1183:; this limits the maximum power that can be imparted to electrons in a synchrotron of given size. Linacs are also capable of prodigious output, producing a nearly continuous stream of particles, whereas a synchrotron will only periodically raise the particles to sufficient energy to merit a "shot" at the target. (The burst can be held or stored in the ring at energy to give the experimental electronics time to work, but the average output current is still limited.) The high density of the output makes the linac particularly attractive for use in loading storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions. The high mass output also makes the device practical for the production of
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549:, is an inherent property of RF acceleration. If the particles in a bunch all reach the accelerating region during the rising phase of the oscillating field, then particles which arrive early will see slightly less voltage than the "reference" particle at the center of the bunch. Those particles will therefore receive slightly less acceleration and eventually fall behind the reference particle. Correspondingly, particles which arrive after the reference particle will receive slightly more acceleration, and will catch up to the reference as a result. This automatic correction occurs at each accelerating gap, so the bunch is refocused along the direction of travel each time it is accelerated.
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658:, whose length increases progressively with the distance from the source. The particles from the source pass through these electrodes. The length of each electrode is determined by the frequency and power of the driving power source and the particle to be accelerated, so that the particle passes through each electrode in exactly one-half cycle of the accelerating voltage. The mass of the particle has a large effect on the length of the cylindrical electrodes; for example an electron is considerably lighter than a proton and so will generally require a much smaller section of cylindrical electrodes as it accelerates very quickly.
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to the charge on the particles. Each time the particle bunch passes through an electrode, the oscillating voltage changes polarity, so when the particles reach the gap between electrodes the electric field is in the correct direction to accelerate them. Therefore, the particles accelerate to a faster speed each time they pass between electrodes; there is little electric field inside the electrodes so the particles travel at a constant speed within each electrode.
988:(RFQ) stage from injection at 50kVdC to ~5MeV bunches, a Side Coupled Drift Tube Linac (SCDTL) to accelerate from 5Mev to ~ 40MeV and a Cell Coupled Linac (CCL) stage final, taking the output to 200-230MeV. Each stage is optimised to allow close coupling and synchronous operation during the beam energy build-up. The project aim is to make proton therapy a more accessible mainstream medicine as an alternative to existing radio therapy.
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1234:. Some linacs have short, vertically mounted waveguides, while higher energy machines tend to have a horizontal, longer waveguide and a bending magnet to turn the beam vertically towards the patient. Medical linacs use monoenergetic electron beams between 4 and 25 MeV, giving an X-ray output with a spectrum of energies up to and including the electron energy when the electrons are directed at a high-density (such as
144:
914:. The electrons used are fed back through the accelerator, out of phase by 180 degrees. They therefore pass through the resonators in the decelerating phase and thus return their remaining energy to the field. The concept is comparable to the hybrid drive of motor vehicles, where the kinetic energy released during braking is made available for the next acceleration by charging a battery.
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975:, which is associated with very strong electric field strengths. This means that significantly (factors of 100s to 1000s ) more compact linear accelerators can possibly be built. Experiments involving high power lasers in metal vapour plasmas suggest that a beam line length reduction from some tens of metres to a few cm is quite possible.
