Particle accelerator

1907:, UHECRs) must have been producing them for eons, but they have yet to harm anybody. It has been argued that to conserve energy and momentum, any black holes created in a collision between an UHECR and local matter would necessarily be produced moving at relativistic speed with respect to the Earth, and should escape into space, as their accretion and growth rate should be very slow, while black holes produced in colliders (with components of equal mass) would have some chance of having a velocity less than Earth escape velocity, 11.2 km per sec, and would be liable to capture and subsequent growth. Yet even on such scenarios the collisions of UHECRs with white dwarfs and neutron stars would lead to their rapid destruction, but these bodies are observed to be common astronomical objects. Thus if stable micro black holes should be produced, they must grow far too slowly to cause any noticeable macroscopic effects within the natural lifetime of the solar system. 1466:. It accelerates electrons by recirculating them across the diameter of a cylinder-shaped radiofrequency cavity. A Rhodotron has an electron gun, which emits an electron beam that is attracted to a pillar in the center of the cavity. The pillar has holes the electrons can pass through. The electron beam passes through the pillar via one of these holes and then travels through a hole in the wall of the cavity, and meets a bending magnet, the beam is then bent and sent back into the cavity, to another hole in the pillar, the electrons then again go across the pillar and pass though another part of the wall of the cavity and into another bending magnet, and so on, gradually increasing the energy of the beam until it is allowed to exit the cavity for use. The cylinder and pillar may be lined with copper on the inside. 1948: 294: 1662:. Two circular synchrotrons are built in close proximity – usually on top of each other and using the same magnets (which are then of more complicated design to accommodate both beam tubes). Bunches of particles travel in opposite directions around the two accelerators and collide at intersections between them. This can increase the energy enormously; whereas in a fixed-target experiment the energy available to produce new particles is proportional to the square root of the beam energy, in a collider the available energy is linear. 682: 69: 1161: 271: 1053: 1683: 708: 877: 716:

through the potential difference, the output energy was limited to the accelerating voltage of the machine. While this method is still extremely popular today, with the electrostatic accelerators greatly out-numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for air insulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in a tank of pressurized gas with high

1260:. This is an accelerator in which the particles are accelerated in a ring of constant radius. An immediate advantage over cyclotrons is that the magnetic field need only be present over the actual region of the particle orbits, which is much narrower than that of the ring. (The largest cyclotron built in the US had a 184-inch-diameter (4.7 m) magnet pole, whereas the diameter of synchrotrons such as the 1738:

electrons or laser light either constitutes or immediately precedes the particles that are being accelerated. The pulse disrupts the plasma, causing the charged particles in the plasma to integrate into and move toward the rear of the bunch of particles that are being accelerated. This process transfers energy to the particle bunch, accelerating it further, and continues as long as the pulse is coherent.

1451: 1237: 42: 1296:, while the acceleration itself is accomplished in separate RF sections, rather similar to short linear accelerators. Also, there is no necessity that cyclic machines be circular, but rather the beam pipe may have straight sections between magnets where beams may collide, be cooled, etc. This has developed into an entire separate subject, called "beam physics" or "beam optics". 1133:), because the protons get out of phase with the driving electric field. If accelerated further, the beam would continue to spiral outward to a larger radius but the particles would no longer gain enough speed to complete the larger circle in step with the accelerating RF. To accommodate relativistic effects the magnetic field needs to be increased to higher radii as is done in 1316: 1442:, allows the beam to be accelerated with a high repetition rate but in a much smaller radial spread than in the cyclotron case. Isochronous FFAs, like isochronous cyclotrons, achieve continuous beam operation, but without the need for a huge dipole bending magnet covering the entire radius of the orbits. Some new developments in FFAs are covered in. 1895:, which began operation in 2008. The various possible dangerous scenarios have been assessed as presenting "no conceivable danger" in the latest risk assessment produced by the LHC Safety Assessment Group. If black holes are produced, it is theoretically predicted that such small black holes should evaporate extremely quickly via 1840:), can be inverted such that the same radiation mechanism leads to the acceleration of the particle (energy of the radiation field is transferred to kinetic energy of the particle). The opposite is also true, any acceleration mechanism can be inverted to deposit the energy of the particle into a decelerating field, like in a 978:) is that the ring topology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transit indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator). 858:. These machines, like synchrotrons, use a donut-shaped ring magnet (see below) with a cyclically increasing B field, but accelerate the particles by induction from the increasing magnetic field, as if they were the secondary winding in a transformer, due to the changing magnetic flux through the orbit. 1746:

could use electron-beam afterburners to greatly increase the energy of their particle beams, at the cost of beam intensity. Electron systems in general can provide tightly collimated, reliable beams; laser systems may offer more power and compactness. Thus, plasma wakefield accelerators could be used

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In modern synchrotrons, the beam aperture is small and the magnetic field does not cover the entire area of the particle orbit as it does for a cyclotron, so several necessary functions can be separated. Instead of one huge magnet, one has a line of hundreds of bending magnets, enclosing (or enclosed

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in Switzerland, which provides protons at the energy of 590 MeV which corresponds to roughly 80% of the speed of light. The advantage of such a cyclotron is the maximum achievable extracted proton current which is currently 2.2 mA. The energy and current correspond to 1.3 MW beam power

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Beams of high-energy particles are useful for fundamental and applied research in the sciences and also in many technical and industrial fields unrelated to fundamental research. There are approximately 30,000 accelerators worldwide; of these, only about 1% are research machines with energies above 1

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in an accelerator designed as a neutron source; or a tungsten target for an X-ray generator. In a linac, the target is simply fitted to the end of the accelerator. The particle track in a cyclotron is a spiral outwards from the centre of the circular machine, so the accelerated particles emerge from

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Advanced Accelerator Concepts encompasses methods of beam acceleration with gradients beyond state of the art in operational facilities. This includes diagnostics methods, timing technology, special needs for injectors, beam matching, beam dynamics and development of adequate simulations. Workshops

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would have had a circumference of 87 km. Construction was started in 1991, but abandoned in 1993. Very large circular accelerators are invariably built in tunnels a few metres wide to minimize the disruption and cost of building such a structure on the surface, and to provide shielding against

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Higher than 0.25 GeV/m gradients have been achieved by a dielectric laser accelerator, which may present another viable approach to building compact high-energy accelerators. Using femtosecond duration laser pulses, an electron accelerating gradient 0.69 GeV/m was recorded for dielectric

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is nearly 10 km. The aperture of the two beams of the LHC is of the order of a centimeter.) The LHC contains 16 RF cavities, 1232 superconducting dipole magnets for beam steering, and 24 quadrupoles for beam focusing. Even at this size, the LHC is limited by its ability to steer the particles

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Achieving constant orbital radius while supplying the proper accelerating electric field requires that the magnetic flux linking the orbit be somewhat independent of the magnetic field on the orbit, bending the particles into a constant radius curve. These machines have in practice been limited by

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Linear induction accelerators utilize ferrite-loaded, non-resonant induction cavities. Each cavity can be thought of as two large washer-shaped disks connected by an outer cylindrical tube. Between the disks is a ferrite toroid. A voltage pulse applied between the two disks causes an increasing

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Energy gradients as steep as 200 GeV/m have been achieved over millimeter-scale distances using laser pulsers and gradients approaching 1 GeV/m are being produced on the multi-centimeter-scale with electron-beam systems, in contrast to a limit of about 0.1 GeV/m for radio-frequency

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of magnets with a constant magnetic field, where they can continue to orbit for long periods for experimentation or further acceleration. The highest-energy machines such as the Tevatron and LHC are actually accelerator complexes, with a cascade of specialized elements in series, including linear

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Magnetic induction accelerators accelerate particles by induction from an increasing magnetic field, as if the particles were the secondary winding in a transformer. The increasing magnetic field creates a circulating electric field which can be configured to accelerate the particles. Induction

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fields) to accelerate particles. Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field. This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale

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Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the

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Historically, the first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to accelerate charged particles. The charged particle was accelerated through an evacuated tube with an electrode at either end, with the static potential across it. Since the particle passed only once

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time intervals. Higher energy particles travel a shorter distance in each orbit than they would in a classical cyclotron, thus remaining in phase with the accelerating field. The advantage of the isochronous cyclotron is that it can deliver continuous beams of higher average intensity, which is

