Learning - Knowledge

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solve a novel problem presented in a different context. Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning. Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities". Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to promote.

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appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment is when an aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment. For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality, the child is losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example, negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc.

1347:. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does motivation to attend school. 1766:

the previous day. The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day. For example, if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-pipe, the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning.

508:) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively. Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant 1067:

stronger support than subjects with formal learning in the topic of mathematics. Daily life experiences take place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal learning is voluntary from the learner's viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that may arise while learning. From the learner's perspective, informal learning can become purposeful, because the learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to take place within smaller groups or by oneself.

541:. This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from a progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism. 1831: 1722:

innate knowledge. Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having it determines whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the benefit of having it, then the animal does not evolve to learn in this scenario—but instead, non-learning evolves. However, if the benefit of having certain information outweighs the cost of obtaining it, then the animal is far more likely to evolve to have to learn this information.

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first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the

52: 672:'s radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was " 1770:

Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are "stretch-gated" and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize. Gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in

1758:. The garden pea is not specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues' 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors. Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors. 1227: 74: 1063:, and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience. Thus this does not require enrollment into any class. Unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to accreditation. Informal learning begins to unfold as the learner ponders his or her situation. This type of learning does not require a professor of any kind, and learning outcomes are unforeseen following the learning experience. 1008: 1800: 1611: 5958: 1218:

implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.

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blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated by auxin signaling pathways.

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information—non-learning evolves. Similarly, if an environment is in a constant state of change, learning is also disadvantageous, as anything learned is immediately irrelevant because of the changing environment. The learned information no longer applies. Essentially, the animal would be just as successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a study of

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of view", a "careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer. To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content.

1853:, concerns the construction and study of systems that can learn from data. For example, a machine learning system could be trained on email messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages. Most of the Machine Learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated with a probability to become the desired output. 1835: 901:. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime. See also 823:

everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido". Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.

599:, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus. 1194:

instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train set.

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time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior.

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Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes. In a series of training sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan

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Animals gain knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an animal gathers information about its environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it learns not to eat that again. The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited.

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of the students. Students who answer a question properly or give good results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of

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is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..." and has sought to clarify what it is, and how

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is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the

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from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it. This is

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Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form

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There are various functional categorizations of memory which have developed. Some memory researchers distinguish memory based on the relationship between the stimuli involved (associative vs non-associative) or based to whether the content can be communicated through language (declarative/explicit vs

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A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points

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The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning

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Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal learning can be considered high. As a result, information retrieved from informal learning experiences will likely be applicable to daily life. Children with informal learning can at times yield

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is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to

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and his dogs. Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The

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Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable aspect of life, or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which

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Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs. Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not an

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During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The 'correct' response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was "predicted" from

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Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not or rarely occurs, then learning is simply unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the

1271:, the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its 1022:

is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a school system or work environment. The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the

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is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend,

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agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols. This has

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Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to

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learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the

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is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops. From the organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not

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is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific

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to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing. An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments,

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In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. However, in a stable environment, this same individual needs to gather the information it needs once, and then rely on it for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or

1695:, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities. 822:

Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience. As the children participated in

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involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated

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Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research

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if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the

843:. Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context or – as some describe – a timeless organization of knowledge. For instance, if a person remembers the 1781:

plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus. There has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why

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that researchers do not doubt Gagliano's data but rather her language, specifically her use of the term "learning" and "cognition" with respect to plants. A direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers'

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While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al. describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants. One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels.

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occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning

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have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result. In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn. Active learning is a key characteristic of

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Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on the shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning.

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skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play. Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

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games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C., in a case study about the mobile game

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Wollman, Scott C.; Alhassoon, Omar M.; Hall, Matthew G.; Stern, Mark J.; Connors, Eric J.; Kimmel, Christine L.; Allen, Kenneth E.; Stephan, Rick A.; Radua, Joaquim (September 2017). "Gray matter abnormalities in opioid-dependent patients: A neuroimaging meta-analysis".

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circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing,

758:, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving 332:

Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including

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showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, possibly because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference from the memories gained from the newly learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning.

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What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact. Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn

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ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this example the treat was added to the dog's life.

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is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from

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original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.

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In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition. The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a behavior necessary for survival.

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In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993) contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance).

329:), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved. 1782:

scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of "learning" and "cognition". Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his piece

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is more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning

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points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the

738:. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as 815:. Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's understanding of these values. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of the culture. This is different from 4394:"The DNA Repair-Associated Protein Gadd45γ Regulates the Temporal Coding of Immediate Early Gene Expression within the Prelimbic Prefrontal Cortex and Is Required for the Consolidation of Associative Fear Memory" 4352:"The DNA Repair-Associated Protein Gadd45γ Regulates the Temporal Coding of Immediate Early Gene Expression within the Prelimbic Prefrontal Cortex and Is Required for the Consolidation of Associative Fear Memory" 952:, based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. 729:

generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to

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is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into

500:, which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed 1358:, such as a student's own intellectual curiosity or desire to experiment or explore, has been found to sustain learning more effectively than extrinsic motivations such as grades or parental requirements. 4168:

Ruger, Henry Alfred (1910). "The psychology of efficiency: an experimental study of the processes involved in the solution of mechanical puzzles and in the acquisition of skill in their manipulation".

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An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the student's sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.

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Frank, Sebastian M.; Becker, Markus; Qi, Andrea; Geiger, Patricia; Frank, Ulrike I.; Rosedahl, Luke A.; Malloni, Wilhelm M.; Sasaki, Yuka; Greenlee, Mark W.; Watanabe, Takeo (5 December 2022).

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However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can

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always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner's point of view, non-formal learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity.

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in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.

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is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The result is directional growth to maximize a plant's capture of sunlight.

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encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within

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refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus." This definition exempts the changes caused by

357:, or in collaborative learning health systems). Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of 4242: 1023:

learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of formal recognition.

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is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with

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Some aspects of intelligence are inherited genetically, so different learners to some degree have different abilities with regard to learning and speed of learning.

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Moore, M.G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 22–38). London and New York: Routledge

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Lillemyr, O.F. (2009). Taking play seriously. Children and play in early childhood education: an exciting challenge. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

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An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it. In some scenarios,

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Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play.

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Learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners' understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).