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At speeds near the speed of light, the incremental velocity increase will be small, with the energy appearing as an increase in the mass of the particles. In portions of the accelerator where this occurs, the tubular electrode lengths will be almost constant. Additional magnetic or electrostatic lens
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in the gap between each pair of electrodes, which exerts force on the particles when they pass through, imparting energy to them by accelerating them. The particle source injects a group of particles into the first electrode once each cycle of the voltage, when the charge on the electrode is opposite
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through which the particle travels, and the central tubes are only used to shield the particles during the decelerating portion of the oscillator's phase. Using this approach to acceleration meant that
Alvarez's first linac was able to achieve proton energies of 31.5 MeV in 1947, the highest that had
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In the two diagrams, the curve and arrows indicate the force acting on the particles. Only at the points with the correct direction of the electric field vector, i.e. the correct direction of force, can particles absorb energy from the wave. (An increase in speed cannot be seen in the scale of these
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published the first description of a linear particle accelerator using a series of accelerating gaps. Particles would proceed down a series of tubes. At a regular frequency, an accelerating voltage would be applied across each gap. As the particles gained speed while the frequency remained constant,
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In 2019 a Little Linac model kit, containing 82 building blocks, was developed for children undergoing radiotherapy treatment for cancer. The hope is that building the model will alleviate some of the stress experienced by the child before undergoing treatment by helping them to understand what the
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as a treatment tool. In addition, the device can simply be powered off when not in use; there is no source requiring heavy shielding – although the treatment room itself requires considerable shielding of the walls, doors, ceiling etc. to prevent escape of scattered radiation. Prolonged use of high
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The LIGHT program (Linac for Image-Guided Hadron
Therapy) hopes to create a design capable of accelerating protons to 200MeV or so for medical use over a distance of a few tens of metres, by optimising and nesting existing accelerator techniques The current design (2020) uses the highest practical
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voltage of high potential (usually thousands of volts) which is applied to the cylindrical electrodes. This is the accelerating voltage which produces the electric field which accelerates the particles. Opposite phase voltage is applied to successive electrodes. A high power accelerator will have a
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target is used. Various target materials are used when protons or other nuclei are accelerated, depending upon the specific investigation. Behind the target are various detectors to detect the particles resulting from the collision of the incoming particles with the atoms of the target. Many linacs
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If a single oscillating voltage source is used to drive a series of gaps, those gaps must be placed increasingly far apart as the speed of the particle increases. This is to ensure that the particle "sees" the same phase of the oscillator's cycle as it reaches each gap. As particles asymptotically
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limits the maximum constant voltage which can be applied across a gap to produce an electric field, most accelerators use some form of RF acceleration. In RF acceleration, the particle traverses a series of accelerating regions, driven by a source of voltage in such a way that the particle sees an
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The higher the frequency of the acceleration voltage selected, the more individual acceleration thrusts per path length a particle of a given speed experiences, and the shorter the accelerator can therefore be overall. That is why accelerator technology developed in the pursuit of higher particle
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with linear accelerator radiation therapy (in this case an electron beam), in 1957, in the U.S. Other patients had been treated by linac for other diseases since 1953 in the UK. Gordon's right eye was removed on
January 11, 1957 because cancer had spread there. His left eye, however, had only a
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standing one behind the other, which are magnetized by high-current pulses, and in turn each generate an electrical field strength pulse along the axis of the beam direction. Induction linear accelerators are considered for short high current pulses from electrons but also from heavy ions. The
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amplifiers to generate the acceleration power, a second parallel electron linear accelerator of lower energy is to be used, which works with superconducting cavities in which standing waves are formed. High-frequency power is extracted from it at regular intervals and transmitted to the main
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As linear accelerators were developed with higher beam currents, using magnetic fields to focus proton and heavy ion beams presented difficulties for the initial stages of the accelerator. Because the magnetic force is dependent on the particle velocity, it was desirable to create a type of
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alloys allow for much more efficient acceleration, as a substantially higher fraction of the input power could be applied to the beam rather than lost to heat. Some of the earliest superconducting linacs included the
Superconducting Linear Accelerator (for electrons) at Stanford and the
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are used to actively redirect particles moving away from the reference path. As quadrupole magnets are focusing in one transverse direction and defocusing in the perpendicular direction, it is necessary to use groups of magnets to provide an overall focusing effect in both directions.
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so that the accelerated particles will not collide with air molecules. The length will vary with the application. If the device is used for the production of X-rays for inspection or therapy, then the pipe may be only 0.5 to 1.5 meters long. If the device is to be an injector for a
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was equal to the accelerating voltage on the machine, which was limited to a few million volts by insulation breakdown. In the linac, the particles are accelerated multiple times by the applied voltage, so the particle energy is not limited by the accelerating voltage.
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The development of high-frequency oscillators and power amplifiers from the 1940s, especially the klystron, was essential for these two acceleration techniques . The first larger linear accelerator with standing waves - for protons - was built in 1945/46 in the
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early in the acceleration process. As a result, "accelerating" electrons increase in energy but can be treated as having a constant velocity from an accelerator design standpoint. This allowed Hansen to use an accelerating structure consisting of a horizontal
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powered (>18 MeV) machines can induce a significant amount of radiation within the metal parts of the head of the machine after power to the machine has been removed (i.e. they become an active source and the necessary precautions must be observed).