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whereby the particles effectively become more massive, so that their cyclotron frequency drops out of sync with the accelerating RF. Therefore, simple cyclotrons can accelerate protons only to an energy of around 15 million electron volts (15 MeV, corresponding to a speed of roughly 10% of

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in the form of electron-beam "afterburners" and standalone laser pulsers might be able to provide dramatic increases in efficiency over RF accelerators within two to three decades. In plasma wakefield accelerators, the beam cavity is filled with a plasma (rather than vacuum). A short pulse of

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However, since the particle momentum increases during acceleration, it is necessary to turn up the magnetic field B in proportion to maintain constant curvature of the orbit. In consequence, synchrotrons cannot accelerate particles continuously, as cyclotrons can, but must operate cyclically,

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For cyclic electron accelerators, a limit on practical bend radius is placed by synchrotron radiation losses and the next generation will probably be linear accelerators 10 times the current length. An example of such a next generation electron accelerator is the proposed 40 km long

1121:. This means that the accelerating D's of a cyclotron can be driven at a constant frequency by a RF accelerating power source, as the beam spirals outwards continuously. The particles are injected in the center of the magnet and are extracted at the outer edge at their maximum energy. 751:, which uses a moving fabric belt to carry charge to the high voltage electrode. Although electrostatic accelerators accelerate particles along a straight line, the term linear accelerator is more often used for accelerators that employ oscillating rather than static electric fields. 3464:

England, R. Joel; Byer, Robert L.; Soong, Ken; Peralta, Edgar A.; Makasyuk, Igor V.; Hanuka, Adi; Cowan, Benjamin M.; Wu, Ziran; Wootton, Kent P. (2016-06-15). "Demonstration of acceleration of relativistic electrons at a dielectric microstructure using femtosecond laser pulses".

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is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of "bunches" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.

1631:. This makes it possible to operate multiple experiments without needing to move things around or shutting down the entire accelerator beam. Except for synchrotron radiation sources, the purpose of an accelerator is to generate high-energy particles for interaction with matter. 1717:

At present the highest energy accelerators are all circular colliders, but both hadron accelerators and electron accelerators are running into limits. Higher energy hadron and ion cyclic accelerators will require accelerator tunnels of larger physical size due to the increased

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Due to the high voltage ceiling imposed by electrical discharge, in order to accelerate particles to higher energies, techniques involving dynamic fields rather than static fields are used. Electrodynamic acceleration can arise from either of two mechanisms: non-resonant

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has a ring with a beam path of 4 miles (6.4 km). It has received several upgrades, and has functioned as a proton-antiproton collider until it was shut down due to budget cuts on September 30, 2011. The largest circular accelerator ever built was the

892:(linac), particles are accelerated in a straight line with a target of interest at one end. They are often used to provide an initial low-energy kick to particles before they are injected into circular accelerators. The longest linac in the world is the 254:. Because the target of the particle beams of early accelerators was usually the atoms of a piece of matter, with the goal being to create collisions with their nuclei in order to investigate nuclear structure, accelerators were commonly referred to as 1016:, in high-energy accelerators, as the energy increases the particle speed approaches the speed of light as a limit, but never attains it. Therefore, particle physicists do not generally think in terms of speed, but rather in terms of a particle's 1768:. The series of Advanced Accelerator Concepts Workshops, held in the US, started as an international series in 1982. The European Advanced Accelerator Concepts Workshop series started in 2019. Topics related to Advanced Accelerator Concepts: 1214:. In such a structure, the accelerating field's frequency (and the cyclotron resonance frequency) is kept constant for all energies by shaping the magnet poles so to increase magnetic field with radius. Thus, all particles get accelerated in 1308:

accelerators for initial beam creation, one or more low energy synchrotrons to reach intermediate energy, storage rings where beams can be accumulated or "cooled" (reducing the magnet aperture required and permitting tighter focusing; see

1248:. The Tevatron ring also contains Main Ring and a section of it is still used for downstream experiments. The Main Injector below (about half the diameter of the Tevatron) is for preliminary acceleration, beam cooling and storage, etc. 1915:

The use of advanced technologies such as superconductivity, cryogenics, and high powered radiofrequency amplifiers, as well as the presence of ionizing radiation, pose challenges for the safe operation of accelerator facilities. An

740:), and then passing the beam through a thin foil to strip electrons off the anions inside the high voltage terminal, converting them to cations (positively charged ions), which are accelerated again as they leave the terminal. 1646:

For synchrotrons, the situation is more complex. Particles are accelerated to the desired energy. Then, a fast acting dipole magnet is used to switch the particles out of the circular synchrotron tube and towards the target.

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For the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of matter, space, and time, physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the highest possible energies. These typically entail particle energies of many

1554:. It is still the largest linear accelerator in existence, and has been upgraded with the addition of storage rings and an electron-positron collider facility. It is also an X-ray and UV synchrotron photon source. 1219:

useful for some applications. The main disadvantages are the size and cost of the large magnet needed, and the difficulty in achieving the high magnetic field values required at the outer edge of the structure.

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frequency. This approach suffers from low average beam intensity due to the bunching, and again from the need for a huge magnet of large radius and constant field over the larger orbit demanded by high energy.

1341:'s linear particle accelerator was constructed, because their synchrotron losses were considered economically prohibitive and because their beam intensity was lower than for the unpulsed linear machines. The 811:

in the 1960s. Linear induction accelerators are capable of accelerating very high beam currents (>1000 A) in a single short pulse. They have been used to generate X-rays for flash radiography (e.g.

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Samer Banna, Valery Berezovsky, and Levi Schächter, Experimental Observation of Direct Particle Acceleration by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, Phys. Rev. Lett. ‘’’97’’’, 134801 – Published 28 September

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The detectors gather clues about the particles including their speed and charge. Using these, the scientists can actually work on the particle. The process of detection is very complex it requires strong

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to bend their path into a circular orbit. It is a characteristic property of charged particles in a uniform and constant magnetic field B that they orbit with a constant period, at a frequency called the

4093: 2336: 363:, which are composed of quarks and gluons. To study the collisions of quarks with each other, scientists resort to collisions of nucleons, which at high energy may be usefully considered as 2613:

Mak, Alan; Shamuilov, Georgii; Salén, Peter; Dunning, David; Hebling, János; Kida, Yuichiro; Kinjo, Ryota; McNeil, Brian W J; Tanaka, Takashi; Thompson, Neil; Tibai, Zoltán (2019-02-01).

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W. D. Kimura, G. H. Kim, R. D. Romea, et al, Laser Acceleration of Relativistic Electrons Using the Inverse Cherenkov Effect, Phys. Rev. Lett. ‘’’74’’’, 546 – Published 23 January 1995

1747:– if technical issues can be resolved – to both increase the maximum energy of the largest accelerators and to bring high energies into university laboratories and medical centres. 993:. As a particle traveling in a circle is always accelerating towards the center of the circle, it continuously radiates towards the tangent of the circle. This radiation is called 1480:

Ernest Lawrence's first cyclotron was a mere 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter. Later, in 1939, he built a machine with a 60-inch diameter pole face, and planned one with a

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the potential is used twice to accelerate the particles, by reversing the charge of the particles while they are inside the terminal. This is possible with the acceleration of

60:(Fermilab), Batavia, Illinois, USA. Shut down in 2011, until 2007 it was the most powerful particle accelerator in the world, accelerating protons to an energy of over 1 4086: 64:(tera electron volts). Beams of protons and antiprotons, circulating in opposite directions in the rear ring, collided at two magnetically induced intersection points. 1888: 1848:. This principle, which is also behind the plasma or dielectric wakefield accelerrators, led to a few other interesting developments in advanced accelerator concepts: 1580:(LHC). The LHC is a proton collider, and currently the world's largest and highest-energy accelerator, achieving 6.5 TeV energy per beam (13 TeV in total). 1345:, built at low cost in the late 1970s, was the first in a series of high-energy circular electron accelerators built for fundamental particle physics, the last being 2414: 1459: 367:

of the quarks and gluons of which they are composed. This elementary particle physicists tend to use machines creating beams of electrons, positrons, protons, and

4079: 4067:, to know more about applications of accelerators for Research and Development, energy and environment, health and medicine, industry, material characterization. 1924:, current intensity, and position on target. They communicate with and assist accelerator maintenance personnel to ensure readiness of support systems, such as 1200: 1454:

A diagram of a Rhodotron. The electron beam is in red. E is the electron gun, L is an electron lens, C is the radiofrequency cavity, and M is a bending magnet.

