565:, though the substantia nigra's role in motor control is indirect; electrical stimulation of the substantia nigra does not result in movement, due to mediation of the striatum in the nigral influence of movement. The pars compacta sends excitatory input to the striatum via D1 pathway that excites and activates the striatum, resulting in the release of GABA onto the globus pallidus to inhibit its inhibitory effects on the thalamic nucleus. This causes the thalamocortical pathways to become excited and transmits motor neuron signals to the cerebral cortex to allow the initiation of movement, which is absent in Parkinson's disease. However, lack of pars compacta neurons has a large influence on movement, as evidenced by the symptoms of Parkinson's. The motor role of the pars compacta may involve fine motor control, as has been confirmed in animal models with lesions in that region.
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531:. In rats, the frequency of action potentials is roughly 25 Hz. The purpose of these spontaneous action potentials is to inhibit targets of the basal ganglia, and decreases in inhibition are associated with movement. The subthalamic nucleus gives excitatory input that modulates the rate of firing of these spontaneous action potentials. However, lesion of the subthalamic nucleus leads to only a 20% decrease in pars reticulata firing rate, suggesting that the generation of action potentials in the pars reticulata is largely autonomous, as exemplified by the pars reticulata's role in
711:
smaller substantia nigra, specifically in the SNpr. Because the SNpr is connected to the posterior thalamus, ventral thalamus and specifically, the motor cortex, and because participants with
Parkinson's disease report having a smaller SNprs (Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari, 2010), the small volume of this region may be responsible for motor impairments found in Parkinson's disease patients. This small volume may be responsible for weaker and/or less controlled motor movements, which may result in the tremors often experienced by those with Parkinson's.
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577:) are implicated in reward, pleasure, and addictive behavior. The pars compacta is also important in spatial learning, the observations about one's environment and location in space. Lesions in the pars compacta lead to learning deficits in repeating identical movements, and some studies point to its involvement in a dorsal striatal-dependent, response-based memory system that functions relatively independent of the
847:. The mechanism is thought to be via increased dopamine release and decreased GABA release in the nerves of the substantia nigra/striatum. The effect is most pronounced on the chest wall muscles and can lead to impaired ventilation. The condition is most commonly observed in anaesthesia where rapid and high doses of these drugs are given intravenously.
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interactions in schizophrenia. Dysbindin, which has been (controversially) linked to schizophrenia, may regulate dopamine release, and low expression of dysbindin in the substantia nigra may be important in schizophrenia etiology. Due to the changes to the substantia nigra in the schizophrenic brain,
445:, and other caudal nuclei from the pars reticulata (the nigrothalamic pathway), which use GABA as their neurotransmitter. In addition, these neurons form up to five collaterals that branch within both the pars compacta and pars reticulata, likely modulating dopaminergic activity in the pars compacta.
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The pars reticulata bears a strong structural and functional resemblance to the internal part of the globus pallidus. The two are sometimes considered parts of the same structure, separated by the white matter of the internal capsule. Like those of the globus pallidus, the neurons in pars reticulata
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than the substantia nigra. Cocaine administration increases metabolism in the substantia nigra, which can explain the altered motor function seen in cocaine-using subjects. The inhibition of dopamine reuptake by cocaine also inhibits the firing of spontaneous action potentials by the pars compacta.
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Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari (2010) used diffusion tensor imaging, as well as T1 mapping to assess volumetric differences in the SNpc and SNpr, in participants with
Parkinson's compared to healthy individuals. These researchers found that participants with Parkinson's consistently had a
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theory would explain the high cytotoxicity of
Parkinson's in the substantia nigra compared to the ventral tegmental area. Regardless of the cause of neuronal death, the plasticity of the pars compacta is very robust; Parkinsonian symptoms do not generally appear until at least 30% of pars compacta
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projection from the subthalamic nucleus to the pars reticulata. Thus, striatal activity via the direct pathway exerts an inhibitory effect on neurons in the (SNpr) but an excitatory effect via the indirect pathway. The direct and indirect pathways originate from different subsets of striatal medium
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is intimately linked with the striatum's function. The co-dependence between the striatum and substantia nigra can be seen in this way: when the substantia nigra is electrically stimulated, no movement occurs; however, the symptoms of nigral degeneration due to
Parkinson's is a poignant example of
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The pars compacta is heavily involved in learned responses to stimuli. In primates, dopaminergic neuron activity increases in the nigrostriatal pathway when a new stimulus is presented. Dopaminergic activity decreases with repeated stimulus presentation. However, behaviorally significant stimulus
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Schaser AJ, Osterberg VR, Dent SE, Stackhouse TL, Wakeham CM, Boutros SW, Weston LJ, Owen N, Weissman TA, Luna E, Raber J, Luk KC, McCullough AK, Woltjer RL, Unni VK. Alpha-synuclein is a DNA binding protein that modulates DNA repair with implications for Lewy body disorders. Sci Rep. 2019 Jul
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Soon after, MPTP was tested in animal models for its efficacy in inducing
Parkinson's disease (with success). MPTP induced akinesia, rigidity, and tremor in primates, and its neurotoxicity was found to be very specific to the substantia nigra pars compacta. In other animals, such as rodents, the
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and increases dopamine levels in the substantia nigra, thus alleviating the symptoms of
Parkinson's disease. The drawback of levodopa treatment is that it treats the symptoms of Parkinson's (low dopamine levels), rather than the cause (the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra).
930:, and non-competitive reuptake inhibition. Because of the similarity between amphetamine and trace amines, it is also a substrate for monoamine transporters; as a consequence, it (competitively) inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and other monoamines by competing with them for uptake, as well.
2649:
Gordon, Richard; Albornoz, Eduardo A.; Christie, Daniel C.; Langley, Monica R.; Kumar, Vinod; Mantovani, Susanna; Robertson, Avril A. B.; Butler, Mark S.; Rowe, Dominic B.; O’Neill, Luke A.; Kanthasamy, Anumantha G.; Schroder, Kate; Cooper, Matthew A.; Woodruff, Trent M. (31 October 2018).
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contaminated with MPTP. The patients, who were rigid and almost completely immobile, responded to levodopa treatment. No remission of the
Parkinson's-like symptoms was reported, suggesting irreversible death of the dopaminergic neurons. The proposed mechanism of MPTP involves disruption of
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Shibata E, Sasaki M, Tohyama K, Otsuka K, Endoh J, Terayama Y, Sakai A (September 2008). "Use of neuromelanin-sensitive MRI to distinguish schizophrenic and depressive patients and healthy individuals based on signal alterations in the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus".
798:
Other, non-pharmacological evidence in support of the dopamine hypothesis relating to the substantia nigra include structural changes in the pars compacta, such as reduction in synaptic terminal size. Other changes in the substantia nigra include increased expression of
958:'s mechanism of action in the human brain includes the inhibition of dopamine reuptake, which accounts for cocaine's addictive properties, as dopamine is the critical neurotransmitter for reward. However, cocaine is more active in the dopaminergic neurons of the
2034:
Da Cunha C, Wietzikoski S, Wietzikoski EC, Miyoshi E, Ferro MM, Anselmo-Franci JA, Canteras NS (May 2003). "Evidence for the substantia nigra pars compacta as an essential component of a memory system independent of the hippocampal memory system".
681:
The cause of death of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc is unknown. However, some contributions to the unique susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta have been identified. For one, dopaminergic neurons show abnormalities in
2821:
Kumamoto N, Matsuzaki S, Inoue K, Hattori T, Shimizu S, Hashimoto R, Yamatodani A, Katayama T, Tohyama M (June 2006). "Hyperactivation of midbrain dopaminergic system in schizophrenia could be attributed to the down-regulation of dysbindin".
416:. The direct pathway consists of axons from medium spiny cells in the striatum that project directly to pars reticulata. The indirect pathway consists of three links: a projection from striatal medium spiny cells to the external part of the
1768:
Tseng KY, Riquelme LA, Belforte JE, Pazo JH, Murer MG (January 2000). "Substantia nigra pars reticulata units in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats: responses to striatal D2 dopamine receptor stimulation and subthalamic lesions".