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accelerating field as it crosses each region. In this type of acceleration, particles must necessarily travel in "bunches" corresponding to the portion of the oscillator's cycle where the electric field is pointing in the intended direction of acceleration.
953:(CLIC) (original name CERN Linear Collider, with the same abbreviation) for electrons and positrons provides a traveling wave accelerator for energies of the order of 1 tera-electron volt (TeV). Instead of the otherwise necessary numerous
246:(RFQ) type of accelerating structure. RFQs use vanes or rods with precisely designed shapes in a resonant cavity to produce complex electric fields. These fields provide simultaneous acceleration and focusing to injected particle beams.
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elements may be included to ensure that the beam remains in the center of the pipe and its electrodes. Very long accelerators may maintain a precise alignment of their components through the use of servo systems guided by a laser beam.
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In cavity resonators, the dielectric strength limits the maximum acceleration that can be achieved within a certain distance. This limit can be circumvented using accelerated waves in plasma to generate the accelerating field in
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has the correct direction to accelerate it. The animation shows a single particle being accelerated each cycle; in actual linacs a large number of particles are injected and accelerated each cycle. The action is shown slowed
527:
In order to ensure particles do not escape the accelerator, it is necessary to provide some form of focusing to redirect particles moving away from the central trajectory back towards the intended path. With the discovery of
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is the magnetic field. The cross product in the magnetic field term means that static magnetic fields cannot be used for particle acceleration, as the magnetic force acts perpendicularly to the direction of particle motion.
1017:
When it comes to energies of more than a few MeV, accelerators for ions are different from those for electrons. The reason for this is the large mass difference between the particles. Electrons are already close to the
1238:) target. The electrons or X-rays can be used to treat both benign and malignant disease. The LINAC produces a reliable, flexible and accurate radiation beam. The versatility of LINAC is a potential advantage over
170:(50 keV), twice the energy they would have received if accelerated only once by the tube. By successfully accelerating a particle multiple times using the same voltage source, Wideroe demonstrated the utility of
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the traveling wave must be roughly equal to the particle speed. Therefore, this technique is only suitable when the particles are almost at the speed of light, so that their speed only increases very little.
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The particles are injected at the right time so that the oscillating voltage differential between electrodes is maximum as the particles cross each gap. If the peak voltage applied between the electrodes is
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If the walls of the accelerating cavities are made of normally conducting material and the accelerating fields are large, the wall resistivity converts electric energy into heat quickly. On the other hand,
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was able to use newly developed high frequency oscillators to design the first resonant cavity drift tube linac. An
Alvarez linac differs from the Wideroe type in that the RF power is applied to the entire
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along the axis of the accelerator at each point in time. The polarity of the RF voltage reverses as the particle passes through each electrode, so when the particle crosses each gap the electric field
1396:, still the longest in the world (in its various generations), are run in short pulses, limiting the average current output and forcing the experimental detectors to handle data coming in short bursts.
162:
discovered Ising's paper in 1927, and as part of his PhD thesis he built an 88-inch long, two gap version of the device. Where Ising had proposed a spark gap as the voltage source, Wideroe used a 25kV
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particles, which are generally difficult to obtain, being only a small fraction of a target's collision products. These may then be stored and further used to study matter-antimatter annihilation.
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the gaps would be spaced farther and farther apart, in order to ensure the particle would see a voltage applied as it reached each gap. Ising never successfully implemented this design.
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through neutron bombardment. This would enable the medical isotope industry to manufacture this crucial isotope by a sub-critical process. The aging facilities, for example the
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approach the speed of light, the gap separation becomes constant: additional applied force increases the energy of the particles but does not significantly alter their speed.
1000:
The linear accelerator concepts (often called accelerator structures in technical terms) that have been used since around 1950 work with frequencies in the range from around
873:
Various new concepts are in development as of 2021. The primary goal is to make linear accelerators cheaper, with better focused beams, higher energy or higher beam current.
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and installed in 1952, as the first dedicated medical linac. A short while later in 1954, a 6 MV linac was installed in
Stanford, USA, which began treatments in 1956.