2248: 1773: 1550:, SLAC, became operational in 1966, accelerating electrons to 30 GeV in a 3 km long waveguide, buried in a tunnel and powered by hundreds of large 612:

voltage of a few thousand volts between them. In an X-ray generator, the target itself is one of the electrodes. A low-energy particle accelerator called an

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To reach still higher energies, with relativistic mass approaching or exceeding the rest mass of the particles (for protons, billions of electron volts or

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and cause them to collide head-on, creating center-of-mass energies of 13 TeV. There are more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world.

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Jongen, Y.; Abs, M.; Capdevila, J.M.; Defrise, D.; Genin, F.; Nguyen, A. (1994). "The Rhodotron, a new high-energy, high-power, CW electron accelerator".

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and depends highly on the mass of the accelerating particle. For this reason, many high energy electron accelerators are linacs. Certain accelerators (

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The output of a particle accelerator can generally be directed towards multiple lines of experiments, one at a given time, by means of a deviating

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In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they reach enough energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using

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Chamblin, A.; Nayak, G. C. (2002). "Black hole production at the CERN LHC: String balls and black holes from pp and lead-lead collisions".

1435: 1430: 1202:, but reduces the accelerating field's frequency so as to keep the particles in step as they spiral outward, matching their mass-dependent 2269: 1036:

of the particle trajectory is proportional to the particle charge and to the magnetic field, but inversely proportional to the (typically

4817: 487:. It has numerous uses in the study of atomic structure, chemistry, condensed matter physics, biology, and technology. A large number of 492: 155: 1535:" magnets, which greatly reduced the required aperture of the beam, and correspondingly the size and cost of the bending magnets. The 3100: 2496: 2001: 1481: 1475: 981:

Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, circular accelerators suffer a disadvantage in that the particles emit

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supplying particles in bunches, which are delivered to a target or an external beam in beam "spills" typically every few seconds.

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In the future, the possibility of a black hole production at the highest energy accelerators may arise if certain predictions of

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Efimov, S.P.; Korenev, I.L.; Yudin, L.A. (1990). "Resonances of electron beam focused by a helical quadrupole magnetic field".

359:, the simplest available experiments involve the interactions of, first, leptons with each other, and second, of leptons with 4043: 4015: 3929: 3886: 3237: 3211: 3185: 3104: 2866: 2810: 2389: 2354: 2232: 2149: 2099: 2067: 1558: 862:

the large radiative losses suffered by the electrons moving at nearly the speed of light in a relatively small radius orbit.

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and controls, and cooling systems. Additionally, the accelerator operator maintains a record of accelerator related events.

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As the particles approach the speed of light the switching rate of the electric fields becomes so high that they operate at

4812: 4781: 4726: 1566: 512: 496: 456:, usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of hydrogen, although this method still requires a reactor to produce 3380:

Peralta, E. A.; et al. (2013). "Demonstration of electron acceleration in a laser-driven dielectric microstructure".

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collider. It achieved an energy of 209 GeV before it was dismantled in 2000 so that the tunnel could be used for the

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Since high energy synchrotrons do most of their work on particles that are already traveling at nearly the speed of light

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by) vacuum connecting pipes. The design of synchrotrons was revolutionized in the early 1950s with the discovery of the

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W. D. Kimura, A. van Steenbergen, M. Babzien, et al, First Staging of Two Laser Accelerators, Physical Review Letters

3175: 2332: 413:, stripped of electrons, to investigate the structure, interactions, and properties of the nuclei themselves, and of 258:

in the 20th century. The term persists despite the fact that many modern accelerators create collisions between two

4827: 1896: 1528: 958:. The reliability, flexibility and accuracy of the radiation beam produced has largely supplanted the older use of 744: 1947: 1604: 1407: 881: 434: 169:

There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators.

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Jaffe, R.; Busza, W.; Sandweiss, J.; Wilczek, F. (2000). "Review of Speculative "Disaster Scenarios" at RHIC".

3227: 3201: 3040: 2021: 1841: 1584: 1504: 1383: 686: 631: 516: 465: 438: 180: 147: 35: 669:(Cs). Due to the higher dose rate, less exposure time is required and polymer degradation is reduced. Because 554: 4893: 1986: 1966: 1727: 1060: 132: 31: 17: 1764:

dedicated to this subject are being held in the US (alternating locations) and in Europe, mostly on Isola d'

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Synchrotron radiation is more powerfully emitted by lighter particles, so these accelerators are invariably

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at Berkeley, completed in 1954, was specifically designed to accelerate protons to enough energy to create

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DC accelerator types capable of accelerating particles to speeds sufficient to cause nuclear reactions are

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A classic cyclotron can be modified to increase its energy limit. The historically first approach was the

4649: 4278: 4052: 2273: 1996: 1991: 1976: 1719: 1547: 1391: 1108:. Cyclotrons have a single pair of hollow D-shaped plates to accelerate the particles and a single large 889: 871: 821: 539:, France, the latter has been used to extract detailed 3-dimensional images of insects trapped in amber. 298: 243: 73: 4881: 4736: 4709: 3203:

Reviews of Accelerator Science and Technology: Accelerator Applications in Industry and the Environment

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Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce proton-rich medical or research

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at extremely high temperatures and densities, such as might have occurred in the first moments of the

4766: 4619: 3806: 2945: 2676: 2342: 2083: 1816: 1596: 1365: 986: 761: 748: 581:, e.g. FELIX in Nijmegen, Netherlands, TELBE in Dresden, Germany and NovoFEL in Novosibirsk, Russia. 278: 212: 3973: 3655: 1337:

Circular electron accelerators fell somewhat out of favor for particle physics around the time that

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Christofilos, N.C.; et al. (1963). "High-current linear induction accelerator for electrons".

1981: 1353: 1332: 1057: 1056:

Lawrence's 60 inch cyclotron, with magnet poles 60 inches (5 feet, 1.5 meters) in diameter, at the

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Annotated bibliography for particle accelerators from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

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Hanuka, Adi; Schächter, Levi (2018-04-21). "Operation regimes of a dielectric laser accelerator".

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England, R. J.; Noble, R. J.; Fahimian, B.; Loo, B.; Abel, E.; Hanuka, Adi; Schachter, L. (2016).

3356: 318:, 9% for industrial processing and research, and 4% for biomedical and other low-energy research. 4644: 4438: 4071: 1971: 1138: 694: 639: 184: 4407: 4025: 954:. The electrons can be used directly or they can be collided with a target to produce a beam of 293: 4885: 4796: 4470: 4182: 1387: 500: 421:. These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nuclei – of atoms like 68: 2905: 2895: 2747: 2737: 2614: 1458:

A Rhodotron is an industrial electron accelerator first proposed in 1987 by J. Pottier of the

1244:(background ring) and Main Injector (foreground ring which is not actually circular) rings at 657:

are an on-off technology that provide a much higher dose rate than gamma or X-rays emitted by

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Cho, A. (June 2, 2006). "Aging Atom Smasher Runs All Out in Race for Most Coveted Particle".

2011: 1845: 1837: 1608: 1577: 1543:(1959–), was the first major European particle accelerator and generally similar to the AGS. 1463: 1417:

accelerators. Synchrotron radiation allows for better imaging as researched and developed at

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A 1960s single stage 2 MeV linear Van de Graaff accelerator, here opened for maintenance

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A large number of electron synchrotrons have been built in the past two decades, as part of

1280:, the time to complete one orbit of the ring is nearly constant, as is the frequency of the 4746: 4634: 4541: 3967: 3866: 3825: 3766: 3747: 3697: 3533: 3474: 3389: 3340: 3262: 3140: 3010: 2963: 2626: 2583: 2571: 2505: 2431: 2212: 2047: 1592:

intense secondary radiations that occur, which are extremely penetrating at high energies.