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dopaminergic neurons have died. Most of this plasticity occurs at the neurochemical level; dopamine transport systems are slowed, allowing dopamine to linger for longer periods of time in the chemical synapses in the striatum.
3677:
Blanchet PJ, Calon F, Morissette M, Hadj Tahar A, Bélanger N, Samadi P, Grondin R, Grégoire L, Meltzer L, Di Paolo T, Bédard PJ (July 2004). "Relevance of the MPTP primate model in the study of dyskinesia priming mechanisms".
1509:
Deniau JM, Kitai ST, Donoghue JP, Grofova I (1982). "Neuronal interactions in the substantia nigra pars reticulata through axon collaterals of the projection neurons. An electrophysiological and morphological study".
900:, thereby heightening the response of the post-synaptic neuron. The various mechanisms by which amphetamine and trace amines affect dopamine concentrations have been studied extensively, and are known to involve both
2707:
Li, Jingyi; Zhao, Jingwei; Chen, Longmin; Gao, Hongling; Zhang, Jing; Wang, Danlei; Zou, Yuan; Qin, Qixiong; Qu, Yi; Li, Jiangting; Xiong, Yongjie; Min, Zhe; Yan, Manli; Mao, Zhijuan; Xue, Zheng (1 February 2023).
573:(bottom part of the "midbrain" or mesencephalon) to the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical pathway) and to the nucleus accumbens (mesolimbic pathway – "meso" referring to "from the mesencephalon"... specifically the
1822:
Deransart C, Hellwig B, Heupel-Reuter M, Léger JF, Heck D, Lücking CH (December 2003). "Single-unit analysis of substantia nigra pars reticulata neurons in freely behaving rats with genetic absence epilepsy".
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Trist BG, Hare DJ, Double KL. Oxidative stress in the aging substantia nigra and the etiology of
Parkinson's disease. Aging Cell. 2019 Dec;18(6):e13031. doi: 10.1111/acel.13031. Epub 2019 Aug 20. Review.
1909:
Pioli EY, Meissner W, Sohr R, Gross CE, Bezard E, Bioulac BH (June 2008). "Differential behavioral effects of partial bilateral lesions of ventral tegmental area or substantia nigra pars compacta in rats".
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specific to dopaminergic cells in the brain, specifically in the substantia nigra. MPTP was brought to the spotlight in 1982 when heroin users in
California displayed Parkinson's-like symptoms after using
369:(SNpc), which lies medial to the pars reticulata. Sometimes, a third region, the pars lateralis, is mentioned, though it is usually classified as part of the pars reticulata. The (SNpr) and the internal
2415:
Liang CL, Sinton CM, Sonsalla PK, German DC (December 1996). "Midbrain dopaminergic neurons in the mouse that contain calbindin-D28k exhibit reduced vulnerability to MPTP-induced neurodegeneration".
608:. Even so, partial dopamine deficits that do not affect motor control can lead to disturbances in the sleep-wake cycle, especially REM-like patterns of neural activity while awake, especially in the
245:
Although the substantia nigra appears as a continuous band in brain sections, anatomical studies have found that it actually consists of two parts with very different connections and functions: the
4495:
3634:
Langston JW, Forno LS, Rebert CS, Irwin I (February 1984). "Selective nigral toxicity after systemic administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyrine (MPTP) in the squirrel monkey".
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Inactivation of the substantia nigra could prove to be a possible treatment for cocaine addiction. In a study of cocaine-dependent rats, inactivation of the substantia nigra via implanted
2228:
Bejjani, Boulos-Paul; Damier, Philippe; Arnulf, Isabelle; Thivard, Lionel; Bonnet, Anne-Marie; Dormont, Didier; Cornu, Philippe; Pidoux, Bernard; Samson, Yves; Agid, Yves (13 May 1999).
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induction of
Parkinson's by MPTP is incomplete or requires much higher and frequent doses than in primates. Today, MPTP remains the most favored method to induce Parkinson's disease in
3451:
Cheng N, Maeda T, Kume T, Kaneko S, Kochiyama H, Akaike A, Goshima Y, Misu Y (December 1996). "Differential neurotoxicity induced by L-DOPA and dopamine in cultured striatal neurons".
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of dopamine and L-DOPA. The drug is especially effective in treating patients in the early stages of Parkinson's, although it does lose its efficacy over time. Levodopa can cross the
308:
Anatomical overview of the main circuits of the basal ganglia, substantia nigra is shown in black. Picture shows 2 coronal slices that have been superimposed to include the involved
31:
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Menke RA, Jbabdi S, Miller KL, Matthews PM, Zarei M (October 2010). "Connectivity-based segmentation of the substantia nigra in human and its implications in Parkinson's disease".
1999:
Da Cunha C, Silva MH, Wietzikoski S, Wietzikoski EC, Ferro MM, Kouzmine I, Canteras NS (December 2006). "Place learning strategy of substantia nigra pars compacta-lesioned rats".
1690:
Zahr NM, Martin LP, Waszczak BL (November 2004). "Subthalamic nucleus lesions alter basal and dopamine agonist stimulated electrophysiological output from the rat basal ganglia".
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it may eventually be possible to use specific imaging techniques (such as neuromelanin-specific imaging) to detect physiological signs of schizophrenia in the substantia nigra.
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in the pars compacta leads to temporal deficits. As of late, the pars compacta has been suspected of regulating the sleep-wake cycle, which is consistent with symptoms such as
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535:. A group of GABAergic neurons from the pars reticulata projects to the superior colliculus, exhibiting a high level of sustained inhibitory activity. Projections from the
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concluded from his observation that "cell loss in the substantia nigra (of Parkinson's disease patients) could well be the cause of the dopamine deficit in the striatum."
1866:
Hodge GK, Butcher LL (August 1980). "Pars compacta of the substantia nigra modulates motor activity but is not involved importantly in regulating food and water intake".
2755:
van Rossum J (1967). "The significance of dopamine-receptor blockade for the action of neuroleptic drugs". In Brill H, Cole J, Deniker P, Hippius H, Bradley PB (eds.).
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of the substantia nigra is an important processing center in the basal ganglia. The GABAergic neurons in the pars reticulata convey the final processed signals of the
3408:
See RE, Elliott JC, Feltenstein MW (October 2007). "The role of dorsal vs ventral striatal pathways in cocaine-seeking behavior after prolonged abstinence in rats".
878:. Various compounds such as levodopa and MPTP are used in the treatment and study of Parkinson's disease, and many other drugs have effects on the substantia nigra.
1733:
Hikosaka O, Wurtz RH (May 1983). "Visual and oculomotor functions of monkey substantia nigra pars reticulata. III. Memory-contingent visual and saccade responses".
4481:
1095:
3824:
Hornykiewicz, O. (2006). "The discovery of dopamine deficiency in the parkinsonian brain". In Riederer, P.; Reichmann, H.; Youdim, M. B. H.; Gerlach, M. (eds.).
996:(commonly referred to as L-DOPA), the dopamine precursor, is the most commonly prescribed medication for Parkinson's disease, despite controversy concerning the
167:
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alluded to this structure in 1791. The differentiation between the substantia nigra pars reticulata and compacta was first proposed by Sano in 1910. In 1963,
589:
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to the superior colliculus also modulate saccadic eye movement. Altered patterns of pars reticulata firing such as single-spike or burst firing are found in
3261:
Heikkila RE, Cabbat FS, Duvoisin RC (1979). "Motor activity and rotational behavior after analogs of cocaine: correlation with dopamine uptake blockade".
3365:
Xia Y, Goebel DJ, Kapatos G, Bannon MJ (September 1992). "Quantitation of rat dopamine transporter mRNA: effects of cocaine treatment and withdrawal".
628:. There exist a study showing that high-frequency stimulation delivery to the left substantia nigra can induce transient acute depression symptoms.
3810:
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spiny cells: They are tightly intermingled, but express different types of dopamine receptors, as well as showing other neurochemical differences.
2710:"α-Synuclein induces Th17 differentiation and impairs the function and stability of Tregs by promoting RORC transcription in Parkinson's disease"
569:
presentation (i.e. rewards) continues to activate dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Dopaminergic projections from the
2778:
Kolomeets NS, Uranova NA (1999). "Synaptic contacts in schizophrenia: studies using immunocytochemical identification of dopaminergic neurons".