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with the project "bERLinPro" reported on corresponding development work. The Berlin experimental accelerator uses superconducting niobium cavity resonators. In 2014, three
100:, serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and positrons) for
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High power linacs are also being developed for production of electrons at relativistic speeds, required since fast electrons traveling in an arc will lose energy through
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constructed the first travelling-wave electron accelerator at
Stanford University. Electrons are sufficiently lighter than protons that they achieve speeds close to the
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1045:. Depending on the type of particle, energy range and other parameters, very different types of resonators are used; the following sections only cover some of them.
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584:(SLAC) at Menlo Park, California, the second most powerful linac in the world. It has about 80,000 accelerating electrodes and could accelerate electrons to 50
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inside the drift tubes, allowing for longer and thus more powerful linacs. Two of the earliest examples of
Alvarez linacs with strong focusing magnets were built at
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A target with which the particles collide, located at the end of the accelerating electrodes. If electrons are accelerated to produce X-rays, then a water-cooled
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608:, it may be about ten meters long. If the device is used as the primary accelerator for nuclear particle investigations, it may be several thousand meters long.
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materials. With electrons, pulse currents of up to 5 kiloamps at energies up to 5 MeV and pulse durations in the range of 20 to 300 nanoseconds were achieved.
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The initial
Alvarez type linacs had no strong mechanism for keeping the beam focused and were limited in length and energy as a result. The development of the
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Animation showing how a linear accelerator works. In this example the particles accelerated (red dots) are assumed to have a positive charge. The graph
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A great number of driver devices and their associated power supplies are required, increasing the construction and maintenance expense of this portion.
1171:) that were in use when it was invented. In these machines, the particles were only accelerated once by the applied voltage, so the particle energy in
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can also be accelerated with standing waves above a few MeV. An advantageous alternative here, however, is a progressive wave, a traveling wave. The
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910:, in which their residual energy is converted into heat. In an energy recovery linac (ERL), the accelerated in resonators and, for example, in
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Mangan, Michelangelo (2016). "Particle accelerators and the progress of particle physics". In Brüning, Oliver; Myers, Stephen (eds.).
2116:"Kern- und Elementarteilchenphysik. Von G. Musiol, J. Ranft, R. Reif und D. Seeliger, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft Weinheim, 1988, DM 128"
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increase. On the other hand, with ions of this energy range, the speed also increases significantly due to further acceleration.
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ions), a specialized ion source is needed. The source has its own high voltage supply to inject the particles into the beamline.
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Wideroe's linac concept. The voltage from an RF source is connected to a series of tubes which shield the particle between gaps.
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As shown in the animation, the oscillating voltage applied to alternate cylindrical electrodes has opposite polarity (180°
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Induction linear accelerators use the electric field induced by a time-varying magnetic field for acceleration—like the
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Thwaites, DI and Tuohy J (2006). "Back to the future: the history and development of the clinical linear accelerator".
1951:
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superconducting linear accelerator, housed on campus below the Hansen Labs until 2007. This facility is separate from
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also need constant cooling to keep them below their critical temperature, and the accelerating fields are limited by
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In previous electron linear accelerators, the accelerated particles are used only once and then fed into an absorber
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674:, and in this case after leaving the electrodes the accelerated particles enter the next stage of the accelerator.
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loaded by a series of discs. The 1947 accelerator had an energy of 6 MeV. Over time, electron acceleration at the
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This type of linac was limited by the voltage sources that were available at the time, and it was not until after
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oscillator. He successfully demonstrated that he had accelerated sodium and potassium ions to an energy of 50,000
2164:
Synchrotron Light
Sources and Free-Electron Lasers: Accelerator Physics, Instrumentation and Science Applications
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Christofilos, N. C.; Hester, R. E.; Lamb, W. a. S.; Reagan, D. D.; Sherwood, W. A.; Wright, R. E. (1964-07-01).
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obtained from it, have also shed light onto linear accelerator technology to produce Mo-99 from non-enriched
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1981:. CERN Symposium on High Energy Accelerators and Pion Physics. Vol. 1. Geneva: CERN. pp. 159–166.
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which the machine accelerates. The design of the source depends on the particle that is being accelerated.
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with subsequent photo neutron bombardment and extraction of the target product, Mo-99, will be achieved.
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accelerator. In this way, the very high acceleration field strength of 80 MV / m should be achieved.
1945:
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at the start of the linac to accelerate the electron beam in bunches to energies of 100 MeV.