1438:, in which a magnetic field which is fixed in time, but with a radial variation to achieve 1379: 847: 528: 352: 200: 120: 8: 4863: 4741: 4654: 4192: 4139: 3778: 2346: 2006: 1961: 1858: 1852: 1805: 1793: 1734: 1203: 1114: 913: 905: 825: 721: 717: 578: 550: 542: 259: 4822: 3870: 3829: 3770: 3701: 3537: 3478: 3393: 3344: 3266: 3144: 3108: 3014: 2967: 2794:

Obsessed by a Dream: The Physicist Rolf Widerøe – a Giant in the History of Accelerators

2630: 2575: 2534: 2509: 2435: 2216: 2051: 1899:, but which is as yet experimentally unconfirmed. If colliders can produce black holes, 1531:(AGS) at Brookhaven (1960–) was the first large synchrotron with alternating gradient, " 242:

are considered pioneers of this field, having conceived and built the first operational

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controls the operation of a particle accelerator, adjusts operating parameters such as

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Some circular accelerators have been built to deliberately generate radiation (called

111:. Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including 4751: 4629: 4566: 4531: 4346: 4283: 4169: 4039: 4011: 3999: 3956: 3939: 3925: 3896: 3882: 3860: 3717: 3678: 3549: 3506: 3498: 3490: 3405: 3274: 3233: 3207: 3181: 3156: 3131: 3086: 2909: 2876: 2862: 2820: 2806: 2792: 2751: 2712: 2650: 2642: 2595: 2587: 2399: 2385: 2371: 2350: 2306: 2289: 2253: 2228: 2208:

Engines of Discovery: A Century of Particle Accelerators Revised and Expanded Edition

2185: 2095: 2063: 1612: 1371: 1222:

Synchrocyclotrons have not been built since the isochronous cyclotron was developed.

1125: 1063:, Berkeley, in August, 1939, the most powerful accelerator in the world at the time. 994: 681: 520: 402: 356: 311: 3911: 3786: 2662: 4756: 4245: 4212: 4134: 3984: 3917: 3874: 3833: 3774: 3705: 3541: 3482: 3444: 3417: 3397: 3348: 3270: 3148: 3074: 3018: 2984: 2979: 2971: 2854: 2798: 2634: 2579: 2513: 2439: 2377: 2318: 2298: 2220: 2055: 1651: 1616: 1492:; after the war it continued in service for research and medicine over many years. 1281: 1176: 1151: 1082:

and many other transuranic elements and isotopes, for which they received the 1951

1064: 925: 765: 747:, which uses a diode-capacitor voltage multiplier to produce high voltage, and the 624: 597: 414: 383: 364: 315: 231: 188: 124: 112: 100: 3845: 2302: 570: 4868: 4853: 4669: 4581: 4571: 4423: 4356: 4227: 4059: 3651: 3152: 3044: 3001: 2954: 1532: 1439: 1289: 1210:

The second approach to the problem of accelerating relativistic particles is the

1101: 921: 769: 449: 239: 216: 89: 3865:. Particle Acceleration and Detection. Cham: Springer International Publishing. 2376:. Particle Acceleration and Detection. Cham: Springer International Publishing. 2016: 1160: 855: 673:

carry a charge, electron beams are less penetrating than both gamma and X-rays.

270: 223: 162:

accelerator, which can accelerate two beams of protons to an energy of 6.5

4716: 4674: 4664: 4586: 4576: 4546: 4384: 4364: 4323: 4255: 4240: 4154: 3837: 3739: 3709: 3545: 2941: 2774:

Proceedings, 4th International Conference on High-Energy Accelerators (HEACC63)

2638: 1953: 1933: 1833: 1638:

coating on the back of the screen in the case of a television tube; a piece of

1180: 1168: 1068: 804:

magnetic field which inductively couples power into the charged particle beam.

654: 609: 410: 282: 192: 176: 3878: 3595: 3303: 2802: 2381: 301:(SLAC) at Menlo Park, California, the second most powerful linac in the world. 4907: 4791: 4551: 4536: 4293: 4144: 3995: 3790: 3553: 3494: 2646: 2591: 2422: 1822: 1672: 1628: 1109: 1052: 1029: 1025: 971: 729: 613: 566: 235: 211:

accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields (either

128: 96: 3022: 2975: 1269:

without them going adrift. This limit is theorized to occur at 14 TeV.

623:

At lower energies, beams of accelerated nuclei are also used in medicine as

4771: 4731: 4596: 4379: 4369: 4341: 4197: 4159: 3510: 3409: 3160: 2654: 2599: 2560:"Free-Electron Lasers: New Avenues in Molecular Physics and Photochemistry" 2518: 2483: 2310: 1921: 1789: 1485: 1304: 950: 940: 936: 658: 585: 227: 4064: 4002:

Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

3921: 1292:

concept. The focusing of the beam is handled independently by specialized

4513: 4412: 4331: 4298: 4288: 4202: 4187: 3486: 2952:(1952). "The Strong-Focusing Synchrotron—A New High Energy Accelerator". 2091: 1569: 1520: 1496: 1257: 1231: 1215: 1083: 998: 947:

and a complex bending magnet arrangement which produces a beam of energy

754: 666: 574: 406: 136: 50: 3913:

Accelerator Radiation Physics for Personnel and Environmental Protection

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The largest and highest-energy particle accelerator used for elementary

4561: 4508: 4217: 4207: 4177: 4111: 3916:(1 ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, . 3820: 3692: 3581: 3078: 2373:

Accelerator Technology: Applications in Science, Medicine, and Industry

1900: 1801: 1600: 1524: 780:, using magnetic fields to bend particles in a roughly circular orbit. 588:) energy, high intensity and high beam quality to drive light sources. 453: 379:) at the highest possible energies, generally hundreds of GeV or more. 368: 3502: 3449: 3432: 3326:"Self-Focused Particle Beam Drivers for Plasma Wakefield Accelerators" 2443: 1012:

requires that matter always travels slower than the speed of light in

896:, SLAC, which is 3 km (1.9 mi) long. SLAC was originally an 876: 573:

lasers, which together with pulse shortening opens up new methods for

30:"Atom smasher" and "Supercollider" redirect here. For other uses, see 4848: 4721: 4556: 4503: 4493: 4454: 1500: 1312:), and a last large ring for final acceleration and experimentation. 1097: 1091: 1079: 1075: 1033: 959: 854:. The concept originates ultimately from Norwegian-German scientist 662: 605: 376: 251: 3567: 3352: 2999:

Blewett, J. P. (1952). "Radial Focusing in the Linear Accelerator".

2848: 2677:"2019 Midwest Medical Device Sterilization Workshop: Summary Report" 1572:

at CERN with a circumference 26.6 kilometers, which was an electron/

584:

Thus there is a great demand for electron accelerators of moderate (

4498: 4483: 2835:

The Infancy of Particle Accelerators: Life and Work of Rolf Wideröe

2538: 1872: 1798: 1655: 1635: 1573: 1561: 1551: 1516: 1414: 1395: 1245: 1241: 1041: 1021: 974:. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators ( 944: 932: 901: 897: 851: 843: 837: 670: 536: 479:

propagating through a magnetic field emit very bright and coherent

476: 418: 372: 336: 274: 247: 159: 116: 92: 53: 46: 4101: 3761: 3433:"Conceptual layout for a wafer-scale dielectric laser accelerator" 2558:

Ullrich, Joachim; Rudenko, Artem; Moshammer, Robert (2012-04-04).

4776: 4389: 3962: 2891: 2858: 2797:. Springer Biographies. Cham: Springer International Publishing. 2733: 2224: 2059: 1929: 1639: 1508: 1403: 1179:, which accelerates the particles in bunches. It uses a constant 1117:, so long as their speed is small compared to the speed of light 690: 457: 445: 430: 371:, interacting with each other or with the simplest nuclei (e.g., 360: 196: 195:

for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating

95:

to very high speeds and energies to contain them in well-defined

2847:

Chao, A. W.; Mess, K. H.; Tigner, M.; et al., eds. (2013).

1424: 561:

in the observable universe. The most prominent examples are the

1925: 1375: 1145: 1017: 1013: 1001:) are however built specially for producing synchrotron light ( 955: 604:

generators. These low-energy accelerators use a single pair of

480: 461: 344: 332: 1832:, any mechanism by which a particle produces radiation (where 355:. Since isolated quarks are experimentally unavailable due to 4601: 4488: 3526:

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A

3255:

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B

1865: 1810: 1588: 1165: 1002: 928:

are used in higher energy machines instead of simple plates.