486:
the substantia nigra's influence on movement. In addition to striatum-mediated functions, the substantia nigra also serves as a major source of
971:
levels, most likely due to cocaine blocking dopamine receptors rather than direct interference with transcriptional or translational pathways.
3537:
Langston JW, Ballard P, Tetrud JW, Irwin I (February 1983). "Chronic Parkinsonism in humans due to a product of meperidine-analog synthesis".
1594:"Subregional changes in discharge rate, pattern, and drug sensitivity of putative GABAergic nigral neurons in the kindling model of epilepsy"
143:
4447:
1318:"Substantia nigra pars reticulata GABA is involved in the regulation of operant lever pressing: pharmacological and microdialysis studies"
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as well as by diffusing through the neural membrane directly. Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine and trace amines activate
3077:"The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity"
223:
for "black substance", reflecting the fact that parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of
767:. Despite the controversy, dopamine antagonists remain a standard and successful treatment for schizophrenia. These antagonists include
3494:
Rascol O, Payoux P, Ory F, Ferreira JJ, Brefel-Courbon C, Montastruc JL (2003). "Limitations of current Parkinson's disease therapy".
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structures. + and – signs at the point of the arrows indicate respectively whether the pathway is excitatory or inhibitory in effect.
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Carpenter MB, Nakano K, Kim R (February 1976). "Nigrothalamic projections in the monkey demonstrated by autoradiographic technics".
2179:
Dzirasa K, Ribeiro S, Costa R, Santos LM, Lin SC, Grosmark A, Sotnikova TD, Gainetdinov RR, Caron MG, Nicolelis MA (October 2006).
1956:
Ljungberg T, Apicella P, Schultz W (January 1992). "Responses of monkey dopamine neurons during learning of behavioral reactions".
690:; this can result in abnormal protein handling and neuron death. Secondly, dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta contain less
3933:
795:. In general, these drugs do not act on dopamine-producing neurons themselves, but on the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.
3899:
908:. Amphetamine is similar in structure to dopamine and trace amines; as a consequence, it can enter the presynaptic neuron via
896:
Studies have shown that, in certain brain regions, amphetamine and trace amines increase the concentrations of dopamine in the
3009:
Rosal, Nathaniel R.; Thelmo, Franklin L.; Tzarnas, Stephanie; DiCalvo, Lauren; Tariq, Shafaq; Grossman, Craig (January 2021).
1423:
Nauta HJ, Cole M (July 1978). "Efferent projections of the subthalamic nucleus: an autoradiographic study in monkey and cat".
292:: internal segment (GPi), and substantia nigra (SN, red). The right section is the deeper one, closer to the back of the head
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characterized, in part, by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc. The major symptoms of Parkinson's disease include
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1557:, Malenka RC (2000). "Dopaminergic modulation of neuronal excitability in the striatum and nucleus accumbens".
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Pergolizzi, Joseph V.; Webster, Lynn R.; Vortsman, Eugene; Ann LeQuang, Jo; Raffa, Robert B. (December 2021).
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2452:"Early Degeneration of Both Dopaminergic and Serotonergic Axons – A Common Mechanism in Parkinson's Disease"
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In addition, amphetamine and trace amines are substrates for the neuronal vesicular monoamine transporter,
341:
2592:"Melanin: a unifying theory of disease as exemplified by Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Lewy body dementia"
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1241:
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The substantia nigra is the target of chemical therapeutics for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.
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3157:"VMAT2: a dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse"
651:
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253:(SNpr). The pars compacta serves mainly as a projection to the basal ganglia circuit, supplying the
118:
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4323:
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3214:"International Union of Pharmacology. LXXII. Recommendations for trace amine receptor nomenclature"
2652:"Inflammasome inhibition prevents α-synuclein pathology and dopaminergic neurodegeneration in mice"
101:
3781:"Beitrag zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Substantia nigra, des Corpus Luysii und der Zona incerta"
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characterized by neuronal degeneration in the striatum and substantia nigra was previously called
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Horizontal MRI (T1 weighted) slice with highlighting indicating location of the substantia nigra.
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via axon collaterals, although the functional organization of these connections remains unclear.
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Matell MS, Meck WH (January 2000). "Neuropsychological mechanisms of interval timing behavior".
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Kim SJ, Sung JY, Um JW, Hattori N, Mizuno Y, Tanaka K, Paik SR, Kim J, Chung KC (October 2003).
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Schmidt N, Ferger B (2001). "Neurochemical findings in the MPTP model of Parkinson's disease".
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Neuropsychopharmacology, Proceedings Fifth Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologicum
2364:, Dawson VL (October 2003). "Molecular pathways of neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease".
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The substantia nigra is critical in the development of many diseases and syndromes, including
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Chemical manipulation and modification of the substantia nigra is important in the fields of
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Significant projections occur to the thalamus (ventral lateral and ventral anterior nuclei),
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Neuroanatomical terminology : a lexicon of classical origins and historical foundations
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1643:"Role of primate substantia nigra pars reticulata in reward-oriented saccadic eye movement"
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pathways that are excitatory on the direct pathway and inhibitory on the indirect pathway.
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Enhanced Neuromelanin MRI with Color images (RGB) showing Substantia nigra pars compacta
827:, also called fentanyl chest wall rigidity syndrome, is a rare side effect of synthetic
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1201:"Parkin cleaves intracellular alpha-synuclein inclusions via the activation of calpain"
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Rabey JM, Hefti F (1990). "Neuromelanin synthesis in rat and human substantia nigra".
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The mechanism by which cocaine inhibits dopamine reuptake involves its binding to the
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2115:"The role of the substantia nigra pars compacta in regulating sleep patterns in rats"
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Lima MM, Andersen ML, Reksidler AB, Vital MA, Tufik S (June 2007). Brosnan S (ed.).
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941:, the vesicle releases (effluxes) dopamine molecules into the cytosol in exchange.
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413:
374:
3212:
Maguire JJ, Parker WA, Foord SM, Bonner TI, Neubig RR, Davenport AP (March 2009).
2950:
Baruah, Udismita; Gaur, Himanshu; Saigal, Deepti; Pandey, Dimple (December 2022).
1368:"Intrinsic and integrative properties of substantia nigra pars reticulata neurons"
4828:
4806:
4774:
4685:
4664:
4582:
4554:
4544:
4426:
3951:
3906:
2667:
2139:
2012:
921:
730:
687:
671:
536:
505:
453:
The substantia nigra is an important player in brain function, in particular, in
417:
386:
370:
362:
289:
281:
250:
106:
3833:
2246:
2229:
131:
4966:
4931:
4756:
4729:
4673:
4007:
3124:
2835:
2608:
917:
897:
776:
772:
458:
409:
3731:
3714:
3421:
3026:
3011:"Wooden Chest Syndrome: A Case Report of Fentanyl-Induced Chest Wall Rigidity"
2952:"Wooden chest syndrome: A curious case of fentanyl induced rigidity in adults"
2725:
1746:
520:. In addition, the pars reticulata also inhibits dopaminergic activity in the
300:
Diagram of the main components of the basal ganglia and their interconnections
238:
is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra
4990:
4926:
4518:
4505:
4421:
4369:
3034:
2977:
2928:
2733:
2675:
2617:
2468:
2361:
2295:
2278:
2255:
2230:"Transient Acute Depression Induced by High-Frequency Deep-Brain Stimulation"
1969:
1391:
1341:
1049:
997:
967:
protein. However, studies show that cocaine can also cause a decrease in DAT
800:
780:
760:
759:
Increased levels of dopamine have long been implicated in the development of
562:
521:
509:
462:
429:
366:
347:
317:
309:
277:
273:
258:
246:
239:
208:
200:
155:
69:
65:
3558:
2385:
4948:
4845:
4766:
4629:
4365:
4328:
4109:
4017:
3851:
3740:
3699:
3612:
3515:
3429:
3247:
3198:
3110:
3052:
2995:
2968:
2936:
2879:
2843:
2799:
2741:
2693:
2635:
2578:
2558:
2531:
2487:
2428:
2393:
2339:
2304:
2263:
2214:
2158:
2099:
2056:
2020:
1931:
1844:
1800:
1711:
1676:
1619:
1578:
1409:
1349:
1226:
1217:
1200:
1041:
1033:
840:
824:
792:
717:
and oxidative damage in the SNpc are likely key drivers in the etiology of
663:
621:
478:
228:
224:
212:
3911:
3655:
3604:
3566:
3472:
3386:
3348:
3229:
2764:
2436:
1977:
1887:
1754:
1531:
1479:
1436:
1177:
1131:
4899:
4891:
4872:
4815:
4738:
4527:
4509:
4409:
4290:
4201:
3999:
3274:
2092:
10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(200001)22:1<94::AID-BIES14>3.0.CO;2-E
1444:
1316:
Correa, M; Mingote, S; Betz, A; Wisniecki, A; Salamone, J.D (July 2003).