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Jaeschke, Eberhard; Khan, Shaukat; Schneider, Jochen R.; Hastings, Jerome B., eds. (2016).
2127:
2080:
1753:
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G. Ising (1924). "Prinzip einer Methode zur Herstellung von Kanalstrahlen hoher Voltzahl".
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In 1947, at about the same time that Alvarez was developing his linac concept for protons,
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Extending along the pipe from the source is a series of open-ended cylindrical electrodes
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Beginning in the 1960s, scientists at Stanford and elsewhere began to explore the use of
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could be replaced by this new process. In this way, the sub-critical loading of soluble
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for cancer treatment began with the first patient treated in 1953 in London, UK, at the
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to a few gigahertz (GHz) and use the electric field component of electromagnetic waves.
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1259:(IPEM) in collaboration with manufacturers Best-Lock Ltd. The model can be seen at the
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accelerate electrons using a tuned-cavity waveguide, in which the RF power creates a
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1022:, the absolute speed limit, at a few MeV; with further acceleration, as described by
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199:
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Hug, Florian; Aulenbacher, Kurt; Heine, Robert; Ledroit, Ben; Simon, Daniel (2017).
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Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Volume I
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separate amplifier to power each electrode, all synchronized to the same frequency.
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Ostroumov, Peter; Gerigk, Frank (January 2013). "Superconducting Hadron Linacs".
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The design of a linac depends on the type of particle that is being accelerated:
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The linear accelerator could produce higher particle energies than the previous
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serve as the initial accelerator stage for larger particle accelerators such as
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would extend to a size of 2 miles (3.2 km) and an output energy of 50 GeV.
119:(which is a type of linac) to the 3.2-kilometre-long (2.0 mi) linac at the
85:
1490:(17 December 1928). "Über Ein Neues Prinzip Zur Herstellung Hoher Spannungen".
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when passing through each gap. Thus the output energy of the particles is
701:), so adjacent electrodes have opposite voltages. This creates an oscillating
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accelerator which could simultaneously accelerate and focus low-to-mid energy
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Podgorsak, E B (2005). "Treatment Machines for External Beam Radiotherapy".
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The Prehistory of Jefferson Lab's SRF Accelerating Cavities, 1962 to 1985
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Padamsee, Hasan (April 14, 2020). "History of gradient advances in SRF".
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Historical image showing Gordon Isaacs, the first patient treated for
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Proton Linear Accelerators: A Theoretical and Historical Introduction
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treatment entails. The kit was developed by Professor David Brettle,
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cavities for particle acceleration. Superconducting cavities made of
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1529:. 5th General Accelerator Physics Course. CERN Accelerator School.
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389:{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}=q{\vec {E}}+q{\vec {v}}\times {\vec {B}}}
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principle in the early 1950s led to the installation of focusing
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2MV Tandetron linear particle accelerator in Ljubljana, Slovenia
2379:. Subcritical Fission Mo99 Production. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
84:
in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by
1895:(2nd ed.). Hackensack, N.J.: World Scientific. p. 1.
1742:"Radiofrequency Quadrupole Accelerators and their Applications"
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The device length limits the locations where one may be placed.
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Steel casting undergoing x-ray using the linear accelerator at
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A linear particle accelerator consists of the following parts:
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941:, an ERL called MESA is expected to begin operation in 2024.
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Ginzton, E. L.; Hansen, W. W.; Kennedy, W. R. (1948-02-01).
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in Ontario, Canada, which still now produce most Mo-99 from
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which contains the other components. It is evacuated with a
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Linear Particle Accelerator (LINAC) Animation by Ionactive
1393:
885:. The particle beam passes through a series of ring-shaped
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1921:
An introduction to the physics of high energy accelerators
2069:"High Current Linear Induction Accelerator for Electrons"
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is the number of accelerating electrodes in the machine.
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2190:"MESA - an ERL Project for Particle Physics Experiments"
1975:
Blewett, J P (11 June 1956). Edouard Regenstreif (ed.).
1554:. Hackensack, New Jersey: World Scientific. p. 33.