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which is the highest of any accelerator currently existing.

1028:(eV). An important principle for circular accelerators, and 76:, widely used in both physics research and cancer treatment. 3988: 3174:

Chao, Alexander Wu; Mess, Karl Hubert (December 31, 2013).

2461: 2142:"Ten things you might not know about particle accelerators" 1765: 1743: 1742:

acceleration alone. Existing electron accelerators such as

1540: 1338: 1320: 1236: 817: 591: 426: 422: 391: 41: 3803: 1868:

can also be inverted to produce acceleration of electrons.

846:

is a circular magnetic induction accelerator, invented by

99:. Small accelerators are used for fundamental research in 4035:

Electrostatic Accelerators: Fundamentals and Applications

3977: 3252: 2458:"Two circulating beams bring first collisions in the LHC" 1892: 1675:

and accelerators to generate enough usable information.

1512: 1346: 1300: 1261: 1253: 737: 397: 328: 307: 163: 61: 3994: 2846: 2612: 1315: 743:

The two main types of electrostatic accelerator are the

3463: 3430: 2940: 2557: 2043:

Reviews of Accelerator Science and Technology: Volume 1

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are accurate. This and other possibilities have led to

1299:

More complex modern synchrotrons such as the Tevatron,

331:, and interactions of the simplest kinds of particles: 297:

Building covering the 2 mile (3.2 km) beam tube of the

179:

to accelerate particles. The most common types are the

3974:

The Evolution of Particle Accelerators & Colliders

1891:

that have been widely reported in connection with the

1349:, built at CERN, which was used from 1989 until 2000. 820:), and have been considered as particle injectors for 755:

Electrodynamic (electromagnetic) particle accelerators

676: 1751:

laser accelerators. Higher gradients of the order of

1484:

diameter in 1942, which was, however, taken over for

1188: 985:. When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits 965: 776:, with particles accelerating in a straight line, or 545:(FELs) are a special class of light sources based on 2249:"six Million Volt Atom Smasher Creates New Elements" 1943: 1879:

Safety of high energy particle collision experiments

1779:

Laser and High-Gradient Structure-Based Acceleration

1436:

Fixed-Field Alternating Gradient accelerators (FFA)s

1096:

The earliest operational circular accelerators were

943:. Medical grade linacs accelerate electrons using a 2615:"Attosecond single-cycle undulator light: a review" 1861:

led to the Inverse Free-electron laser accelerator.