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Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as

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Ismail, Fatima Yousif; Fatemi, Ali; Johnston, Michael V. (1 January 2017). "Cerebral plasticity: Windows of opportunity in the developing brain".

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proteins. These chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include the

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Dunst, Carl J.; Hamby, Deborah W.; Wilkie, Helen; Dunst, Kerran Scott (2017), Phillipson, Sivanes; Gervasoni, Ann; Sullivan, Peter (eds.),

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a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.

4333: 1683:. Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during 6447: 5897: 3200:

Baars, B.J. & Gage, N.M. (2007). Cognition, Brain, and Consciousness: Introduction to cognitive neuroscience. London: Elsevier Ltd.

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Sandman, Wadhwa; Hetrick, Porto; Peeke (1997). "Human fetal heart rate dishabituation between thirty and thirty-two weeks gestation".

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Sujan, M. A., Huang, H., & Braithwaite, J. (2017). Learning from incidents in health care: critique from a Safety-II perspective.

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is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a

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For example, several genes have been identified as being associated with changes in brain structure over lifetime and are potential

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Lopez, Angelica; Najafi, Behnosh; Rogoff, Barbara; Mejia-Arauz, Rebeca (2012). "Collaboration and helping as cultural practices".

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Gagliano, M.; et al. (2014). "Experience teaches plants to learn faster and forget slower in environments where it matters".

5987: 3528: 1336:, and poor physical health can slow learning, as can bad ventilation or poor lighting at home, and unhygienic living conditions. 6802: 5462:

Learn Better: Mastering the Skills for Success in Life, Business, and School, or How to Become an Expert in Just About Anything

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Paradise, Ruth (1994). "Interactional Style and Nonverbal Meaning: Mazahua Children Learning How to Be Separate-But-Together".

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writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for "tangential learning". Mozelius

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Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning with additional material from the Committee on Learning Research (2000).

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or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in a condition called

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Department for Education and Employment Research Report No. 134. London, England: Department for Education and Employment

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Gagliano, Monica; Vyazovskiy, Vladyslav V.; Borbély, Alexander A.; Grimonprez, Mavra; Depczynski, Martial (2016-12-02).

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Terry, W.S. (2006). Learning and Memory: Basic principles, processes, and procedures. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

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playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to

4258: 3678:"Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Home and Family Experiences and Young Children's Early Numeracy Learning" 6248: 6205: 6190: 6040: 4937: 3973: 4851: 908:

Moore (1989) purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning:

6268: 6221: 5435: 5177: 5051: 3918: 1754:, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, 811:

is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding

6440: 5601: 4547:

Spindler, Carolin; Mallien, Louisa; Trautmann, Sebastian; Alexander, Nina; Muehlhan, Markus (27 January 2022).

4392:

Li, X; Marshall, PR; Leighton, LJ; Zajaczkowski, EL; Wang, Z; Madugalle, SU; Yin, J; Bredy, TW; Wei, W (2019).

4350:

Li, X; Marshall, PR; Leighton, LJ; Zajaczkowski, EL; Wang, Z; Madugalle, SU; Yin, J; Bredy, TW; Wei, W (2019).

3832: 1944: 648:

stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a

430: 865:

is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information. This type of learning relies on

6286: 6256: 6054: 6006: 1157: 291: 232: 6547: 4665:"Genetic 'hotspots' that speed up and slow down brain aging could provide new targets for Alzheimer's drugs" 2676:

Bonne, Omer; Grillon, Christian; Vythilingam, Meena; Neumeister, Alexander; Charney, Dennis S (March 2004).

1535:, recreational drugs and medications may possibly also have effects on the development of the nervous system 6260: 6236: 5935: 5631: 3095:

Grusec, Joan E.; Hastings, Paul D. "Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research", 2007, Guilford Press;

902: 222: 6542: 6195: 5713: 4060:

Chapter 3. Learning and Transfer. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition

1965: 1741:

learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.

6787: 6240: 5914: 5663: 4153:

Schwartz, Daniel L.; Bransford, John D.; Sears, David (2005). "Efficiency and innovation in transfer".

3054:"Play, cognition and self-regulation: What exactly are children learning when they learn through play?" 2249: 1986: 1879: 1486: 1450:

mechanisms. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of

1362:

involves repetition in order to reinforce facts in memory, but has been criticized as ineffective and "

844: 839:, which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and 658: 5806: 5347: 2297: 6433: 5658: 2399:

Hutchins, E., 2014. The cultural ecosystem of human cognition. Philosophical Psychology 27(1), 34–49.

848:

said to indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.

565: 436:

procedural/implicit). Some of these categories can, in turn, be parsed into sub-types. For instance,

227: 95: 5008: 4691:

Brouwer, Rachel M.; Klein, Marieke; Grasby, Katrina L.; Schnack, Hugo G.; et al. (April 2022).

4549:"A coordinate-based meta-analysis of white matter alterations in patients with alcohol use disorder" 4441:

Brito, David V.C.; Kupke, Janina; Gulmez Karaca, Kubra; Zeuch, Benjamin; Oliveira, Ana M.M. (2020).

3347: 1693:

the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting

819:, where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one. 6807: 6609: 6470: 6101: 5928: 5611: 5492: 3997: 948:

by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is

592: 402: 45: 17: 4443:"Mimicking Age-Associated Gadd45γ Dysregulation Results in Memory Impairments in Young Adult Mice" 1210:

An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.

6730: 6376: 6244: 6035: 6030: 6020: 5586: 1950: 1850: 1728: 1524: 1386: 1304: 984: 912:

Learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),

703: 497: 342: 251: 766:

of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.

6700: 6502: 6381: 6371: 6316: 6252: 6025: 5745: 5708: 5698: 5643: 5591: 5536: 4118:

Rogers, Agnes L. (1916). "The Bearing of the New Psychology upon the Teaching of Mathematics".