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Challenges and goals for accelerators in the XXI century
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Solution Target Radioisotope Generator Technical Review
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An introduction to the physics of particle accelerators
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An introduction to the physics of particle accelerators
971:: A laser or particle beam excites an oscillation in a
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Building covering the 2 mile (3.2 km) beam tube of the
19:"Linac" redirects here. For the commune in France, see
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Focusing along the direction of travel, also known as
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A 3 TeV e+e− linear collider based on CLIC technology
1670:(Report). Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-11601-MS
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Faircloth, D C (24 March 2021). "Particle Sources".
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Linear Accelerator Injectors for Proton Synchrotrons
1722:. New York, New York: W.A. Benjamin, Inc. p. 59
1620:(2nd ed.). Hackensack, N.J.: World Scientific.
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and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in
80:. The principles for such machines were proposed by
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1096:Principle of the acceleration of particle packets
929:based on ERLs were in operation worldwide: in the
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238:. In 1970, Soviet physicists I. M. Kapchinsky and
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997:energies, especially towards higher frequencies.
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2262:"LIGHT: A LINEAR ACCELERATOR FOR PROTON THERAPY"
1257:Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine
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2194:Proceedings of the 28th Linear Accelerator Conf
2000:Weise, Hans; Decking, Winfried (10 July 2017).
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1740:Stokes, Richard H.; Wangler, Thomas P. (1988).
984:bunch frequency (currently ~ 3 GHz) for a
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92:. Linacs have many applications: they generate
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1846:Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility
1597:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press
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1392:. Therefore, high energy accelerators such as
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1861:Reviews of Accelerator Science and Technology
1746:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
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1492:Archiv für Elektronik und Übertragungstechnik
615:at one end of the chamber which produces the
552:
2221:
1999:
2043:"Heavy ions offer a new approach to fusion"
2002:"The world's longest superconducting linac"
1890:
1791:Theory and design of charged particle beams
1615:
1344:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1267:Application for medical isotope development
2246:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1914:
1912:
1591:Heilbron, J.L.; Seidel, Robert W. (1989).
1527:A brief history and review of accelerators
944:
868:
740:volts, and the charge on each particle is
2026:
2020:
1943:
1824:
1765:
1364:Learn how and when to remove this message
1033:The acceleration concepts used today for
962:Kielfeld accelerator (plasma accelerator)
1886:
1884:
1882:
1839:
1818:
1470:Arkiv för Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik
1467:
1245:
1194:
1147:
1132:
1111:
1101:
901:
575:
556:
273:
260:Argonne Tandem Linear Accelerator System
142:
134:
25:
1974:
1909:
1688:
1486:
2405:
1919:Edwards, D. A.; Syphers, M.J. (1993).
1891:Conte, Mario; MacKay, William (2008).
1787:
1616:Conte, Mario; MacKay, William (2008).
1584:
1547:
1524:
2167:. Springer International Publishing.
2113:
1879:
1250:Aerial view of the Little LINAC Model
1220:, with an 8 MV machine built by
1060:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
937:(Russia) and at JAEA (Japan). At the
115:or ions. Linacs range in size from a
1710:
1691:"Early Accelerator Work at Stanford"
1448:SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
1342:adding citations to reliable sources
1309:
1037:are always based on electromagnetic
309:it experiences a force given by the
228:SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
121:SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
1767:10.1146/annurev.ns.38.120188.000525
1642:"Alvarez proton linear accelerator"
1208:to treat it with the electron beam.
1161:electrostatic particle accelerators
935:Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics
13:
2202:10.18429/JACoW-LINAC2016-MOP106012
1952:International Atomic Energy Agency
1840:Westfall, Catherine (April 1997).
1013:Standing waves and traveling waves
991:
688:which generates a radio frequency
540:
14:
2439:
2386:
1720:The Stanford Two-Mile Accelerator
1689:Ginzton, Edward L. (April 1983).
1190:
890:concept goes back to the work of
2284:Review of Scientific Instruments
2073:Review of Scientific Instruments
1666:Lapostolle, Pierre (July 1989).
1314:
1305:
1084:was developed a little later at
262:(for protons and heavy ions) at
2369:
2326:
2280:"A Linear Electron Accelerator"
2271:
2254:
2215:
2181:
2154:
2107:
2060:
2035:
2014:
1993:
1968:
1937:
1852:
1833:
1812:
1733:
1704:
1026:, almost only their energy and
419:is the charge on the particle,
251:superconducting radio frequency
191:ever been reached at the time.