1378:also called synchrotron radiation, for example the 1356:that emit ultraviolet light and X rays; see below. 4453: 3064: 1194: 783: 772:(RF) fields. Electrodynamic accelerators can be 569:in Germany. More attention is being drawn towards 549:that provides shorter pulses with higher temporal 191:in an ordinary old television set. The achievable 2270:"Atom Smasher Preparing 2010 New Science Restart" 2082: 807:The linear induction accelerator was invented by 429: – at energies of several GeV per 4905: 1873:Black hole production and public safety concerns 1758: 1359: 1303:, and LHC may deliver the particle bunches into 1137:. An example of an isochronous cyclotron is the 792: 262:, rather than a particle and an atomic nucleus. 4031: 3523: 3177:Handbook of Accelerator Physics and Engineering 2850:Handbook of Accelerator Physics and Engineering 2415:"Accelerator school travels university circuit" 1855:led to inverse Cherenkov radiation accelerator. 789:accelerators can be either linear or circular. 596:Everyday examples of particle accelerators are 433:. The largest such particle accelerator is the 281:to various experiments, in the basement of the 4102:Levels of technological manipulation of matter 3229:Industrial Accelerators and Their Applications 2481: 642:that use static electricity carried by belts. 4439: 4087: 4028:NPR's Morning Edition article on 9 April 2007 3909: 3729: 3727: 3675: 2484:"Production of Mo for Nuclear Medicine by Mo( 2204: 1755:are anticipated after further optimizations. 1425:Fixed-field alternating gradient accelerators 452:; however, recent work has shown how to make 187:. A small-scale example of this class is the 150:in New York and the largest accelerator, the 3910:Cossairt, J. Donald; Quinn, Matthew (2019). 2770: 2450: 1634:This is usually a fixed target, such as the 1431:Fixed-Field alternating gradient Accelerator 1146:Synchrocyclotrons and isochronous cyclotrons 1124:Cyclotrons reach an energy limit because of 931:Linear accelerators are also widely used in 448:as opposed to the neutron-rich ones made in 3963:Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration 2897:Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration 2739:Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration 2700:Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration 2173:Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration 1643:a fixed point as for a linear accelerator. 577:. Apart from x-rays, FELs are used to emit 4446: 4432: 4094: 4080: 3985:A Brief History and Review of Accelerators 3724: 646:Radiation sterilization of medical devices 638:, which convert AC to high voltage DC, or 491:exist worldwide. Examples in the U.S. are 135:for measurements of rare isotopes such as 3819: 3760: 3691: 3448: 2983: 2889: 2731: 2696: 2517: 2169: 1398:, USA. High-energy X-rays are useful for 884:, multicell linear accelerator component. 3957:What are particle accelerators used for? 3740:"Review of the Safety of LHC Collisions" 3323: 3173: 3129:Clery, D. (2010). "The Next Big Beam?". 2922: 2497:Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 2205:Sessler, Andrew; Wilson, Edmund (2014). 2040:Chao, Alexander W; Chou, Weiren (2008). 2039: 2002:List of accelerators in particle physics 1476:List of accelerators in particle physics 1449: 1326: 1314: 1235: 1164:A magnet in the synchrocyclotron at the 1159: 1051: 875: 706: 680: 592:Low-energy machines and particle therapy 471: 460:. An example of this type of machine is 292: 269: 67: 40: 4026:Massive Particle Accelerator Revving Up 3379: 2998: 2928: 2790: 2267: 1910: 553:. A specially designed FEL is the most 27:Research apparatus for particle physics 14: 4906: 4787:Wireless electronic devices and health 3968:Particle Accelerators around the world 3642:"An Interview with Dr. Steve Giddings" 3290:"Riding the Plasma Wave of the Future" 3287: 3206:. World Scientific. 20 February 2012. 2584:10.1146/annurev-physchem-032511-143720 2369: 2139: 1836:of the particle is transferred to the 1319:Segment of an electron synchrotron at 865: 398:Nuclear physics and isotope production 154:near Geneva, Switzerland, operated by 4427: 4075: 3797: 3733: 3324:Briezman, B. N.; et al. (1997). 3128: 3105:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 2412: 2150:Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory 1488:-related work connected with uranium 509:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 72:Animation showing the operation of a 58:Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory 4813:List of civilian radiation accidents 4782:Wireless device radiation and health 4777:Biological dose units and quantities 4727:Electromagnetic radiation and health 3858: 3067:Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics 2791:Sørheim, Aashild (5 November 2019). 2532: 2338:American Heritage Science Dictionary 2268:Higgins, A. G. (December 18, 2009). 1813:technology for particle acceleration 1677: 1527:of nature, then only theorized. The 653:is commonly used for sterilization. 497:SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory 123:production for medical diagnostics, 2564:Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 2286: 966:Circular or cyclic RF accelerators 677:Electrostatic particle accelerators 321: 172:Electrostatic particle accelerators 24: 4762:Radioactivity in the life sciences 3738:; et al. (5 September 2008). 3232:. World Scientific. 27 June 2012. 3037:"The Alternating Gradient Concept" 2853:(2nd ed.). World Scientific. 1712: 1462:, manufactured by Belgian company 1106:University of California, Berkeley 703:Electrostatic particle accelerator 25: 4925: 3949: 2482:Nagai, Y.; Hatsukawa, Y. (2009). 2116:"More background on accelerators" 1785:Laser-Plasma Acceleration of Ions 1595:Current accelerators such as the 1460:French Atomic Energy Agency (CEA) 3862:Safety for Particle Accelerators 1946: 1681: 1529:Alternating Gradient Synchrotron 1284:used to drive the acceleration. 503:at Argonne National Laboratory, 103:. Accelerators are also used as 3903: 3852: 3669: 3634: 3624: 3611: 3602: 3588: 3574: 3568:"Accelerator Concepts Workshop" 3560: 3517: 3457: 3424: 3373: 3317: 3281: 3246: 3220: 3194: 3167: 3122: 3093: 3058: 3029: 2992: 2934: 2883: 2840: 2827: 2784: 2764: 2734:"Linear Induction Accelerators" 2725: 2690: 2669: 2606: 2551: 2526: 2475: 2464:Press Office. November 23, 2009 2406: 2363: 2325: 2140:Witman, Sarah (15 April 2014). 2046:. Singapore: World Scientific. 1844:. This is the idea enabling an 1792:, Monitoring, and Control. See 1605:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider 1408:X-ray absorption fine structure 1225: 882:superconducting radio frequency 784:Magnetic induction accelerators 627:, for the treatment of cancer. 435:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider 365:essentially 2-body interactions 144:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider 142:Large accelerators include the 4236:Microelectromechanical systems 4008:University of California Press 3779:10.1088/0954-3899/35/11/115004 3041:Brookhaven National Laboratory 2619:Reports on Progress in Physics 2280: 2261: 2241: 2198: 2163: 2133: 2108: 2076: 2033: 2022:Superconducting Super Collider 1932:, magnetic and radiofrequency 1842:kinetic energy recovery system 1650:A variation commonly used for 1599:, incorporate superconducting 1585:Superconducting Super Collider 1525:particle–antiparticle symmetry 1505:Brookhaven National Laboratory 1384:Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 616:is used in the manufacture of 517:Brookhaven National Laboratory 466:Los Alamos National Laboratory 439:Brookhaven National Laboratory 148:Brookhaven National Laboratory 133:accelerator mass spectrometers 36:Supercollider (disambiguation) 13: 1: 4032:Ragnar Hellborg, ed. (2005). 2535:"Secret 'dino bugs' revealed" 2303:10.1126/science.312.5778.1302 2027: 1987:International Linear Collider 1967:Atom smasher (disambiguation) 1905:ultra-high-energy cosmic rays 1759:Advanced Accelerator Concepts 1735:plasma wakefield acceleration 1728:International Linear Collider 1360:Synchrotron radiation sources 1061:Lawrence Radiation Laboratory 1047: 962:therapy as a treatment tool. 793:Linear induction accelerators 600:found in television sets and 56:type particle accelerator at 32:Atom smasher (disambiguation) 4117:Orders of magnitude (length) 4065:Accelerators-for-Society.org 3288:Wright, M. E. (April 2005). 3275:10.1016/0168-583X(94)95146-2 3153:10.1126/science.327.5962.142 2274:U.S. News & World Report 1897:Bekenstein–Hawking radiation 1665: 1445: 1382:which has been built at the 1343:Cornell Electron Synchrotron 1256:), it is necessary to use a 1010:special theory of relativity 904:collider but is now a X-ray 831: 799:Linear induction accelerator 745:Cockcroft–Walton accelerator 47:Tevatron (background circle) 7: 4650:Cosmic background radiation 4279:Molecular scale electronics 3998:; Robert W. Seidel (1989). 3736:LHC Safety Assessment Group 3654:. July 2004. Archived from 2890:Humphries, Stanley (1986). 2732:Humphries, Stanley (1986). 2697:Humphries, Stanley (1986). 2170:Humphries, Stanley (1986). 1997:Linear particle accelerator 1977:Dielectric wall accelerator 1939: 1548:Stanford Linear Accelerator 1392:Argonne National Laboratory 894:Stanford Linear Accelerator 890:linear particle accelerator 872:Linear particle accelerator 822:magnetic confinement fusion 632:Cockcroft–Walton generators 299:Stanford Linear Accelerator 244:linear particle accelerator 10: 4930: 4879: 4737:Lasers and aviation safety 3838:10.1103/RevModPhys.72.1125 3710:10.1103/PhysRevD.66.091901 3546:10.1016/j.nima.2018.01.060 3437:AIP Conference Proceedings 3333:AIP Conference Proceedings 2533:Amos, J. (April 1, 2008). 1876: 1830:Inverse scattering problem 1776:of electrons and positrons 1622: 1473: 1469: 1428: 1363: 1330: 1229: 1149: 1089: 869: 835: 796: 764:, or resonant circuits or 700: 687:Cockcroft–Walton generator 310:, while about 44% are for 181:Cockcroft–Walton generator 29: 4877: 4841: 4805: 4767:Radioactive contamination 4692: 4620:Electromagnetic radiation 4610: 4522: 4469: 4462: 4398: 4355: 4322: 4254: 4226: 4168: 4125: 4107: 3972:Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky: 3961:Stanley Humphries (1999) 3879:10.1007/978-3-030-57031-6 3807:Reviews of Modern Physics 3190:– via Google Books. 3101:"World of Beams Homepage" 2803:10.1007/978-3-030-26338-6 2382:10.1007/978-3-030-62308-1 2343:Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 1817:Electromagnetic radiation 1619:to accelerate particles. 