3684:, Early Mathematics Learning and Development, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 105–125, 3501: 3342: 2441: 1992: 1811: 1622: 1546: 886:

or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is

685: 638: 596: 394: 362: 334: 41: 4694:"Genetic variants associated with longitudinal changes in brain structure across the lifespan" 2057: 6797: 6782: 6750: 6715: 6495: 6480: 6264: 6114: 5499:

Applying Science of Learning in Education: Infusing Psychological Science into the Curriculum

4330: 3965: 1974: 1485:

processes that introduce epigenetic alterations. In particular, the DNA repair processes of

1382: 1139: 1012: 577: 295: 2925:

Bitterman; et al. (1983). "Classical Conditioning of Proboscis Extension in Honeybees (

2639:"Pain amplification-A perspective on the how, why, when, and where of central sensitization" 6664: 6386: 6200: 5851: 5616: 5576: 5571: 4891: 4796: 3807:"Motivating Factors and Tangential Learning for Knowledge Acquisition in Educational Games" 3719: 3578: 3429: 2988: 2599:

Shettleworth, S. J. (2010). Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford.

2505: 2386: 1903: – Theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop 1900: 1555: 1490: 1406: 1355: 1344: 1283: 1254: 1213:

The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.

608: 378: 366: 65: 5861: 2128: 2122: 8: 6745: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6045: 5942: 5723: 5077: 3894: 2788:

Bangasser, Debra A.; Waxler, David E.; Santollo, Jessica; Shors, Tracey J. (2006-08-23).

1873: 1575:

other activities may also have effects on the development of the nervous system, such as

1467: 1371: 1241: 967: 878: 857: 789:

These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and

213: 105: 5485: 4895: 4727: 3433: 2992: 2509: 353:), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of 6290: 6226: 6003: 5856: 5648: 5626: 5606: 5386: 5323: 5288: 5220: 5195: 5169: 5118:

Odling-Smee, L.; Braithwaite, V.A. (2003). "The role of learning in fish orientation".

5100: 4923: 4832: 4740: 4646: 4594: 4581: 4548: 4529: 4467: 4442: 4418: 4393: 4376: 4351: 4135: 4039: 3677: 3658: 3606: 3450: 3419: 3407: 3134: 3073: 3017: 2976: 2822: 2789: 2713: 2577: 2568: 2548: 2529: 2323: 2222: 1980: 1959: 1532: 1315: 1032: 898: 866: 573: 460: 437: 244: 135: 3525: 3323:, Augmented Learning: Context-Aware Mobile Augmented Reality Architecture for Learning 6777: 6669: 6646: 6639: 6619: 6614: 6599: 6572: 6517: 6485: 6309: 6081: 5961: 5668: 5636: 5529: 5465: 5414: 5393: 5355: 5328: 5310: 5269: 5225: 5131: 4989: 4981: 4927: 4915: 4907: 4878: 4836: 4824: 4816: 4744: 4732: 4714: 4693: 4638: 4630: 4598: 4586: 4568: 4521: 4513: 4472: 4423: 4381: 4311: 4286: 4217: 4192: 4139: 4072: 3958: 3858: 3693: 3662: 3650: 3610: 3598: 3579:"Antecedents of Employees' Involvement in Work-Related Learning: A Systematic Review" 3455: 3268: 3240: 3215: 3172: 3138: 3096: 3077: 3053: 3022: 3004: 2946: 2905: 2877: 2827: 2809: 2768: 2705: 2697: 2677: 2658: 2617: 2582: 2521: 2473: 2414: 2350: 2327: 2292: 2227: 2159: 2132: 2068: 1912: 1906: 1891: 1882: – Process in which people take on the values of groups that they aspire to join 1684: 1576: 1463: 1402: 1173: 1050: 990: 773:

Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity

516: 464: 346: 90: 51: 5498: 5173: 5104: 4533: 4043: 2717: 2693: 6735: 6674: 6589: 6396: 5921: 5866: 5733: 5566: 5318: 5300: 5259: 5215: 5207: 5161: 5127: 5092: 4973: 4899: 4806: 4785:"Efficient learning in children with rapid GABA boosting during and after training" 4722: 4706: 4650: 4622: 4576: 4560: 4503: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4127: 4064: 4031: 3806: 3685: 3640: 3590: 3445: 3437: 3380: 3352: 3130: 3126: 3065: 3012: 2996: 2938: 2817: 2805: 2801: 2689: 2650: 2572: 2564: 2533: 2513: 2319: 2217: 2209: 2120: 1998: 1953: – mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation 1929: 1923: 1844: 1658: 1272: 1161: 1101:

Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.

759: 569: 311: 145: 130: 31: 5147:"Endogenous factors involved in the regulation of movement and "memory" in plants" 5096: 4626: 4022:

Perkins, D.N.; Salomon, G. (Jan–Feb 1989). "Are Cognitive Skills Context-Bound?".

6679: 6624: 6594: 6582: 6537: 6522: 6134: 5876: 5816: 5801: 5786: 5771: 5740: 5693: 5408: 4337: 4268: 4246: 4058: 3532: 3320: 3069: 2381: 2375:

Learning and knowing as semiosis: Extending the conceptual apparatus of semiotics

2095: 2089: 2064: 2024: 1751: 1692: 1676: 1459: 1436: 1367: 1091:

Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.

1084: 1060: 961: 887: 840: 836: 790: 721: 550: 445: 441: 426: 370: 338: 204: 199: 100: 4490:

Dye, Louise; Boyle, Neil Bernard; Champ, Claire; Lawton, Clare (November 2017).

3969: 3951:

The Effects of Distance Education and Student Involvement on Incidental Learning

3689: 3313: 2263: 1414:"Self-explaining" (paraphrasing material to oneself) rather than passive reading 1226: 5841: 5796: 5791: 5673: 5581: 5449: 4977: 4903: 4710: 4564: 4131: 3784: 3773:"Game Criticism as Tangential Learning Facilitator: The Case of Critical Intel" 2942: 2845: 1668: 1398: 1363: 1340: 1237: 1120: 891: 890:(m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as 665: 4811: 4801: 4784: 4508: 4491: 4035: 3356: 2517: 1366:" since it kills intrinsic motivation. Alternatives to rote learning include 1007: 73: 6771: 6634: 6512: 6507: 6353: 6231: 6164: 6159: 6086: 5846: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5755: 5688: 5596: 5359: 5314: 5305: 4985: 4911: 4879:"Filopodia are a structural substrate for silent synapses in adult neocortex" 4820: 4718: 4634: 4572: 4517: 3654: 3602: 3594: 3008: 2813: 2701: 2662: 1569: 1565: 1478: 1359: 1128: 1095: 972: 932: 816: 803: 673: 560: 529: 510: 475: 275: 154: 5972: 5508: 5165: 1435:

The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in

6577: 5871: 5821: 5781: 5750: 5703: 5332: 5273: 5264: 5247: 5229: 5211: 4993: 4919: 4828: 4736: 4642: 4590: 4525: 4476: 4427: 4385: 3459: 3210:

Lovett, Marsha; Schunn, Christian; Lebiere, Christian; Munro, Paul (2004).