1240:
Bolam, J. P.; Brown, M. T. C.; Moss, J.; Magill, P. J. (1 January 2009),
927:
891:
887:
844:
609:
578:
304:
3713:
Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Shoja MM, Mortazavi MM, Cohen-Gadol AA (July 2011).
1487:
1158:
Journal of Neural Transmission. Parkinson's Disease and Dementia Section
296:
2919:
2903:"Wooden Chest syndrome: The atypical pharmacology of fentanyl overdose"
2791:
1879:
1791:
1523:
1287:. Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol. 24. pp. 259–276.
1169:
1037:
1023:
875:
836:
734:
726:
358:. Humans have two substantiae nigrae, one on each side of the midline.
113:
3796:
3507:
2331:
1703:
702:
ion transport within cells, and excess calcium in cells is toxic. The
180:
4938:
4615:
3894:
2033:
808:
807:
expression. Increased NMDA receptors may point to the involvement of
804:
788:
738:
703:
695:
691:
601:
487:
470:
421:
3780:
2900:
1101:
Degradation of substantia nigra associated with Parkinson's disease.
4610:
4536:
3943:
1998:
993:
987:
975:
832:
812:
659:
597:
544:
513:
474:
466:
405:
346:
The substantia nigra, along with four other nuclei, is part of the
333:
254:
204:
125:
30:
2318:
Adler CH (2005). "Nonmotor complications in Parkinson's disease".
1821:
473:. Many of the substantia nigra's effects are mediated through the
42:
4549:
3676:
955:
950:
733:. Alpha synuclein is expressed in the substantia nigra, but its
699:
666:, and stiffness. Other symptoms include disturbances to posture,
532:
1285:
Handbook of Basal Ganglia Structure and Function, Second Edition
1283:
Kita H, Jaeger D (2016). "Organization of the Globus Pallidus".
865:
527:
The GABAergic neurons of the pars reticulata spontaneously fire
3891:
Stained brain slice images which include the "substantia nigra"
828:
742:
655:
593:
231:
4296:
Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus
763:. However, much debate continues to this day surrounding this
2820:
2648:
913:
220:
81:
640:
Substantia nigra with loss of cells and Lewy body pathology
257:
with dopamine. The pars reticulata conveys signals from the
1592:
Gernert M, Fedrowitz M, Wlaz P, Löscher W (November 2004).
1591:
1028:
1019:
1014:
968:
3536:
3315:"Actions of cocaine on rat dopaminergic neurones in vitro"
3015:
Journal of Investigative Medicine High Impact Case Reports
2856:
2227:
2112:
1508:
1315:
3712:
3008:
2509:
2414:
2178:
1767:
938:
581:, which is traditionally believed to subserve spatial or
3633:
3211:
1955:
3493:
3364:
3260:
2949:
2279:"Parkinson's disease: clinical features and diagnosis"
1908:
3407:
2590:
Berg, Stacie Z.; Berg, Jonathan (29 September 2023).
1552:
3450:
3287:
1239:
561:
The most prominent function of the pars compacta is
2824:
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
843:. It results in a generalised increase in skeletal
2283:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
1689:
1465:
3900:Diagram and explanation of cortico-basal pathways
3312:
2573:29;9(1):10919. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-47227-z.
2449:
4988:
2777:
1198:
604:disturbances that are reported by patients with
1951:
1949:
1060:The substantia nigra was discovered in 1784 by
881:
2568:
2566:
1868:Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology
4489:
3927:
3590:
3313:Lacey MG, Mercuri NB, North RA (April 1990).
2907:Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics
2706:
1732:
866:Chemical modification of the substantia nigra
3823:
3809:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
3205:
2360:
2270:
1946:
1865:
1640:
924:
909:
783:. These drugs have largely been replaced by
404:The main input to the SNpr derives from the
3941:
3444:
2563:
2181:"Dopaminergic control of sleep-wake states"
1248:, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 97–104,
978:greatly reduced cocaine addiction relapse.
785:second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics
592:and is activated during time reproduction.
424:projection from the globus pallidus to the
16:Structure in the basal ganglia of the brain
4496:
4482:
3934:
3920:
3288:Lakoski JM, Galloway MP, White FJ (1991).
3161:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
3154:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3117:
2754:
2503:
2077:
1282:
1155:
850:
3826:Parkinson's Disease and Related Disorders
3730:
3338:
3237:
3188:
3100:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3042:
2985:
2967:
2918:
2683:
2625:
2607:
2494:
2477:
2467:
2294:
2245:
2204:
2148:
2138:
1790:
1666:
1609:
1422:
1399:
1216:
937:(VMAT2). When amphetamine is taken up by
769:first generation (typical) antipsychotics
3131:. University of Alberta. 8 February 2013
2589:
2276:
1546:
1366:Zhou, F.-M.; Lee, C.R. (December 2011).
819:
635:
615:
303:
295:
268:
3753:
3706:
3586:
3584:
3360:
3358:
3143:
1365:
588:The pars compacta also plays a role in
436:
408:. It comes by two routes, known as the
399:
4989:
3074:
3059:
2780:Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology
1242:"Basal Ganglia: Internal Organization"
737:function appears to be compromised in
631:
361:The SN is divided into two parts: the
4477:
3915:
2317:
803:in the substantia nigra, and reduced
745:. This loss may trigger cell death.
490:inhibition to various brain targets.
354:in the midbrain, lying dorsal to the
3778:
3758:. England: Oxford University Press.
3680:Parkinsonism & Related Disorders
3581:
3502:(Suppl 3): S3–12, discussion S12–5.
3355:
3263:Communications in Psychopharmacology
2450:Grosch J, Winkler J, Kohl Z (2016).
1771:The European Journal of Neuroscience
1598:The European Journal of Neuroscience
1468:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
1425:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
1361:
1359:
1075:
920:signaling, induces dopamine efflux,
765:dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
755:Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
493:
261:to numerous other brain structures.
35:Substantia nigra highlighted in red.
2037:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
1205:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
13:
3828:. Springer Vienna. pp. 9–15.
3379:10.1111/j.1471-4159.1992.tb08365.x
3331:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1990.tb12998.x
3155:Eiden LE, Weihe E (January 2011).
1924:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.01.084
1659:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-06-02363.2002
1384:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.07.061
1293:10.1016/B978-0-12-802206-1.00013-1
1036:function, including disruption of
725:caused by oxidative stress can be
380:
276:slices of human brain showing the
14:
5013:
3882:
1641:Sato M, Hikosaka O (March 2002).
1356:
935:vesicular monoamine transporter 2
694:than other dopaminergic neurons.