1597:Spallation Neutron Source 1366:Synchrotron light sources 1354:synchrotron light sources 987:electromagnetic radiation 850:in 1940 for accelerating 749:Van de Graaff accelerator 489:synchrotron light sources 279:Van de Graaff accelerator 105:synchrotron light sources 4880:See also the categories 4818:1996 Costa Rica accident 4479:Acoustic radiation force 4274:Molecular nanotechnology 2639:10.1088/1361-6633/aafa35 1982:Future Circular Collider 1782:Beam-Driven Acceleration 1333:Synchrotron light source 1058:University of California 1032:in general, is that the 651:Electron beam processing 640:Van de Graaff generators 394:, operating since 2009. 109:condensed matter physics 4792:Radiation heat-transfer 4645:Gravitational radiation 4408:Timelines of technology 3302:(3): 12. Archived from 3023:10.1103/PhysRev.88.1197 2985:2027/mdp.39015086454124 2976:10.1103/PhysRev.88.1190 2833:Pedro Waloschek (ed.): 1972:Compact Linear Collider 1495:The first large proton 768:excited by oscillating 695:Science Museum (London) 519:. In Europe, there are 265: 185:Van de Graaff generator 127:for the manufacture of 84:is a machine that uses 4833:1990 Zaragoza accident 4828:1984 Moroccan accident 4797:Linear energy transfer 4471:Non-ionizing radiation 4183:Bering Strait crossing 2519:10.1143/JPSJ.78.033201 2370:Möller, Sören (2020). 2086:; Blewett, J. (1969). 1889:public safety concerns 1690:This section is empty. 1455: 1388:Advanced Photon Source 1323: 1249: 1196: 1172: 1135:isochronous cyclotrons 1100:, invented in 1929 by 1087: 1024:, usually measured in 885: 712: 698: 409:may use beams of bare 302: 290: 199:, which is limited by 86:electromagnetic fields 77: 65: 4914:Particle accelerators 4823:1987 Goiânia accident 4625:Synchrotron radiation 4615:Earth's energy budget 4597:Radioactive materials 4592:Particle accelerators 4403:History of technology 4375:Limits of computation 4150:Planetary engineering 4127:Megascale engineering 3922:10.1201/9780429491634 3859:Otto, Thomas (2021). 3582:"AAC22 - AAC History" 2780:. pp. 1482–1488. 2088:Particle Accelerators 2012:Nuclear transmutation 1846:energy recovery linac 1838:electromagnetic field 1788:Beam Sources such as 1660:storage ring collider 1609:Large Hadron Collider 1578:Large Hadron Collider 1464:Ion Beam Applications 1453: 1410:(XAFS), for example. 1327:Electron synchrotrons 1318: 1239: 1212:isochronous cyclotron 1197: 1163: 1156:Isochronous cyclotron 1055: 983:synchrotron radiation 879: 710: 693:, 1937), residing in 684: 547:synchrotron radiation 485:synchrotron radiation 472:Synchrotron radiation 388:Large Hadron Collider 296: 273: 152:Large Hadron Collider 71: 44: 4894:Radiation protection 4747:Radiation protection 4635:Black-body radiation 4542:Background radiation 4457:(physics and health) 4337:Particle accelerator 3748:Journal of Physics G 3487:10.1364/OL.41.002696 3180:. World Scientific. 2684:Department of Energy 2211:. World Scientific. 1918:accelerator operator 1911:Accelerator operator 1733:It is believed that 1617:RF cavity resonators 1507:, which accelerated 1380:Diamond Light Source 1282:RF cavity resonators 1240:Aerial photo of the 1186: 1126:relativistic effects 1074:used it to discover 826:free electron lasers 736:(negatively charged 543:Free-electron lasers 531:in Oxfordshire, UK, 527:in Berlin, Germany, 335:(e.g. electrons and 201:electrical breakdown 82:particle accelerator 4864:Radiation hardening 4806:Radiation incidents 4742:Medical radiography 4701:Radiation syndrome 4655:Cherenkov radiation 4193:Great Wall of China 4140:Climate engineering 3871:2021spa..book.....O 3830:2000RvMP...72.1125J 3771:2008JPhG...35k5004E 3702:2002PhRvD..66i1901C 3621:no. 18, 4041 (2001) 3538:2018NIMPA.888..147H 3479:2016OptL...41.2696W 3402:10.1038/nature12664 3394:2013Natur.503...91P 3345:1997AIPC..396...75B 3267:1994NIMPB..89...60J 3145:2010Sci...327..142C 3015:1952PhRv...88.1197B 2968:1952PhRv...88.1190C 2631:2019RPPh...82b5901M 2576:2012ARPC...63..635U 2510:2009JPSJ...78c3201N 2436:2010PhT....63b..20F 2297:(5778): 1302–1303. 2217:2014edcp.book.....S 2052:2008rast.book.....C 2007:Momentum compaction 1962:Accelerator physics 1859:Free-electron laser 1853:Cherenkov radiation 1806:Accelerator Physics 1794:Accelerator physics 1774:Plasma Acceleration 1204:cyclotron resonance 1115:cyclotron frequency 991:secondary emissions 906:Free-electron laser 866:Linear accelerators 824:and as drivers for 722:sulfur hexafluoride 718:dielectric strength 636:voltage multipliers 618:integrated circuits 343:for the matter, or 260:subatomic particles 4859:Radioactive source 4680:Radiation exposure 4660:Askaryan radiation 4640:Particle radiation 4524:Ionizing radiation 4314:Wet nanotechnology 4309:Wearable generator 4264:DNA nanotechnology 4058:2010-10-07 at the 4024:David Kestenbaum, 3647:ESI Special Topics 3079:10.1007/BF01037825 2902:Wiley-Interscience 2744:Wiley-Interscience 2705:Wiley-Interscience 2413:Feder, T. (2010). 2257:: 580. April 1935. 2178:Wiley-Interscience 1903:(and particularly 1885:superstring theory 1537:Proton Synchrotron 1490:isotope separation 1456: 1400:X-ray spectroscopy 1386:in England or the 1324: 1294:quadrupole magnets 1250: 1192: 1173: 1139:PSI Ring cyclotron 1088: 926:microwave cavities 886: 762:magnetic induction 726:tandem accelerator 713: 699: 575:attosecond science 403:Nuclear physicists 303: 291: 213:magnetic induction 78: 74:linear accelerator 66: 4901: 4900: 4882:Radiation effects 4752:Radiation therapy 4688: 4687: 4630:Thermal radiation 4567:Neutron radiation 4532:Radioactive decay 4421: 4420: 4347:Synthetic element 4284:Nanobiotechnology 4170:Macro-engineering 4045:978-3-540-23983-3 4017:978-0-520-06426-3 3980:), Stanford, 1997 3931:978-0-429-49163-4 3888:978-3-030-57030-9 3679:Physical Review D 3584:. 4 January 2016. 3473:(12): 2696–2699. 3450:10.1063/1.4965631 3295:Symmetry Magazine 3239:978-981-4434-61-4 3213:978-981-4383-98-1 3187:978-981-4415-85-9 3139:(5962): 142–144. 2946:Livingston, M. S. 2868:978-981-4417-17-4 2812:978-3-030-26337-9 2460:(Press release). 2444:10.1063/1.3326981 2391:978-3-030-62307-4 2356:978-0-618-45504-1 2254:Popular Mechanics 2234:978-981-4417-18-1 2146:Symmetry Magazine 2101:978-1-114-44384-6 2084:Livingston, M. S. 2069:978-981-283-520-8 1828:According to the 1753:1 to 6 GeV/m 1710: 1709: 1611:also make use of 1523:, and verify the 1515:(1953–1968). The 1372:synchrotron light 1195:{\displaystyle B} 995:synchrotron light 922:radio frequencies 598:cathode ray tubes 523:in Lund, Sweden, 357:color confinement 277:leading from the 250:, as well as the 107:for the study of 16:(Redirected from 4921: 4842:Related articles 4757:Radiation damage 4582:Nuclear reactors 4467: 4466: 4448: 4441: 4434: 4425: 4424: 4246:Photolithography 4213:Space settlement 4135:Astroengineering 4096: 4089: 4082: 4073: 4072: 4049: 4021: 3944: 3943: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3823: 3814:(4): 1125–1140. 3801: 3795: 3794: 3764: 3744: 3731: 3722: 3721: 3695: 3673: 3667: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3638: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3615: 3609: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3592: 3586: 3585: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3368: 3367: 3361: 3355:. Archived from 3330: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3312: 3311: 3285: 3279: 3278: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3117: 3116: 3107:. Archived from 3097: 3091: 3090: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3053: 3052: 3043:. Archived from 3033: 3027: 3026: 3009:(5): 1197–1199. 2996: 2990: 2989: 2987: 2962:(5): 1190–1196. 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2844: 2838: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2788: 2782: 2781: 2779: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2729: 2723: 2722: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2686:. November 2019. 2682:. United States 2681: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2555: 2549: 2548: 2546: 2545: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2521: 2479: 2473: 2472: 2470: 2469: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2419: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2367: 2361: 2360: 2345:. 2005. p. 2329: 2323: 2322: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2127: 2112: 2106: 2105: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2037: 1956: 1951: 1950: 1754: 1705: 1702: 1692:You can help by 1685: 1678: 1658:, also called a 1652:particle physics 1511:to about 3 1201: 1199: 1198: 1193: 1177:synchrocyclotron 1152:Synchrocyclotron 1065:Glenn T. Seaborg 953: 625:particle therapy 565:in the U.S. and 450:fission reactors 415:condensed matter 384:particle physics 322:Particle physics 316:ion implantation 189:cathode-ray tube 113:particle therapy 101:particle physics 21: 4929: 4928: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4897: 4896: 4873: 4869:Havana syndrome 4854:Nuclear physics 4837: 4801: 4694: 4684: 4670:Unruh radiation 4606: 4587:Nuclear weapons 4572:Nuclear fission 4518: 4458: 4452: 4422: 4417: 4394: 4357:Femtotechnology 4351: 4318: 4250: 4228:Microtechnology 4222: 4164: 4121: 4103: 4100: 4070: 4060:Wayback Machine 4046: 4018: 3952: 3947: 3932: 3908: 3904: 3889: 3857: 3853: 3802: 3798: 3742: 3732: 3725: 3674: 3670: 3661: 3659: 3652:Thomson Reuters 3640: 3639: 3635: 3629: 3625: 3616: 3612: 3607: 3603: 3594: 3593: 3589: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3522: 3518: 3462: 3458: 3429: 3425: 3388:(7474): 91–94. 