3026: 2831: 2709: 2525: 2370: 2231: 1885: 1876: – Skills identified as being required for success in the 21st century 1654: 1477:

During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of

1329: 1267:

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play

1263:: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc. 1160:, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional 945: 779:

Rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary

669: 409: 168: 2950: 2586: 2331: 1343:, such as a school or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a 1104:

Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.

6554: 6527: 6490: 6348: 6153: 5811: 5776: 3408:"The right time to learn: mechanisms and optimization of spaced learning" 1977: – Determining the probability of future events based on past events 1601: 1587: 1511: 653: 538: 487: 471: 386: 358: 6725: 3441: 2638: 1799: 1777:

Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the

1610: 1011:

A depiction of the world's oldest continually operating university, the

6564: 6091: 4876:

Vardalaki, Dimitra; Chung, Kwanghun; Harnett, Mark T. (December 2022).

3645: 3628: 2654: 2213: 1737: 1672: 1580: 1528: 1482: 1447: 941: 897:

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it is called

299: 81: 3629:"Informal workplace learning: Development and validation of a measure" 3553:"What is the difference between "informal" and "non formal" learning?" 3477:"What is the difference between "informal" and "non formal" learning?" 3000: 2790:"Trace Conditioning and the Hippocampus: The Importance of Contiguity" 1504:

Development of the nervous system in humans § Adult neural development

6710: 6695: 6532: 6475: 6462: 6119: 6109: 6076: 6065: 3957:(PhD dissertation). Indiana University of Pennsylvania. p. 115. 2197: 2030: 1716: 1710: 1664:

boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.

1260: 1248: 1002: 751: 664:

Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is

390: 374: 279: 184: 114: 318:. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being 6629: 6425: 5678: 5653: 5552: 4492:"The relationship between obesity and cognitive health and decline" 3962: 3627:

Decius, Julian; Schaper, Niclas; Seifert, Andreas (December 2019).

3424: 3214:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. p. 220. 2974: 2036: 1915: – Ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge 1705: 1646: 1418: 1378: 1077: 743: 505: 414: 382: 350: 283: 161: 5196:"Phototropism: Growing towards an Understanding of Plant Movement" 4068: 2088:. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 31–44, 2013: – Mathematical formalism for artificial general intelligence 661:

paradigm. It was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.

417:, and is often associated with representational systems/activity. 373:, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur 6740: 6149: 5718: 4546: 3212:

Sixth International Conference on Cognitive Modeling: ICCM – 2004

3169:

Growing Up in a Culture of Respect: Childrearing in highland Peru

2675: 2121:

Daniel L. Schacter; Daniel T. Gilbert; Daniel M. Wegner (2011) .

1572:

may have effects on the further development of the nervous system

1455: 1333: 812: 189: 175: 4216:(Second ed.). Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd. p. 596. 4155:

Transfer of Learning from a Modern Multidisciplinary Perspective

6656: 6139: 6129: 1680: 1510:

The nervous system continues to develop during adulthood until

1443: 1197:

Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:

1149: 1145: 755: 747: 731: 398: 354: 307: 194: 121: 5044:

Change and Reliability in the Evolution of Learning and Memory

4391: 4349: 3051: 2027: – Independent education without the guidance of teachers 1995: – Formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor 413:

led to a view that learning in organisms is always related to

314:; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain 6603: 6144: 5621: 4759:"Brain scans shed light on how kids learn faster than adults" 3406:

Smolen, Paul; Zhang, Yili; Byrne, John H. (25 January 2016).

3052:

Whitebread, D.; Coltman, P.; Jameson, H.; Lander, R. (2009).

2198:"Collaborative learning health systems: Science and practice" 1650: 1440: 1268: 1251:: To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc. 1070: 326: 315: 303: 287: 56: 4440: 4260:

A Place for Learning: The Physical Environment of Classrooms

3151: 2787: 915:

Learner–instructor (i.e. student-teacher communication), and

6301: 5728: 5521: 4942:

Massachusetts Institute of Technology via medicalxpress.com

4099:

Perkins, D.N.; Salomon, G. (1992). "Transfer of Learning".

3682:

Engaging Families as Children's First Mathematics Educators

3171:(2 ed.). Austin: University of Texas. pp. 90–99. 2411:

The International Encyclopedia of Primatology, 3 Volume Set

2010: 1947: – Subfield of information theory and computer science 1661: 1350: 1257:: To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc. 1204:

An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.

739: 735: 668:. Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for 520:. This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization. 323: 319: 5287:

Abramson, Charles I.; Chicas-Mosier, Ana M. (2016-03-31).

5078:"An operating cost of learning in Drosophila melanogaster" 3265:

Fundamentals of Cognitive Neuroscience: A Beginner's Guide

1472:

acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins

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Don't Shoot the Dog: The New Art of Teaching and Training

2846:"Reflex Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary" 1451: 1153: 501: 40:"Learn" and "Learned" redirect here. For other uses, see 3209: 2767:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 208. 2345:

Sheridan, Mary; Howard, Justine; Alderson, Dawn (2010).

2155:

Understanding the Brain: The Birth of a Learning Science

1595: 1542:, have effects on the development of the nervous system 1323: 1107:

Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.

4852:"Adult mouse brains are teeming with 'silent synapses'" 4285:(Second ed.). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 536. 1207:

An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.

782:

Construction play involves experimentation and building

355:

learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents

5117: 4340:– April 11, 2017 (podcast interview with Ulrich Boser) 4152: 3547: 3545: 3038: 3036: 2344: 1164:

where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.

