
1126:2.0
1123:4.3
1120:7.3
1100:1.5
1097:4.3
1094:7.3
1074:2.8
1071:3.2
1068:6.0
1048:2.0
1045:3.2
1042:6.0
1022:1.5
1019:3.2
1016:6.0
996:2.1
993:2.8
990:3.5
970:1.5
967:2.8
964:3.5
944:1.2
941:2.8
938:3.5
918:1.8
915:1.6
912:3.2
892:1.2
889:1.6
886:3.2
866:1.0
863:1.6
860:3.2
840:1.5
814:1.2
782:1.6
762:0.8
759:0.8
756:1.6
738:AVX
688:ESR
684:EIA
680:SMD
426:/g.
245:is
223:400
194:625
5402::
5350:.
5340:.
5332:.
5292:.
5274:.
5256:.
5232:.
5152:.
5130:^
5111:^
5040:.
5020:}}
5016:{{
4965:.
4940:*
4729:^
4705:^
4555:}}
4551:{{
4482:.
4391:^
4320:^
4306:^
4284:^
4257:^
4201:^
4179:^
4139:^
4110:.
4062:.
3914:X
3892:—
3870:—
3848:—
3826:—
3804:X
3782:—
3760:X
3738:—
3716:X
3599::
3587::
3168:do
3144:,
3087:.
3064:.
2882:01
2822:.
2565:,
2493:th
2422:.
2370:.
2269:,
2186:=X
2051:.
1998:)
1766:AC
1632:.
1460:,
1414:.
1320:—
1294:—
1268:W
1242:E
1216:—
1190:D
1164:—
1138:V
1112:—
1086:C
1060:—
1034:—
1008:B
982:T
956:N
930:A
904:—
852:R
826:W
774:—
465:CV
424:CV
405:.
217:41
186:27
101:,
78:.
35:A
5358:.
5336::
5296:.
5278:.
5260:.
5242:.
5218:.
5156:.
5044:.
5026:)
5012:.
4969:.
4930:.
4881:.
4561:)
4547:.
4486:.
4373:.
4251:.
4162:.
4121:.
4096:.
4073:.
4047:.
3911:X
3908:X
3905:X
3902:X
3889:—
3886:—
3883:X
3880:X
3867:—
3864:—
3861:X
3858:X
3845:—
3842:—
3839:X
3836:X
3823:—
3820:—
3817:X
3814:X
3801:X
3798:X
3795:X
3792:X
3779:X
3776:X
3773:X
3770:X
3757:X
3754:X
3751:—
3748:X
3735:—
3732:—
3729:—
3726:X
3713:—
3710:X
3707:X
3704:X
3687:-
3685:2
3678:-
3676:2
3664:-
3662:2
3346:3
3344:O
3342:2
3326:3
3324:O
3322:2
3318:2
3314:2
3249:3
3247:O
3245:2
3240:2
3222:2
3130:R
3126:R
3122:R
3107:R
3099:R
3085:R
2947:A
2939:3
2936:+
2930:R
2925:C
2915:R
2910:U
2900:F
2894:V
2889:A
2878:.
2874:0
2871:=
2865:k
2862:a
2859:e
2856:L
2851:I
2836:R
2834:U
2829:R
2827:C
2812:R
2772:t
2750:k
2747:a
2744:e
2741:l
2737:I
2687:2
2680:n
2676:i
2670:+
2665:2
2658:3
2654:i
2648:+
2643:2
2636:2
2632:i
2626:+
2621:2
2614:1
2610:i
2602:=
2597:R
2593:I
2540:A
2534:T
2528:=
2523:h
2520:t
2516:P
2502:β
2498:A
2491:P
2470:R
2467:S
2464:E
2456:2
2451:R
2447:I
2443:=
2438:L
2434:P
2419:R
2417:I
2408:L
2406:P
2364:Q
2362:(
2335:C
2319:=
2288:L
2286:X
2281:C
2279:X
2240:(
2188:L
2184:C
2182:X
2177:L
2175:X
2170:C
2168:X
2158:.
2142:2
2138:)
2134:)
2128:L
2123:X
2116:(
2113:+
2107:C
2102:X
2098:(
2095:+
2090:2
2085:R
2082:S
2079:E
2072:=
2069:Z
2056:Z
2036:L
2033:S
2030:E
2025:L
2018:=
2013:L
2009:X
1994:(
1991:L
1989:X
1969:C
1962:1
1954:=
1949:C
1945:X
1931:C
1929:X
1921:ω
1909:C
1881:.
1873:f
1870:f
1867:e
1862:I
1855:f
1852:f
1849:e
1844:U
1838:=
1818:u
1811:=
1808:Z
1746:C
1674:C
1670:C
1662:R
1658:R
1654:N
1650:R
1583:N
1579:R
1544:L
1531:R
1518:R
1512:C
1420:2
1317:—
1314:U
1291:—
1288:V
1265:E
1262:—
1239:X
1236:E
1213:Y
1210:—
1187:D
1184:D
1161:—
1158:N
1135:V
1132:Y
1109:W
1106:X
1083:C
1080:C
1057:L
1054:F
1031:U
1028:W
1005:B
1002:B
979:M
976:H
953:T
950:T
927:A
924:A
901:S
898:S
875:I
872:K
849:—
846:P
823:R
820:R
797:—
794:L
771:—
768:—
570:2
566:2
562:2
560:)
558:3
514:O
512:2
508:5
506:O
504:2
304:d
301:A
290:=
287:C
264:.
262:d
258:A
213:5
211:O
209:2
182:5
180:O
178:2
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.