1682:
1659:
1634:
1609:
1541:
1518:
1480:
1461:
1204:localized tumor that prompted
919:Brookhaven National Laboratory
490:
477:is the particle velocity, and
461:
432:
380:
365:
347:
329:
208:Brookhaven National Laboratory
1:
1454:
1433:International Linear Collider
1128:
564:surrounding the linac of the
270:Basic principles of operation
2222:Raubenheimer, T. O. (2000).
1165:Cockcroft-Walton accelerator
1041:that are formed in suitable
979:Compact medical accelerators
877:Induction linear accelerator
16:Type of particle accelerator
7:
2347:10.1088/0031-9155/51/13/R20
1423:Dielectric wall accelerator
1400:
1228:Medical linear accelerators
637:radio frequency ion sources
582:Stanford Linear Accelerator
522:
297:Radiofrequency acceleration
264:Argonne National Laboratory
48:linear particle accelerator
10:
2444:
1947:Radiation Oncology Physics
1794:(2nd ed.). Weinheim:
1271:The expected shortages of
1154:Goodwin Steel Castings Ltd
986:Radio-frequency quadrupole
553:Construction and operation
499:{\displaystyle {\vec {B}}}
470:{\displaystyle {\vec {v}}}
441:{\displaystyle {\vec {E}}}
244:radio-frequency quadrupole
130:
18:
1873:10.1142/S1793626813300089
1066:. The frequency used was
831:{\displaystyle E=qNV_{p}}
58:that accelerates charged
2140:10.1002/piuz.19890200109
1288:Chalk River Laboratories
923:Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin
1788:Reiser, Martin (2008).
1646:Smithsonian Institution
1535:10.5170/CERN-1994-001.1
1418:Compact Linear Collider
1292:highly enriched uranium
1169:Van de Graaff generator
1062:under the direction of
951:Compact Linear Collider
945:Compact Linear Collider
869:Concepts in development
595:A straight hollow pipe
512:electrostatic breakdown
448:is the electric field,
2375:Gahl and Flagg (2009).
2196:. LINAC2016: 313–316.
2120:Physik in unserer Zeit
1261:Science Museum, London
1251:
1209:
1156:
1145:
1117:
1107:
1024:relativistic mechanics
855:
841:electron volts, where
832:
787:
786:{\displaystyle qV_{p}}
754:
734:
588:
573:
566:Australian Synchrotron
500:
471:
442:
413:
390:
293:
148:
140:
125:Menlo Park, California
90:RWTH Aachen University
43:
32:Australian Synchrotron
1987:10.5170/CERN-1956-025
1249:
1198:
1181:synchrotron radiation
1151:
1136:
1115:
1105:
969:Kielfeld accelerators
902:Energy recovery linac
892:Nicholas Christofilos
856:
833:
788:
755:
735:
733:{\displaystyle V_{p}}
679:electronic oscillator
579:
560:
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472:
443:
414:
391:
307:electromagnetic field
277:
146:
138:
30:The linac within the
29:
1711:Neal, R. B. (1968).
1525:Bryant, P J (1994).
1438:Particle accelerator
1338:improve this section
1222:Metropolitan-Vickers
1218:Hammersmith Hospital
927:free-electron lasers
845:
803:
767:
744:
717:
643:are generated in an
611:The particle source
481:
452:
423:
403:
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284:electrical potential
56:particle accelerator
50:(often shortened to
2413:Accelerator physics
2296:1948RScI...19...89G
2132:1989PhuZ...20...31F
2085:1964RScI...35..886C
1923:. New York: Wiley.
1758:1988ARNPS..38...97S
1560:2016cgat.book.....M
1408:Accelerator physics
1139:Stanford University
1116:by a traveling wave
1097:
1086:Stanford University
949:The concept of the
939:University of Mainz
623:are generated by a
174:(RF) acceleration.
71:electric potentials
60:subatomic particles
2114:Fraas, H. (1989).
1504:10.1007/BF01656341
1252:
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1157:
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1108:
1106:by a standing wave
1095:
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761:elementary charges
750:
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562:Quadrupole magnets
534:quadrupole magnets
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240:Vladimir Teplyakov
200:quadrupole magnets
149:
147:Alvarez type linac
141:
44:
2428:Cancer treatments
2304:10.1063/1.1741225
2174:978-3-319-14393-4
2093:10.1063/1.1746846
2010:. IOP Publishing.