4157:Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
3692:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2004.02.011
3181:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05906.x
3093:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x
2524:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.05.086
2164:
1837:10.1111/j.0013-9580.2003.26603.x
1783:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00910.x
1611:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03699.x
1254:10.1016/b978-008045046-9.01294-8
1130:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
748:
550:
207:that plays an important role in
175:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
41:
29:
3817:
3772:
3747:
3670:
3627:
3530:
3487:
3401:
3319:British Journal of Pharmacology
3306:
3281:
3254:
3002:
2943:
2894:
2850:
2814:
2771:
2748:
2700:
2642:
2583:
2546:
2443:
2408:
2354:
2311:
2234:New England Journal of Medicine
2221:
2172:
2106:
2071:
2027:
1992:
1902:
1859:
1815:
1761:
1726:
1683:
1634:
1585:
500:Pars reticulata § Function
4273:Rostromedial tegmental nucleus
3593:Journal of Neural Transmission
2872:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.03.021
2656:Science Translational Medicine
2197:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1767-06.2006
1571:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.185
1502:
1459:
1416:
1309:
1276:
1233:
1192:
1149:
481:input to the striatum via the
1:
4752:Anterior perforated substance
3465:10.1016/S0006-8993(96)01056-6
2956:Indian Journal of Anaesthesia
2714:Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
2049:10.1016/S1074-7427(03)00008-X
1559:Annual Review of Neuroscience
1334:10.1016/s0306-4522(03)00117-9
1244:, in Squire, Larry R. (ed.),
1142:
557:Pars compacta § Function
4443:Superior cerebellar peduncle
4316:Midbrain reticular formation
3648:10.1016/0006-8993(84)90777-7
2668:10.1126/scitranslmed.aah4066
2500:Interview. Yoland Smith, PhD
2140:10.1371/journal.pone.0000513
2013:10.1037/0735-7044.120.6.1279
1246:Encyclopedia of Neuroscience
1066:Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring
882:Amphetamine and trace amines
342:Primate basal ganglia system
264:
7:
4145:Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
3834:10.1007/978-3-211-45295-0_3
2247:10.1056/NEJM199905133401905
2185:The Journal of Neuroscience
1647:The Journal of Neuroscience
1512:Experimental Brain Research
981:
448:
373:(GPi) are separated by the
10:
5018:
4747:Anterior olfactory nucleus
3075:Miller GM (January 2011).
2836:10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.04.163
2609:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1228530
1958:Journal of Neurophysiology
1735:Journal of Neurophysiology
1055:
1012:
985:
948:
944:
885:
860:striatonigral degeneration
752:
729:by processes modulated by
643:
554:
497:
384:
339:
284:: external segment (GPe),
4947:
4890:
4871:
4844:
4814:
4804:
4765:
4737:
4728:
4628:
4603:
4535:
4526:
4517:
4512:and associated structures
4435:
4408:
4364:
4357:
4341:Reticulotegmental nucleus
4314:
4281:
4263:
4209:
4200:
4170:
4117:
4108:
4099:
4088:
4070:
4046:
4025:
4016:
3998:
3961:
3950:
3732:10.1007/s00381-011-1424-y
3422:10.1007/s00213-007-0850-8
3367:Journal of Neurochemistry
3081:Journal of Neurochemistry
3027:10.1177/23247096211034036
2726:10.1016/j.bbi.2022.10.023
2277:Jankovic J (April 2008).
1747:10.1152/jn.1983.49.5.1268
922:phosphorylation-dependent
698:is a protein involved in
686:, causing aggregation of
652:neurodegenerative disease
650:Parkinson's disease is a
203:structure located in the
173:
161:
149:
137:
124:
112:
100:
92:
80:
75:
61:
56:
51:showing substantia nigra.
40:
28:
23:
4836:Nucleus of diagonal band
4324:dorsal tegmental nucleus
4253:Edinger–Westphal nucleus
3799:(inactive 22 June 2024).
2469:10.3389/fncel.2016.00293
2296:10.1136/jnnp.2007.131045
1970:10.1152/jn.1992.67.1.145
4785:Lateral olfactory stria
4306:Interpeduncular nucleus
4038:Central tegmental tract
3559:10.1126/science.6823561
3218:Pharmacological Reviews
2596:Frontiers in Immunology
2386:10.1126/science.1087753
2001:Behavioral Neuroscience
1008:
856:Multiple system atrophy
851:Multiple system atrophy
684:mitochondrial complex 1
4854:Diagonal band of Broca
4780:Medial olfactory stria
4716:Subthalamic fasciculus
4694:Pallidothalamic tracts
4265:Ventral tegmental area
3719:Child's Nervous System
2969:10.4103/ija.ija_171_22
2429:10.1006/neur.1996.0042
1218:10.1074/jbc.M306017200
1089:Dopamine and serotonin
960:ventral tegmental area
641:
575:ventral tegmental area
571:ventral tegmental area
337:
301:
293:
4878:Hippocampal formation
4824:Substantia innominata
4709:Lenticular fasciculus
4455:Interpeduncular fossa
4398:Temporopontine fibers
4162:Dentatothalamic tract
3785:MSCHR Psychiat Neurol
3605:10.1007/s007020100004
3230:10.1124/pr.109.001107
2860:Biological Psychiatry
2456:Front. Cell. Neurosci
1480:10.1002/cne.901650402
1437:10.1002/cne.901800102
820:Wooden Chest Syndrome
721:as individuals age.
639:
616:Clinical significance
533:saccadic eye movement
483:nigrostriatal pathway
307:
299:
272:
4393:Frontopontine fibers
4388:Corticopontine tract
3963:Corpora quadrigemina
3905:23 June 2007 at the
965:dopamine transporter
583:episodic-like memory
437:Efferent connections
400:Afferent connections
350:. It is the largest
324:refer to inhibitory
316:refer to excitatory
4972:Schaffer collateral
4883:Hippocampus anatomy
4699:Thalamic fasciculus
4383:Corticobulbar tract
4378:Corticospinal tract
4286:Periaqueductal gray
4183:Rubro-olivary tract
4152:Spinothalamic tract
4118:Sensory / ascending
4026:Sensory / ascending
3983:Superior colliculus
3971:Inferior colliculus
3754:Swanson LW (2014).
3551:1983Sci...219..979L
3496:Annals of Neurology
3173:2011NYASA1216...86E
3021:: 232470962110340.
2378:2003Sci...302..819D
2326:(Suppl 11): S23-9.
2131:2007PLoSO...2..513L
1002:blood–brain barrier
719:Parkinson's disease
672:sleep abnormalities
646:Parkinson's disease
632:Parkinson's disease
626:Parkinson's disease
606:Parkinson's disease
590:temporal processing
541:Parkinson's disease
518:superior colliculus
443:superior colliculus
426:subthalamic nucleus
286:subthalamic nucleus
236:Parkinson's disease
49:superior colliculus
4900:Hippocampus proper
4574:Olfactory tubercle
4236:Oculomotor nucleus
4171:Motor / descending
4047:Motor / descending
3410:Psychopharmacology
2920:10.1111/jcpt.13484
2792:10.1007/BF02465329
2759:. pp. 321–9.
2320:Movement Disorders
1880:10.1007/BF00505805
1524:10.1007/BF00235891
1170:10.1007/BF02251241
741:inclusion bearing
642:
356:cerebral peduncles
338:
302:
294:
4984:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4867:
4866:
4800:
4799:
4792:Olfactory trigone
4724:
4723:
4704:Ansa lenticularis
4638:Centrum semiovale
4624:
4623:
4569:Nucleus accumbens
4471:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4353:
4352:
4349:
4348:
4301:Parabrachial area
4241:Trochlear nucleus
4196:
4195:
4178:Rubrospinal tract
4080:Cerebral aqueduct
4066:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4054:Tectospinal tract
4033:Spinotectal tract
3988:Superior brachium
3976:Inferior brachium
3895:BrainMaps project
3843:978-3-211-28927-3
3797:10.1159/000209678
3508:10.1002/ana.10513
3299:978-0-8493-8813-2
3292:. Telford Press.
2417:Neurodegeneration
2332:10.1002/mds.20460
2240:(19): 1476–1480.
1704:10.1002/syn.20064
1263:978-0-08-045046-9
1076:Additional images
1070:Oleh Hornykiewicz
1062:Félix Vicq-d'Azyr
916:, which, through
872:neuropharmacology
529:action potentials
414:indirect pathways
189:
188:
184:
5009:
4888:
4887:
4859:Stria terminalis
4812:
4811:
4735:
4734:
4681:External capsule
4645:Internal capsule
4564:Ventral striatum
4533:
4532:
4524:
4523:
4498:
4491:
4484:
4475:
4474:
4414:Substantia nigra
4362:
4361:
4207:
4206:
4115:
4114:
4106:
4105:
4097:
4096:
4023:
4022:
3959:
3958:
3936:
3929:
3922:
3913:
3912:
3876:
3875:
3869:
3865:
3863:
3855:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3808:
3800:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3734:
3710:
3704:
3703:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3588:
3579:
3578:
3545:(4587): 979–80.