397:

is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and

5487:

How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School

5286: 4875: 3675: 1401:

means that lessons or studying spaced out over time (

1393:

Certain techniques can increase long-term retention:

591:

is the process by which a person or animal learns an

576:

are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or

5248:"A unified hypothesis of mechanoreception in plants" 5040: 4963: 3626: 3237:

Artificial Intelligence: Critical Concepts, Volume 1

1970:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

1955:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

1896:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

1496: 872: 4782: 4489: 3542: 3033: 2309: 431:

Machine learning § Types of problems and tasks

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(2008). 1698: 1479:oxidative modification in neuronal DNA 1339:The design, quality, and setting of a 1184: 1111: 1026: 955: 851: 6429: 6305: 5976: 5525: 5512: 5383: 5241: 5239: 4299: 4274: 4205: 4180: 4167: 3833:"Kiwaka | Kiwaka Story (by LANDKA ®)" 3622: 3620: 3526:" Informal Learning in the Workplace" 3471: 3469: 3381:"Backup of Meaningful Learning Model" 3332: 3288: 3263:Gage, Nicole; Baars, Bernard (2018). 3258: 3256: 3166: 3160: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2895: 2893: 2871: 2867: 2865: 2636: 2607: 2605: 2463: 2461: 2018: 1937: 1596:Adult learning vs children's learning 1424: 1324:Socioeconomic and physical conditions 30:For the album by Perfume Genius, see 6455: 5144: 4214:Essentials Of Educational Psychology 4189:Essentials of Educational Psychology 3929:from the original on August 29, 2017 3814:The Electronic Journal of e-Learning 3804: 3633:Human Resource Development Quarterly 3387:from the original on 29 October 2011 2546: 2467: 2151: 1794: 1605: 1167: 1083:To learn a skill, such as solving a 1044: 826: 6186:Fluid and crystallized intelligence 6097:Fluid and crystallized intelligence 4935: 3378: 2977:"Learning by Association in Plants" 2274:from the original on 5 October 2017 1909: – Critical theory of learning 1790: 24: 5504:American Psychological Association 5429: 5236: 4308:Elements Of Educational Psychology 3617: 3466: 3253: 2957: 2890: 2862: 2602: 2569:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.08-07-02254.1988 2458: 2324:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01982.x 1431:Epigenetics in learning and memory 996: 595:between two stimuli or events. In 544: 27:Process of acquiring new knowledge 25: 6819: 5479: 5194:Liscum, Emmanuel (January 2014). 5007:Buxton, Alex (10 February 2016). 4670:University of Southern California 4310:. Orient Blackswan. p. 558. 3239:. London: Routledge. p. 48. 2637:Woolf, Clifford J. (2018-02-27). 1989: – Model selection principle 1497:General cognition-related factors 1411:Teaching material to other people 873:E-learning and augmented learning 6281: 5957: 5956: 5339: 5280: 5132:10.1046/j.1467-2979.2003.00127.x 4085:from the original on 2013-04-26. 4063:. The National Academies Press. 3760:from the original on 2014-10-19. 3058:Educational and Child Psychology 2752:from the original on 2014-09-16. 2158:. OECD Publishing. p. 165. 1798: 1667:Children's brains contain more " 1609: 1502:This section is an excerpt from 926: 797: 523: 274:is the process of acquiring new 72: 6282: 6222:Evolution of human intelligence 5187: 5138: 5111: 5069: 5000: 4957: 4869: 4843: 4776: 4751: 4684: 4657: 4605: 4540: 4483: 4434: 4343: 4324: 4283:Advanced Educational Psychology 4252: 4230: 4161: 4146: 4111: 4050: 4015: 3990: 3941: 3911: 3875: 3857:European Southern Observatory. 3850: 3824: 3798: 3764: 3737: 3726:from the original on 2012-01-04 3711: 3669: 3570: 3518: 3494: 3399: 3372: 3363: 3326: 3294: 3281: 3228: 3203: 3194: 3185: 3045: 2838: 2781: 2756: 2733: 2724: 2694:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.12.001 2669: 2630: 2593: 2427: 2402: 2393: 2369:Campbell, Cary; Olteanu, Alin; 2363: 2338: 2303: 2286: 2086:Plant Sensing and Communication 1527:), obesity, alterations of the 1390:a class are counterproductive. 1119:is the process by which people 785:Movement play aka physical play 5602:Bee learning and communication 5346:Pollan, Michael (2013-12-16). 4459:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1621-19.2019 4410:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2024-18.2018 4368:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2024-18.2018 3919:"What is incidental teaching?" 3746:"The Natural Learning Project" 3583:Review of Educational Research 3131:10.1525/aeq.1994.25.2.05x0907w 2806:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1742-06.2006 2256: 2238: 2189: 2172: 2145: 2111:. University of Chicago press. 2101: 2078: 2050: 1945:Algorithmic information theory 1894: – in learning psychology 1849:Machine learning, a branch of 1839:Robots can learn to cooperate. 1481:followed by the employment of 944:information so that it can be 769:There are five types of play: 694:or teacher with surroundings. 481: 13: 1: 6803:Neuropsychological assessment 6287:Outline of human intelligence 6191:Multiple-intelligences theory 5246:Telewski, FW (October 2006). 5097:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.12.005 4627:10.1080/00952990.2016.1245312 4262:, Mark Phillips, May 20, 2014 2043: 2007: – A mathematical theory 1554:psychological events such as 1523:the consumption of foods (or 1148:. In this game, developed by 697: 233:Parallel individuation system 6610:Perception as interpretation 6331: 6237:Intelligence and environment 5551: 5410:Imagery and verbal processes 3555:. 2014-10-16. Archived from 3479:. 2014-10-15. Archived from 3070:10.53841/bpsecp.2009.26.2.40 2127:. Worth Publishers. p. 1744: 903:minimally invasive education 223:Numerosity adaptation effect 7: 6181:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory 3771:Robert, Rath (2015-01-22). 3744:J. Scott Armstrong (1979). 3690:10.1007/978-981-10-2553-2_7 3412:Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2872:Pryor, Karen (1999-08-03). 