3378: 3374: 3365: 3363: 3359: 3353:10.1063/1.52975 3328: 3322: 3318: 3309: 3307: 3286: 3282: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3214: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3188: 3172: 3168: 3127: 3123: 3114: 3112: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3063: 3059: 3050: 3048: 3035: 3034: 3030: 3002:Physical Review 2997: 2993: 2955:Physical Review 2939: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2916: 2888: 2884: 2869: 2845: 2841: 2832: 2828: 2813: 2789: 2785: 2777: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2730: 2726: 2719: 2695: 2691: 2679: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2611: 2607: 2556: 2552: 2543: 2541: 2531: 2527: 2480: 2476: 2467: 2465: 2456: 2455: 2451: 2417: 2411: 2407: 2392: 2368: 2364: 2357: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2285: 2281: 2266: 2262: 2247: 2246: 2242: 2235: 2203: 2199: 2192: 2168: 2164: 2154: 2152: 2138: 2134: 2125: 2123: 2114: 2113: 2109: 2102: 2081: 2077: 2070: 2038: 2034: 2030: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1913: 1881: 1875: 1761: 1752: 1715: 1713:Higher energies 1706: 1700: 1697: 1668: 1625: 1613:superconducting 1533:strong focusing 1478: 1472: 1448: 1440:strong focusing 1433: 1427: 1368: 1362: 1335: 1329: 1290:strong focusing 1234: 1228: 1187: 1184: 1183: 1158: 1150:Main articles: 1148: 1102:Ernest Lawrence 1094: 1050: 968: 948: 874: 868: 840: 834: 801: 795: 786: 770:radio frequency 757: 705: 679: 648: 594: 579:terahertz light 474: 400: 324: 268: 240:Ernest Lawrence 217:radio frequency 215:or oscillating 209:electromagnetic 177:electric fields 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4927: 4917: 4916: 4899: 4898: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4845: 4843: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4809: 4807: 4803: 4802: 4800: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4717:Health physics 4714: 4713: 4712: 4707: 4698: 4696: 4690: 4689: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4682: 4677: 4675:Dark radiation 4672: 4667: 4665:Bremsstrahlung 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4611: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4577:Nuclear fusion 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4547:Alpha particle 4544: 4539: 4534: 4528: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4475: 4473: 4464: 4460: 4459: 4451: 4450: 4443: 4436: 4428: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4399: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4392: 4387: 4385:Nuclear isomer 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4365:Femtochemistry 4361: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4328: 4326: 4324:Picotechnology 4320: 4319: 4317: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4260: 4258: 4256:Nanotechnology 4252: 4251: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4241:Micromachinery 4238: 4232: 4230: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4174: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4162: 4157: 4155:Space elevator 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4131: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4119: 4114: 4108: 4105: 4104: 4099: 4098: 4091: 4084: 4076: 4069: 4068: 4062: 4050: 4044: 4029: 4022: 4016: 3996:Heilbron, J.L. 3992: 3981: 3970: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3951: 3950:External links 3948: 3946: 3945: 3930: 3902: 3887: 3851: 3821:hep-ph/9910333 3796: 3755:(11): 115004. 3723: 3693:hep-ph/0206060 3668: 3633: 3623: 3610: 3601: 3587: 3573: 3559: 3516: 3467:Optics Letters 3456: 3423: 3372: 3316: 3280: 3261:(1–4): 60–64. 3245: 3238: 3219: 3212: 3193: 3186: 3166: 3121: 3092: 3057: 3028: 2991: 2942:Courant, E. D. 2933: 2927: 2921: 2915:978-0471878780 2914: 2882: 2867: 2839: 2837:, Vieweg, 1994 2826: 2811: 2783: 2763: 2757:978-0471878780 2756: 2724: 2718:978-0471878780 2717: 2689: 2668: 2605: 2570:(1): 635–660. 2550: 2525: 2474: 2449: 2405: 2390: 2362: 2355: 2333:"Atom smasher" 2324: 2279: 2260: 2240: 2233: 2197: 2191:978-0471878780 2190: 2162: 2132: 2107: 2100: 2075: 2068: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2025: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1958: 1957: 1954:Physics portal 1941: 1938: 1934:power supplies 1912: 1909: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1869: 1862: 1856: 1834:kinetic energy 1826: 1825: 1820: 1814: 1808: 1796: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1760: 1757: 1714: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1701:September 2024 1688: 1686: 1673:electromagnets 1667: 1664: 1654:research is a 1624: 1621: 1474:Main article: 1471: 1468: 1447: 1444: 1429:Main article: 1426: 1423: 1364:Main article: 1361: 1358: 1328: 1325: 1230:Main article: 1227: 1224: 1191: 1181:magnetic field 1169:proton therapy 1147: 1144: 1090:Main article: 1069:Edwin McMillan 1049: 1046: 1030:particle beams 1026:electron volts 972:electromagnets 967: 964: 870:Main article: 867: 864: 836:Main article: 833: 830: 797:Main article: 794: 791: 785: 782: 756: 753: 701:Main article: 678: 675: 655:Electron beams 647: 644: 593: 590: 473: 470: 399: 396: 323: 320: 283:Jussieu Campus 267: 264: 220:accelerators. 205:Electrodynamic 193:kinetic energy 129:semiconductors 125:ion implanters 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4926: 4915: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4886:Radioactivity 4883: 4876: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4840: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4804: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4697: 4691: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4612: 4609: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4552:Beta particle 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4537:Cluster decay 4535: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4468: 4465: 4463:Main articles 4461: 4456: 4449: 4444: 4442: 4437: 4435: 4430: 4429: 4426: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4400: 4397: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4294:Nanomaterials 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4225: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4145:Megastructure 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4124: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4106: 4097: 4092: 4090: 4085: 4083: 4078: 4077: 4074: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4057: 4054: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4037: 4036: 4030: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4004: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3990: 3986: 3983:P.J. Bryant, 3982: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3914: 3906: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3863: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3808: 3800: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3686:(9): 091901. 3685: 3681: 3680: 3672: 3658:on 2017-10-16 3657: 3653: 3649: 3648: 3643: 3637: 3627: 3620: 3614: 3605: 3597: 3591: 3583: 3577: 3569: 3563: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3460: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3427: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3376: 3362:on 2005-05-23 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3327: 3320: 3306:on 2006-10-02 3305: 3301: 3297: 3296: 3291: 3284: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3249: 3241: 3235: 3231: 3230: 3223: 3215: 3209: 3205: 3204: 3197: 3189: 3183: 3179: 3178: 3170: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3133: 3125: 3111:on 2005-03-02 3110: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3061: 3047:on 2013-04-02 3046: 3042: 3038: 3032: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3003: 2995: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2956: 2951: 2950:Snyder, H. S. 2947: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2917: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2898: 2893: 2886: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2851: 2843: 2836: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2776: 2775: 2767: 2759: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2740: 2735: 2728: 2720: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2701: 2693: 2685: 2678: 2672: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2625:(2): 025901. 2624: 2620: 2616: 2609: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2554: 2540: 2536: 2529: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2504:(3): 033201. 2503: 2499: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2487: 2478: 2463: 2459: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2424: 2423:Physics Today 2416: 2409: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2374: 2366: 2358: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2339: 2334: 2328: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2291: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2256: 2255: 2250: 2244: 2236: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2209: 2201: 2193: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2174: 2166: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2136: 2121: 2117: 2111: 2103: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2079: 2071: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2044: 2036: 2032: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1955: 1949: 1944: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1880: 1867: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1824: 1823:Muon collider 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1767: 1756: 1748: 1745: 1739: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1723: 1721: 1720:beam rigidity 1704: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1644: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1630: 1629:electromagnet 1620: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1568: 1563: 1560: 1555: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1477: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1452: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1367: 1357: 1355: 1350: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1334: 1322: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1306: 1305:storage rings 1302: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1285: 1283: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1247: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1205: 1189: 1182: 1178: 1170: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1153: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1110:dipole magnet 1107: 1103: 1099: 1093: 1086:in chemistry. 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1059: 1054: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 984: 979: 977: 973: 963: 961: 957: 952: 946: 942: 938: 934: 929: 927: 923: 918: 915: 909: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 883: 878: 873: 863: 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 839: 829: 827: 823: 819: 815: 810: 805: 800: 790: 781: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 752: 750: 746: 741: 739: 735: 731: 730:atomic nuclei 727: 723: 719: 709: 704: 696: 692: 688: 683: 674: 672: 668: 664: 660: 659:radioisotopes 656: 652: 643: 641: 637: 633: 628: 626: 621: 619: 615: 614:ion implanter 611: 607: 603: 599: 589: 587: 582: 580: 576: 572: 568: 567:European XFEL 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 469: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 442: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 411:atomic nuclei 408: 404: 395: 393: 389: 385: 380: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 319: 317: 313: 309: 300: 295: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 263: 261: 257: 256:atom smashers 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 236:Max Steenbeck 233: 229: 225: 221: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 173: 167: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 140: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 91: 87: 83: 75: 70: 63: 59: 55: 52: 48: 43: 37: 33: 19: 18:Supercollider 4890:Radiobiology 4772:Radiobiology 4732:Laser safety 4591: 4380:Mode-locking 4370:Hafnium bomb 4342:Rydberg atom 4336: 4269:Implications 4198:Panama Canal 4160:Terraforming 4038:. 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