3534:
3528:
3527:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3448:
3442:
3441:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3362:
3353:
3352:
3342:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3241:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3192:
3152:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3104:
3072:
3057:
3056:
3046:
3006:
3000:
2999:
2989:
2971:
2947:
2941:
2940:
2922:
2913:(6): 1505–1508.
2898:
2892:
2891:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2687:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2629:
2611:
2587:
2581:
2570:
2561:
2550:
2544:
2543:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2481:
2471:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2372:(5646): 819–22.
2358:
2352:
2351:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2298:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2249:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2208:
2191:(41): 10577–89.
2176:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2162:
2152:
2142:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2031:
2025:
2024:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1953:
1944:
1943:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1794:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1670:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1613:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1403:
1363:
1354:
1353:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1220:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1153:
1134:
1122:
1110:
1098:
1086:
1040:and creation of
940:
926:
911:
715:Oxidative stress
375:internal capsule
331:
330:turquoise arrows
323:
315:
217:Substantia nigra
193:substantia nigra
181:edit on Wikidata
178:
87:substantia nigra
47:Section through
45:
33:
24:Substantia nigra
21:
20:
5017:
5016:
5012:
5011:
5010:
5008:
5007:
5006:
4987:
4986:
4985:
4976:
4943:
4881:
4876:
4863:
4840:
4829:Nucleus basalis
4807:basal forebrain
4796:
4775:Olfactory tract
4761:
4720:
4686:Extreme capsule
4665:Optic radiation
4620:
4599:
4583:Globus pallidus
4555:Caudate nucleus
4545:Dorsal striatum
4513:
4502:
4472:
4459:
4431:
4427:Pars reticulata
4404:
4345:
4310:
4277:
4259:
4192:
4166:
4092:
4084:
4058:
4042:
4012:
3994:
3954:
3946:
3942:Anatomy of the
3940:
3907:Wayback Machine
3885:
3880:
3879:
3867:
3866:
3857:
3856:
3844:
3822:
3818:
3802:
3801:
3779:Sano T (1910).
3777:
3773:
3766:
3752:
3748:
3711:
3707:
3675:
3671:
3632:
3628:
3599:(11): 1263–82.
3589:
3582:
3535:
3531:
3492:
3488:
3459:(1–2): 278–83.
3449:
3445:
3406:
3402:
3363:
3356:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3286:
3282:
3259:
3255:
3210:
3206:
3153:
3144:
3134:
3132:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3073:
3060:
3007:
3003:
2962:(12): 881–882.
2948:
2944:
2899:
2895:
2855:
2851:
2819:
2815:
2776:
2772:
2753:
2749:
2705:
2701:
2647:
2643:
2588:
2584:
2571:
2564:
2551:
2547:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2448:
2444:
2413:
2409:
2359:
2355:
2316:
2312:
2275:
2271:
2226:
2222:
2177:
2173:
2163:
2111:
2107:
2076:
2072:
2032:
2028:
1997:
1993:
1954:
1947:
1907:
1903:
1864:
1860:
1831:(12): 1513–20.
1820:
1816:
1766:
1762:
1731:
1727:
1688:
1684:
1639:
1635:
1590:
1586:
1551:
1547:
1507:
1503:
1464:
1460:
1421:
1417:
1364:
1357:
1314:
1310:
1303:
1281:
1277:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1238:
1234:
1211:(43): 41890–9.
1197:
1193:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1126:
1123:
1114:
1111:
1102:
1099:
1090:
1087:
1078:
1058:
1017:
1011:
990:
984:
953:
947:
928:internalization
894:
884:
868:
853:
835:, Sulfentanil,
822:
757:
751:
731:alpha-synuclein
688:alpha-synuclein
648:
634:
618:
559:
553:
537:caudate nucleus
506:pars reticulata
502:
496:
494:Pars reticulata
451:
439:
418:globus pallidus
402:
389:
387:Pars reticulata
383:
381:Pars reticulata
371:globus pallidus
365:(SNpr) and the
363:pars reticulata
344:
329:
321:
313:
290:globus pallidus
282:globus pallidus
267:
251:pars reticulata
249:(SNpc) and the
185:
52:
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5015:
5005:
5004:
4999:
4982:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4974:
4969:
4967:Perforant path
4964:
4959:
4953:
4951:
4945:
4944:
4942:
4941:
4936:
4935:
4934:
4932:Fascia dentata
4924:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4896:
4894:
4885:
4869:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4856:
4850:
4848:
4842:
4841:
4839:
4838:
4833:
4832:
4831:
4820:
4818:
4809:
4802:
4801:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4789:
4788:
4787:
4782:
4771:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4757:Olfactory bulb
4754:
4749:
4743:
4741:
4732:
4730:Rhinencephalon
4726:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4712:
4711:
4706:
4689:
4688:
4683:
4677:
4676:
4674:Corona radiata
4670:
4669:
4668:
4667:
4662:
4660:Posterior limb
4657:
4652:
4641:
4640:
4634:
4632:
4626:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4607:
4605:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4590:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4557:
4552:
4541:
4539:
4530:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4501:
4500:
4493:
4486:
4478:
4469:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4461:
4460:
4458:
4457:
4452:
4451:
4450:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4418:
4416:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4402:
4401:
4400:
4395:
4385:
4380:
4374:
4372:
4359:
4355:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4337:
4336:
4326:
4320:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4282:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4275:
4269:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4257:
4256:
4255:
4245:
4244:
4243:
4238:
4228:
4227:
4226:
4215:
4213:
4211:cranial nuclei
4204:
4198:
4197:
4194:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4188:Descending MLF
4185:
4180:
4174:
4172:
4168:
4167:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4148:
4147:
4137:
4136:
4135:
4130:
4121:
4119:
4112:
4103:
4094:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4076:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4056:
4050:
4048:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4029:
4027:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4008:Pretectal area
4004:
4002:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3990:
3980:
3979:
3978:
3967:
3965:
3956:
3948:
3947:
3939:
3938:
3931:
3924:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3897:
3888:
3884:
3883:External links
3881:
3878:
3877:
3868:|journal=
3842:
3816:
3771:
3764:
3746:
3705:
3686:(5): 297–304.
3669:
3636:Brain Research
3626:
3580:
3529:
3486:
3453:Brain Research
3443:
3400:
3373:(3): 1179–82.
3354:
3305:
3298:
3280:
3253:
3204:
3142:
3116:
3058:
3001:
2942:
2893:
2849:
2813:
2770:
2747:
2699:
2641:
2582:
2562:
2545:
2518:(4): 1175–80.
2502:
2493:
2442:
2407:
2353:
2310:
2269:
2220:
2171:
2105:
2070:
2026:
2007:(6): 1279–84.
1991:
1945:
1918:(4): 1213–24.
1901:
1858:
1814:
1760:
1741:(5): 1268–84.
1725:
1682:
1653:(6): 2363–73.
1633:
1604:(9): 2377–86.
1584:
1545:
1501:
1458:
1415:
1355:
1328:(3): 759–766.