2794:The Journal of Neuroscience 2740:J. Scott Armstrong (2012). 1966:Inductive logic programming 1866: 1466:of neuronal DNA as well as 1309: 1278: 1059:table with parents, during 10: 6824: 5252:American Journal of Botany 5041:Aimee Sue Dunlap-Lehtilä. 4978:10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.007 4934:University press release: 4904:10.1038/s41586-022-05483-6 4711:10.1038/s41593-022-01042-4 4565:10.1038/s41398-022-01809-0 4132:10.1177/016146811601700413 3777:Journal of Games Criticism 2943:10.1037/0735-7036.97.2.107 2730:Bransford, 2000, pp. 15–20 2435:"Non-associative Learning" 1987:Minimum description length 1926: – Area of psychology 1880:Anticipatory socialization 1856: 1842: 1599: 1501: 1487:non-homologous end joining 1428: 1313: 1302: 1299:Factors affecting learning 1221: 1171: 1048: 1030: 1000: 982: 959: 930: 876: 855: 801: 719: 701: 683: 659:proboscis extension reflex 636: 606: 548: 527: 485: 424: 401:to occur very early on in 39: 29: 6688: 6655: 6563: 6461: 6395: 6362: 6339: 6277: 6214: 6173: 6064: 6013: 5952: 5906: 5885: 5764: 5659:Evolutionary neuroscience 5559: 5519: 5514:Links to related articles 5450:Resources in your library 4812:10.1016/j.cub.2022.10.021 4802:10.1101/2022.01.02.474022 4509:10.1017/S0029665117002014 4036:10.3102/0013189x018001016 3357:10.1080/08923648909526659 2518:10.1007/s00442-013-2873-7 2409:Fuentes, Agustín (2017). 2268:www.thecephalopodpage.org 1932: – Cognitive process 1919:Living educational theory 1861: 1679:and flexible learning or 652:. The classic example is 643:The typical paradigm for 566:student-centered learning 228:Approximate number system 6793:Developmental psychology 6341:Non-associative learning 5612:Behavioral endocrinology 5493:National Academies Press 5376: 5306:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00417 4553:Translational Psychiatry 4120:Teacher's College Record 3948:Konetes, George (2011). 3595:10.3102/0034654313478021 3524:Bell, J., and Dale, M., 514:and the large protozoan 457:Non-associative learning 452:Non-associative learning 420: 46:Learned (disambiguation) 6731:Relational frame theory 6706:Higher nervous activity 5807:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt 5587:Animal sexual behaviour 5348:"The Intelligent Plant" 5293:Frontiers in Psychology 5166:10.1351/pac200779040519 4331:The Science Of Learning 4267:March 13, 2016, at the 4245:March 28, 2016, at the 3831:Moreno, Carlos (2014). 2557:Journal of Neuroscience 2470:The Science of Learning 2298:Encyclopædia Britannica 2270:. The Cephalopod Page. 2202:Learning Health Systems 2124:Psychology, 2nd edition 1951:Algorithmic probability 1851:artificial intelligence 1729:Drosophila melanogaster 1446:that are introduced by 1305:Evidence-based learning 985:Evidence-based learning 979:Evidence-based learning 715: 704:Imprinting (psychology) 343:experimental psychology 6701:Experiential avoidance 6382:Observational learning 6372:Classical conditioning 5746:Tool use by non-humans 5699:Philosophical ethology 5644:Comparative psychology 5592:Animal welfare science 5265:10.3732/ajb.93.10.1466 5212:10.1105/tpc.113.119727 4271:. Retrieved 2016-03-19 4249:. Retrieved 2016-03-19 4212:Aggarwal, J.C (2009). 4024:Educational Researcher 3805:Mozelius; et al. 1993:Minimum message length 1840: 1234: 1152:in collaboration with 1016: 950:learning by repetition 691:Observational learning 686:Observational learning 680:Observational learning 645:classical conditioning 639:Classical conditioning 633:Classical conditioning 597:classical conditioning 395:central nervous system 393:, indicating that the 363:classical conditioning 335:educational psychology 59: 42:Learn (disambiguation) 6716:Ironic process theory 6481:Cognitive flexibility 6115:Intelligence quotient 5460:Ulrich Boser (2019). 5145:Ueda, Minoru (2007). 4187:Mangal, S.K. (2007). 4002:www.businessballs.com 3884:"Kiaka Press Release" 2468:Pear, Joseph (2014). 1975:Inductive probability 1838: 1784:The Intelligent Plant 1429:Further information: 1229: 1013:University of Bologna 1010: 578:traditional education 54: 6387:Operant conditioning 6364:Associative learning 6201:Three-stratum theory 5852:William Homan Thorpe 5617:Behavioural genetics 5577:Animal consciousness 5572:Animal communication 5384:Mayer, R.E. (2001). 4795:(23): 5022–5030.e7. 4306:Bhatia, H.R (1973). 3717:Tangential Learning 3167:Bolin, Inge (2006). 2387:Sign Systems Studies 2293:Learned helplessness 2252:on October 11, 2007. 2109:Metaphors we live by 1901:Instructional theory 1671:" that are inactive 1491:base excision repair 1356:Intrinsic motivation 1345:learning environment 1284:Transfer of learning 1275:(affective domain). 650:conditioned response 614:Operant conditioning 609:Operant conditioning 603:Operant conditioning 589:Associative learning 584:Associative learning 379:learned helplessness 367:operant conditioning 66:Cognitive psychology 6746:Thought suppression 6415:Inductive reasoning 6410:Deductive reasoning 6405:Abductive reasoning 6174:Models and theories 5607:Behavioural ecology 5407:Paivio, A. (1971). 5388:Multimedia learning 4896:2022Natur.612..323V 4699:Nature Neuroscience 4281:Mangal, SK (2002). 3783:(1). Archived from 3442:10.1038/nrn.2015.18 3434:2016arXiv160608370S 2993:2016NatSR...638427G 2547:Wood, D.C. (1988). 2510:2014Oecol.175...63G 2349:. Oxon: Routledge. 