1848:. JLAB-PHY-97-35.
1577:978-981-4436-39-7
1374:
1373:
1366:
1214:radiation therapy
1122:
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1092:and colleagues.
854:{\displaystyle N}
753:{\displaystyle q}
617:charged particles
572:the electron beam
568:are used to help
493:
464:
435:
412:{\displaystyle q}
383:
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98:radiation therapy
38:from a series of
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2418:Types of magnets
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656:(C1, C2, C3, C4)
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188:resonant chamber
117:cathode-ray tube
102:particle physics
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1954:. p. 138.
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1280:medical isotope
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1064:Luis W. Alvarez
1015:
1005:
1002:
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992:Modern concepts
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547:phase stability
543:
541:Phase stability
530:strong focusing
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172:radio frequency
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88:in 1928 at the
54:) is a type of
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1698:SLAC Beam Line
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1201:retinoblastoma
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1191:Medical linacs
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1051:phase velocity
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1798:. p. 6.
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1323:This section
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1306:Disadvantages
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1296:uranium salts
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2051:. Retrieved
2049:. 2002-06-25
2047:CERN Courier
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2007:CERN Courier
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1212:Linac-based
1211:
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625:cold cathode
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183:Luis Alvarez
179:World War II
176:
160:Rolf Wideroe
158:
153:Gustav Ising
150:
106:
86:Rolf Widerøe
82:Gustav Ising
51:
47:
45:
1867:: 171–196.
1674:February 4,
1488:Widerøe, R.
1300:heavy water
1090:W.W. Hansen
908:(beam dump)
629:hot cathode
606:synchrotron
601:vacuum pump
292:enormously.
289:(E, arrows)
164:vacuum tube
68:oscillating
40:RF cavities
36:radio waves
2407:Categories
2226:. Geneva.
2053:2021-01-22
2028:2103.13231
1950:. Vienna:
1844:(Report).
1826:2004.06720
1773:3 February
1726:2010-09-17
1651:3 February
1601:2 February
1476:(30): 1–4.
1455:References
1275:, and the
1185:antimatter
1129:Advantages
1043:resonators
912:undulators
645:ion source
21:Linac, Lot
2312:0034-6748
2242:cite book
2207:18 August
2148:0031-9252
2126:(1): 31.
2101:0034-6748
1796:Wiley-VCH
1713:"Chap. 5"
1512:109942448
1354:June 2017
1325:does not
1125:images.)
1047:Electrons
683:amplifier
621:Electrons
491:→
462:→
433:→
381:→
372:×
366:→
348:→
330:→
224:waveguide
151:In 1924,
109:electrons
2355:16790912
2320:18908606
1413:Beamline
1401:See also
1390:quenches
1236:tungsten
1028:momentum
955:klystron
921:and the
883:betatron
663:tungsten
523:Focusing
78:beamline
73:along a
2363:7672187
2292:Bibcode
2128:Bibcode
2081:Bibcode
1754:Bibcode
1700:: 2–16.
1556:Bibcode
1346:removed
1331:sources
1284:Uranium
896:ferrite
649:uranium
641:Protons
301:When a
255:niobium
236:hadrons
131:History
113:protons
2423:X-rays
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973:plasma
399:where
94:X-rays
75:linear
2359:S2CID
2265:(PDF)
2023:arXiv
1821:arXiv
1716:(PDF)
1694:(PDF)
1508:S2CID
1273:Mo-99
1163:(the
635:, or
570:focus
313:law:
181:that
52:linac
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2351:PMID
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2308:ISSN
2248:link
2228:ISBN
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2169:ISBN
2144:ISSN
2097:ISSN
1956:ISBN
1925:ISBN
1897:ISBN
1800:ISBN
1775:2022
1676:2022
1653:2022
1622:ISBN
1603:2022
1572:ISBN
1394:SLAC
1329:any
1327:cite
1167:and
1143:SLAC
1137:The
1035:ions
917:The
681:and
670:and
631:, a
627:, a
206:and
204:CERN
64:ions
2343:doi
2300:doi
2198:doi
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1983:doi
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1500:doi
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1298:in
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1081:GHz
1072:MHz
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