1308:
1301:
1275:
1262:
1232:
1191:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1057:
1054:
1010:
1007:
983:
980:
946:
943:
918:protein kinase
898:synaptic cleft
883:
880:
867:
864:
852:
849:
821:
818:
801:NMDA receptors
777:phenothiazines
773:butyrophenones
750:
747:
676:depressed mood
644:Main article:
633:
630:
617:
614:
555:Main article:
552:
549:
498:Main article:
495:
492:
463:reward-seeking
459:motor planning
450:
447:
438:
435:
401:
398:
385:Main article:
382:
379:
266:
263:
187:
186:
177:
171:
170:
165:
159:
158:
153:
147:
146:
141:
135:
134:
129:
122:
121:
116:
110:
109:
104:
98:
97:
94:
90:
89:
84:
78:
77:
73:
72:
63:
59:
58:
54:
53:
46:
38:
37:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5014:
5003:
5002:Basal ganglia
5000:
4998:
4995:
4994:
4992:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4950:
4946:
4940:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4929:
4928:
4927:Dentate gyrus
4925:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4898:
4897:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4870:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4837:
4834:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4819:
4817:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4803:
4793:
4790:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4764:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4744:
4742:
4740:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4727:
4717:
4714:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4691:
4690:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4650:Anterior limb
4648:
4647:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4639:
4636:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4627:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4602:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4565:
4562:
4561:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4538:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4519:Basal ganglia
4516:
4511:
4507:
4506:basal ganglia
4499:
4494:
4492:
4487:
4485:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4456:
4453:
4449:
4446:
4445:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4438:
4434:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4422:Pars compacta
4420:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4373:
4371:
4370:Cerebral crus
4367:
4363:
4360:
4356:
4342:
4339:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4313:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4280:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4266:
4262:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4246:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4233:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4224:Mesencephalic
4222:
4221:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4212:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4146:
4143:
4142:
4141:
4140:Ascending MLF
4138:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4073:
4069:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4003:
4001:
3997:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3984:
3981:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3937:
3932:
3930:
3925:
3923:
3918:
3917:
3914:
3908:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3886:
3873:
3861:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3820:
3812:
3806:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3767:
3765:9780195340624
3761:
3757:
3750:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3725:(7): 1031–4.
3724:
3720:
3716:
3709:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3673:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3630:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3587:
3585:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3490:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3447:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3416:(3): 321–31.
3415:
3411:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3361:
3359:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3309:
3301:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3276:
3272:
3269:(5): 285–90.
3268:
3264:
3257:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3200:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3151:
3149:
3147:
3130:
3126:
3125:"Amphetamine"
3120:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3087:(2): 164–76.
3086:
3082:
3078:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2897:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2853:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2817:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2786:(2): 217–21.
2785:
2781:
2774:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2703:
2695:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2567:
2560:
2556:
2549:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2289:(4): 368–76.
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2167:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2086:(1): 94–103.
2085:
2081:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2043:(3): 236–42.
2042:
2038:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1995:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1964:(1): 145–63.
1963:
1959:
1952:
1950:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1905:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1777:(1): 247–56.
1776:
1772:
1764:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1698:(2): 119–28.
1697:
1693:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1518:(1): 105–13.
1517:
1513:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1474:(4): 401–15.
1473:
1469:
1462:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1360:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1304:
1302:9780128022061
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1265:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1152:
1148:
1133:
1128:
1121:
1116:
1109:
1104:
1097:
1092:
1085:
1080:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1053:
1051:
1050:animal models
1045:
1043:
1042:free radicals
1039:
1035:
1034:mitochondrial
1030:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1006:
1003:
999:
998:neurotoxicity
995:
989:
979:
977:
972:
970:
966:
961:
957:
952:
942:
936:
931:
929:
923:
919:
915:
907:
903:
899:
893:
889:
879:
877:
873:
863:
861:
857:
848:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
817:
814:
810:
806:
802:
796:
794:
790:
786:
782:
781:thioxanthenes
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
761:schizophrenia
756:
749:Schizophrenia
746:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
647:
638:
629:
627:
623:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
586:
584:
580:
576:
572:
566:
564:
563:motor control
558:
551:Pars compacta
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
525:
523:
522:pars compacta
519:
515:
511:
510:basal ganglia
507:
501:
491:
489:
484:
480:
477:. The nigral
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
446:
444:
434:
431:
430:glutamatergic
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
397:
395:
388:
378:
376:
372:
368:
367:pars compacta
364:
359:
357:
353:
349:
348:basal ganglia
343:
335:
328:pathways and
327:
319:
318:glutamatergic
311:
310:basal ganglia
306:
298:
291:
287:
283:
279:
278:basal ganglia
275:
271:
262:
260:
259:basal ganglia
256:
252:
248:
247:pars compacta
243:
241:
240:pars compacta
237:
233:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
201:basal ganglia
198:
194:
182:
176:
172:
169:
166:
164:
160:
157:
154:
152:
148:
145:
142:
140:
136:
133:
130:
127:
123:
120:
117:
115:
111:
108:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
88:
85:
83:
79:
74:
71:
70:basal ganglia
67:
64:
60:
55:
50:
44:
39:
32:
27:
22:
19:
4949:White matter
4846:White matter
4767:White matter
4692:
4630:White matter
4413:
4329:Raphe nuclei
4110:White matter
4018:White matter
3825:
3819:
3805:cite journal
3791:(1): 26–34.
3788:
3784:
3774:
3755:
3749:
3722:
3718:
3708:
3683:
3679:
3672:
3642:(2): 390–4.
3639:
3635:
3629:
3596:
3592:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3370:
3366:
3325:(4): 731–5.
3322:
3318:
3308:
3289:
3283:
3266:
3262:
3256:
3221:
3217:
3207:
3167:(1): 86–98.
3164:
3160:
3133:. Retrieved
3128:
3119:
3084:
3080:
3018:
3014:
3004:
2959:
2955:
2945:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2866:(5): 401–6.
2863:
2859:
2852:
2830:(2): 904–9.
2827:
2823:
2816:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2756:
2750:
2717:
2713:
2702:
2659:
2655:
2644:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2548:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2496:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2423:(4): 313–8.
2420:
2416:
2410:
2369:
2365:
2356:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2237:
2233:
2223:
2188:
2184:
2174:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2040:
2036:
2029:
2004:
2000:
1994:
1961:
1957:
1915:
1912:Neuroscience
1911:
1904:
1874:(1): 51–67.
1871:
1867:
1861:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1774:
1770:
1763:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1650:
1646:
1636:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1375:
1372:Neuroscience
1371:
1325:
1322:Neuroscience
1321:
1311:
1284:
1278:
1267:, retrieved
1245:
1235:
1208:
1204:
1194:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1137:Microfilming
1059:
1046:
1018:
991:
973:
954:
932:
895:
869:
859:
854:
841:Remifentanil
825:Wooden chest
823:
797:
793:paliperidone
758:
713:
709:
680:
664:bradykinesia
649:
622:parkinsonism
619:
587:
567:
560:
526:
503:
479:dopaminergic
455:eye movement
452:
440:
403:
390:
360:
345:
334:dopaminergic
314:Green arrows
244:
229:dopaminergic
225:neuromelanin
216:
196:
192:
190:
144:A14.1.06.111
86:
18:
4892:Grey matter
4873:Archicortex
4816:Grey matter
4739:Grey matter
4528:Grey matter
4510:human brain
4448:Decussation
4291:Red nucleus
4202:Grey matter
4000:Grey matter
2125:(6): e513.
1792:11336/39220
1565:: 185–215.
1553:Nicola SM,
1431:(1): 1–16.
1269:7 September
1164:(1): 1–14.
892:Trace amine
888:Amphetamine
845:muscle tone
723:DNA damages
610:hippocampus
585:functions.
579:hippocampus
392:are mainly
132:birnlex_789
76:Identifiers
4991:Categories
3224:(1): 1–8.
3135:13 October
2512:NeuroImage
1555:Surmeier J
1143:References
1038:metabolism
1024:neurotoxin
1013:See also:
986:See also:
949:See also:
886:See also:
876:toxicology
837:Alfentanil
753:See also:
735:DNA repair
340:See also:
322:red arrows
320:pathways,
114:NeuroNames
93:Acronym(s)
4939:Subiculum
4616:Claustrum
4124:Lemnisci
4101:Tegmentum
4093:(Ventral)
3870:ignored (
3860:cite book
3035:2324-7096
2978:0019-5049
2929:0269-4727
2734:0889-1591
2720:: 32–44.
2676:1946-6234
2618:1664-3224
2362:Dawson TM
2256:0028-4793
2080:BioEssays
1825:Epilepsia
1392:0306-4522
1378:: 69–94.