1874:21st century skills 1699:In animal evolution 1560:resilience-building 1547:Alzheimer's disease 1533:dietary supplements 1372:meaningful learning 1191:incidental teaching 1185:Incidental learning 1117:Tangential learning 1112:Tangential learning 1038:Non-formal learning 1027:Non-formal learning 968:Meaningful learning 956:Meaningful learning 884:Electronic learning 879:Electronic learning 863:Multimedia learning 858:Multimedia learning 852:Multimedia learning 754:. It also consumes 214:Numerical cognition 106:Pattern recognition 6227:Heritability of IQ 6004:Human intelligence 5936:Behavioral Ecology 5857:Nikolaas Tinbergen 5649:Emotion in animals 5627:Cognitive ethology 5489:(expanded edition) 5120:Fish and Fisheries 4336:2022-05-17 at the 3998:"Bloom's Taxonomy" 3646:10.1002/hrdq.21368 3531:2013-01-21 at the 3319:2020-03-13 at the 3314:Augmented Learning 2981:Scientific Reports 2850:www.britannica.com 2655:10.1111/jabr.12124 2380:2022-04-09 at the 2214:10.1002/lrh2.10286 2094:2022-12-31 at the 2063:2022-12-31 at the 2019:Types of education 1981:Information theory 1960:Bayesian inference 1938:Information theory 1841: 1810:. You can help by 1641:Learning is often 1621:. You can help by 1538:various diseases, 1454:or DNA-associated 1425:Epigenetic factors 1405:) are better than 1316:Heritability of IQ 1235: 1033:Nonformal learning 1017: 899:augmented learning 867:dual-coding theory 574:direct instruction 461:sensory adaptation 438:declarative memory 347:cognitive sciences 96:Object recognition 60: 6788:Cognitive science 6765: 6764: 6759: 6758: 6518:Critical thinking 6486:Cognitive liberty 6423: 6422: 6299: 6298: 6215:Areas of research 6165:Visual processing 6082:Cognitive liberty 5970: 5969: 5862:Jakob von Uexküll 5632:Comfort behaviour 5502:published by the 5491:published by the 5436:Library resources 5420:978-0-03-085173-5 5399:978-0-521-78749-9 5013:Neuroscience News 4890:(7939): 323–327. 4317:978-81-250-0029-7 4292:978-81-203-2038-3 4223:978-81-259-2292-6 4198:978-81-203-3055-9 4078:978-0-309-07036-2 3699:978-981-10-2551-8 3274:978-0-12-803813-0 3246:978-0-415-19332-0 3221:978-0-8058-5426-8 3178:978-0-292-71298-0 3105:978-1-59385-332-7 3001:10.1038/srep38427 2911:978-0-357-65811-6 2883:978-0-553-38039-2 2800:(34): 8702–8706. 2774:978-1-111-34702-4 2623:978-3-642-10768-9 2479:978-1-317-76280-5 2420:978-0-470-67337-9 2390:47(3/4): 352–381. 2356:978-1-136-83748-7 2312:Child Development 2165:978-92-64-02913-2 2138:978-1-4292-3719-2 2073:978-1-4441-6436-7 2067:6E, Hachette UK, 1913:Lifelong learning 1907:Learning sciences 1892:Implicit learning 1836: 1828: 1827: 1685:child development 1657:identified rapid 1639: 1638: 1577:lifelong learning 1403:spaced repetition 1179:Dialogic learning 1174:Dialogic learning 1168:Dialogic learning 1056:Informal learning 1051:Informal learning 1045:Informal learning 991:spaced repetition 832:Episodic learning 827:Episodic learning 517:Stentor coeruleus 269: 268: 16:(Redirected from 6815: 6456:Mental processes 6450: 6443: 6436: 6427: 6426: 6397:Insight learning 6326: 6319: 6312: 6303: 6302: 6285: 6284: 6206:Triarchic theory 5997: 5990: 5983: 5974: 5973: 5960: 5959: 5922:Animal Cognition 5915:Animal Behaviour 5867:Wolfgang Wickler 5567:Animal cognition 5546: 5539: 5532: 5523: 5522: 5510: 5509: 5475: 5464:. Rodale Books. 5424: 5403: 5391: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5366: 5343: 5337: 5336: 5326: 5308: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5267: 5243: 5234: 5233: 5223: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5176:. Archived from 5151: 5142: 5136: 5135: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5085:Animal Behaviour 5082: 5073: 5067: 5065: 5063: 5062: 5056: 5049: 5037: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5019: 5004: 4998: 4997: 4961: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4948: 4931: 4881: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4814: 4804: 4780: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4769: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4730: 4696: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4677: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4609: 4603: 4602: 4584: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4511: 4487: 4481: 4480: 4470: 4453:(6): 1197–1210. 4438: 4432: 4431: 4421: 4389: 4379: 4347: 4341: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4303: 4297: 4296: 4278: 4272: 4256: 4250: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4150: 4144: 4143: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4096: 4087: 4086: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4008: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3978: 3972:. 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Psychol 2922: 2916: 2915: 2897: 2888: 2887: 2869: 2860: 2859: 2857: 2856: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2825: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2609: 2600: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2580: 2549:"Habituation in 2544: 2538: 2537: 2493: 2484: 2483: 2465: 2456: 2455: 2453: 2452: 2446: 2440:. Archived from 2439: 2431: 2425: 2424: 2406: 2400: 2397: 2391: 2367: 2361: 2360: 2342: 2336: 2335: 2318:(6): 1031–1040. 2307: 2301: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2260: 2254: 2253: 2248:. Archived from 2242: 2236: 2235: 2225: 2193: 2187: 2176: 2170: 2169: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2118: 2112: 2105: 2099: 2082: 2076: 2054: 1971: 1956: 1930:Subgoal labeling 1924:Media psychology 1897: 1845:Machine learning 1837: 1823: 1820: 1802: 1795: 1791:Machine learning 1713:in the species. 1706:innate knowledge 1659:neurotransmitter 1653:. A study using 1634: 1631: 1613: 1606: 1549:therapy-targets. 1540:such as COVID-19 760:physical fitness 746:and the risk of 570:passive learning 261: 254: 247: 101:Face recognition 76: 62: 61: 21: 6823: 6822: 6818: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6813: 6812: 6808:Systems science 6768: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6760: 6755: 6684: 6651: 6559: 6538:Problem solving 6523:Decision-making 6457: 6454: 6424: 6419: 6391: 6358: 6335: 6330: 6300: 6295: 6273: 6210: 6169: 6135:Problem solving 6069: 6060: 6009: 6001: 5971: 5966: 5948: 5902: 5881: 5877:Solly Zuckerman 5817:Karl von Frisch 5802:Richard Dawkins 5787:John B. Calhoun 5772:Patrick Bateson 5760: 5694:Pain in animals 5555: 5550: 5515: 5482: 5472: 5456: 5455: 5454: 5444: 5443: 5439: 5432: 5430:Further reading 5427: 5421: 5400: 5379: 5374: 5373: 5364: 5362: 5344: 5340: 5285: 5281: 5258:(10): 1466–76. 