1342:0306-4522
809:glutamate
805:dysbindin
789:clozapine
739:Lewy body
704:calbindin
696:Calbindin
692:calbindin
602:REM sleep
488:GABAergic
471:addiction
422:GABAergic
394:GABAergic
332:refer to
326:GABAergic
265:Structure
4997:Midbrain
4611:Amygdala
4537:Striatum
4504:Rostral
4090:Peduncle
3955:(Dorsal)
3944:midbrain
3903:Archived
3852:17017502
3741:21445631
3700:15196509
3664:34183578
3613:11768626
3575:31966839
3524:45078589
3516:12666094
3481:22529926
3438:12652533
3430:17589830
3395:34068876
3248:19325074
3199:21272013
3129:DrugBank
3111:21073468
3053:34301155
2996:36654889
2937:34240442
2888:25752976
2880:18452894
2844:16701550
2800:10432512
2742:36343753
2694:30381407
2636:37841274
2627:10570809
2579:31358782
2559:31432604
2540:19871414
2532:20677376
2488:28066188
2402:35486083
2394:14593166
2348:19045599
2340:15822106
2305:18344392
2264:10320386
2215:17035544
2159:17551593
2119:PLOS ONE
2100:10649295
2065:12045200
2057:12676522
2021:17201473
1986:18024404
1940:11239586
1932:18455318
1896:24642979
1845:14636321
1809:22886675
1801:10651879
1720:10239473
1712:15352137
1677:11896175
1628:24485657
1620:15525279
1579:10845063
1540:20289802
1496:11790266
1453:43046462
1410:21839148
1350:12809696
1227:12917442
994:Levodopa
988:Levodopa
982:Levodopa
976:cannulae
833:Fentanyl
831:such as
813:dopamine
787:such as
771:such as
727:repaired
660:akinesia
598:insomnia
545:epilepsy
514:thalamus
475:striatum
467:learning
449:Function
428:, and a
406:striatum
255:striatum
213:movement
205:midbrain
126:NeuroLex
66:Midbrain
4962:Fimbria
4550:Putamen
4508:of the
4436:Surface
4133:Lateral
3893:at the
3656:6607092
3621:2834254
3567:6823561
3547:Bibcode
3539:Science
3473:9017256
3387:1494906
3349:2361170
3340:1917549
3290:Cocaine
3239:2830119
3190:4183197
3169:Bibcode
3102:3005101
3044:8312149
2987:9842087
2808:2233617
2685:6483075
2662:(465).
2479:5177648
2462:: 293.
2437:9117542
2374:Bibcode
2366:Science
2206:6674686
2150:1876809
2127:Bibcode
1978:1552316
1888:7207636
1853:6661257
1755:6864250
1692:Synapse
1668:6758246
1532:6288427
1401:3221915
1186:6769760
1178:2357268
1056:History
1022:, is a
956:Cocaine
951:Cocaine
945:Cocaine
829:opioids
743:neurons
700:calcium
668:fatigue
594:Lesions
512:to the
352:nucleus
288:(STN),
274:Coronal
232:neurons
199:) is a
107:D013378
62:Part of
57:Details
4957:Alveus
4805:Other
4334:dorsal
4128:Medial
3952:Tectum
3850:
3840:
3762:
3739:
3698:
3662:
3654:
3619:
3611:
3573:
3565:
3522:
3514:
3479:
3471:
3436:
3428:
3393:
3385:
3347:
3337:
3296:
3275:575770
3273:
3246:
3236:
3197:
3187:
3109:
3099:
3051:
3041:
3033:
2994:
2984:
2976:
2935:
2927:
2886:
2878:
2842:
2806:
2798:
2765:458719
2763:
2740:
2732:
2692:
2682:
2674:
2634:
2624:
2616:
2577:
2557:
2538:
2530:
2486:
2476:
2435:
2400:
2392:
2346:
2338:
2303:
2262:
2254:
2213:
2203:
2157:
2147:
2098:
2063:
2055:
2019:
1984:
1976:
1938:
1930:
1894:
1886:
1851:
1843:
1807:
1799:
1753:
1718:
1710:
1675:
1665:
1626:
1618:
1577:
1538:
1530:
1494:
1486:
1451:
1445:418083
1443:
1408:
1398:
1390:
1348:
1340:
1299:
1260:
1225:
1184:
1176:
1064:, and
779:, and
674:, and
656:tremor
469:, and
410:direct
209:reward
4604:Other
4366:White
3660:S2CID
3617:S2CID
3571:S2CID
3520:S2CID
3477:S2CID
3434:S2CID
3391:S2CID
2884:S2CID
2804:S2CID
2536:S2CID
2398:S2CID
2344:S2CID
2061:S2CID
1982:S2CID
1936:S2CID
1892:S2CID
1849:S2CID
1805:S2CID
1716:S2CID
1624:S2CID
1536:S2CID
1492:S2CID
1488:57125
1449:S2CID
1182:S2CID
939:VMAT2
914:TAAR1
906:VMAT2
221:Latin
179:[
168:67947
82:Latin
4655:Genu
4410:Grey
4358:Base
3872:help
3848:PMID
3838:ISBN
3811:link
3760:ISBN
3737:PMID
3696:PMID
3652:PMID
3609:PMID
3563:PMID
3512:PMID
3469:PMID
3426:PMID
3383:PMID
3345:PMID
3294:ISBN
3271:PMID
3244:PMID
3195:PMID
3165:1216
3137:2013
3107:PMID
3049:PMID
3031:ISSN
2992:PMID
2974:ISSN
2933:PMID
2925:ISSN
2876:PMID
2840:PMID
2796:PMID
2761:OCLC
2738:PMID
2730:ISSN
2690:PMID
2672:ISSN
2632:PMID
2614:ISSN
2575:PMID
2555:PMID
2528:PMID
2484:PMID
2433:PMID
2390:PMID
2336:PMID
2301:PMID
2260:PMID
2252:ISSN
2211:PMID
2155:PMID
2096:PMID
2053:PMID
2017:PMID
1974:PMID
1928:PMID
1884:PMID
1841:PMID
1797:PMID
1751:PMID
1708:PMID
1673:PMID
1616:PMID
1575:PMID
1528:PMID
1484:PMID
1441:PMID
1406:PMID
1388:ISSN
1346:PMID
1338:ISSN
1297:ISBN
1271:2020
1258:ISBN
1223:PMID
1174:PMID
1029:MPPP
1020:MPTP
1015:MPTP
1009:MPTP
969:mRNA
904:and
890:and
874:and
791:and
624:and
600:and
543:and
516:and
504:The
420:; a
412:and
211:and
191:The
156:5881
139:TA98
102:MeSH
4920:CA4
4915:CA3
4910:CA2
4905:CA1
4593:GPi
4588:GPe
4248:GVE
4231:GSE
4219:GSA
4072:CSF
3830:doi
3793:doi
3727:doi
3688:doi
3644:doi
3640:292
3601:doi
3597:108
3555:doi
3543:219
3504:doi
3461:doi
3457:743
3418:doi
3414:194
3375:doi
3335:PMC
3327:doi
3234:PMC
3226:doi
3185:PMC
3177:doi
3097:PMC
3089:doi
3085:116
3039:PMC
3023:doi
2982:PMC
2964:doi
2915:doi
2868:doi
2832:doi
2828:345
2788:doi
2722:doi
2718:108
2680:PMC
2664:doi
2622:PMC
2604:doi
2520:doi
2474:PMC
2464:doi
2425:doi
2382:doi
2370:302
2328:doi
2291:doi
2242:doi
2238:340
2201:PMC
2193:doi
2145:PMC
2135:doi
2088:doi
2045:doi
2009:doi
2005:120
1966:doi
1920:doi
1916:153
1876:doi
1872:313
1833:doi
1787:hdl
1779:doi
1743:doi
1700:doi
1663:PMC
1655:doi
1606:doi
1567:doi
1520:doi
1476:doi
1472:165
1433:doi
1429:180
1396:PMC
1380:doi
1376:198
1330:doi
1326:119
1289:doi
1250:doi
1213:doi
1209:278
1166:doi
925:DAT
910:DAT
902:DAT
227:in
219:is
163:FMA
151:TA2
119:536
4993::
4412:/
4368:/
3864::
3862:}}
3858:{{
3846:.
3836:.
3807:}}
3803:{{
3789:28
3787:.
3783:.
3735:.
3723:27
3721:.
3717:.
3694:.
3684:10
3682:.
3658:.
3650:.
3638:.
3615:.
3607:.
3595:.
3583:^
3569:.
3561:.
3553:.
3541:.
3518:.
3510:.
3500:53
3498:.
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