5244: 5237: 5192: 5188: 5180: 5154:Pure Appl. Chem 5149: 5143: 5139: 5116: 5112: 5080: 5074: 5070: 5060: 5058: 5054: 5047: 5038: 5027: 5017: 5015: 5005: 5001: 4962: 4958: 4946: 4944: 4936:Trafton, Anne. 4874: 4870: 4860: 4858: 4848: 4844: 4789:Current Biology 4781: 4777: 4767: 4765: 4757: 4756: 4752: 4689: 4685: 4675: 4673: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4610: 4606: 4545: 4541: 4488: 4484: 4439: 4435: 4348: 4344: 4338:Wayback Machine 4329: 4325: 4318: 4304: 4300: 4293: 4279: 4275: 4269:Wayback Machine 4257: 4253: 4247:Wayback Machine 4235: 4231: 4224: 4210: 4206: 4199: 4185: 4181: 4166: 4162: 4151: 4147: 4116: 4112: 4097: 4090: 4079: 4055: 4051: 4020: 4016: 4006: 4004: 3996: 3995: 3991: 3982: 3980: 3976: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3932: 3930: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3903: 3901: 3897: 3886: 3882:Landka (2014). 3880: 3876: 3867: 3865: 3855: 3851: 3835: 3829: 3825: 3809: 3803: 3799: 3790: 3788: 3769: 3765: 3742: 3738: 3729: 3727: 3718: 3716: 3712: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3674: 3670: 3625: 3618: 3575: 3571: 3562: 3560: 3551: 3550: 3543: 3533:Wayback Machine 3523: 3519: 3510: 3508: 3500: 3499: 3495: 3486: 3484: 3475: 3474: 3467: 3404: 3400: 3390: 3388: 3379:Hassard, Jack. 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3348:10.1.1.491.4800 3331: 3327: 3321:Wayback Machine 3312: 3308: 3299: 3295: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3261: 3254: 3247: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3165: 3161: 3150: 3146: 3115: 3111: 3094: 3085: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3034: 2973: 2958: 2923: 2919: 2912: 2898: 2891: 2884: 2870: 2863: 2854: 2852: 2844: 2843: 2839: 2786: 2782: 2775: 2761: 2757: 2738: 2734: 2729: 2725: 2674: 2670: 2635: 2631: 2624: 2610: 2603: 2598: 2594: 2545: 2541: 2494: 2487: 2480: 2466: 2459: 2450: 2448: 2444: 2437: 2433: 2432: 2428: 2421: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2382:Wayback Machine 2368: 2364: 2357: 2343: 2339: 2308: 2304: 2291: 2287: 2277: 2275: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2194: 2190: 2177: 2173: 2166: 2150: 2146: 2139: 2119: 2115: 2106: 2102: 2096:Wayback Machine 2083: 2079: 2065:Wayback Machine 2056:Richard Gross, 2055: 2051: 2046: 2025:Autodidacticism 2021: 2016: 1969: 1954: 1940: 1935: 1895: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1847: 1830: 1824: 1818: 1815: 1808:needs expansion 1793: 1752:Monica Gagliano 1747: 1719: 1701: 1677:neuroplasticity 1673:until recruited 1669:silent synapses 1635: 1629: 1626: 1619:needs expansion 1604: 1598: 1593: 1592: 1514:. For example: 1507: 1499: 1437:gene expression 1433: 1427: 1368:active learning 1353: 1326: 1318: 1312: 1307: 1301: 1281: 1224: 1187: 1176: 1170: 1162:education games 1114: 1073: 1053: 1047: 1035: 1029: 1020:Formal learning 1005: 999: 997:Formal learning 987: 981: 964: 962:Deeper learning 958: 935: 929: 892:cellular phones 888:mobile learning 881: 875: 860: 854: 841:semantic memory 837:episodic memory 829: 806: 800: 791:problem-solving 724: 722:Play (activity) 718: 706: 700: 688: 682: 641: 635: 611: 605: 586: 556:Active learning 553: 551:Active learning 547: 545:Active learning 532: 526: 490: 484: 454: 440:comprises both 433: 427:Learning styles 423: 339:neuropsychology 265: 205:Problem solving 200:Decision making 49: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6821: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6763: 6762: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6726:Mental fatigue 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6692: 6690: 6686: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6661: 6659: 6653: 6652: 6650: 6649: 6644: 6643: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6586: 6585: 6575: 6569: 6567: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6557: 6552: 6551: 6550: 6545: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6499: 6498: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6467: 6465: 6459: 6458: 6453: 6452: 6445: 6438: 6430: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6401: 6399: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6368: 6366: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6356: 6351: 6345: 6343: 6337: 6336: 6329: 6328: 6321: 6314: 6306: 6297: 6296: 6294: 6293: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6272: 6271: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6218: 6216: 6212: 6211: 6209: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6177: 6175: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6073: 6071: 6070:and constructs 6062: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6017: 6015: 6011: 6010: 6000: 5999: 5992: 5985: 5977: 5968: 5967: 5965: 5964: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5946: 5939: 5932: 5929:Animal Welfare 5925: 5918: 5910: 5908: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5900: 5895: 5889: 5887: 5883: 5882: 5880: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5842:Desmond Morris 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5797:Marian Dawkins 5794: 5792:Charles Darwin 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5768: 5766: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5674:Human ethology 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5582:Animal culture 5579: 5574: 5569: 5563: 5561: 5557: 5556: 5549: 5548: 5541: 5534: 5526: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5507: 5506: 5495: 5481: 5480:External links 5478: 5477: 5476: 5471:978-0593135310 5470: 5453: 5452: 5446: 5445: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5425: 5419: 5404: 5398: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5352:The New Yorker 5338: 5279: 5235: 5186: 5160:(4): 519–527. 5137: 5126:(3): 235–246. 5110: 5091:(3): 589–598. 5068: 5025: 4999: 4956: 4954: 4953: 4868: 4842: 4775: 4750: 4705:(4): 421–432. 4683: 4656: 4621:(5): 505–517. 4604: 4539: 4502:(4): 443–454. 4482: 4433: 4404:(6): 970–983. 4362:(6): 970–983. 4342: 4323: 4316: 4298: 4291: 4273: 4251: 4229: 4222: 4204: 4197: 4179: 4160: 4145: 4126:(4): 344–352. 4110: 4088: 4077: 4049: 4014: 3989: 3940: 3910: 3874: 3849: 3823: 3797: 3763: 3736: 3710: 3698: 3668: 3639:(4): 495–535. 3616: 3589:(2): 273–313. 3569: 3541: 3517: 3493: 3465: 3398: 3371: 3362: 3325: 3306: 3293: 3280: 3273: 3252: 3245: 3227: 3220: 3202: 3193: 3184: 3177: 3159: 3144: 3125:(2): 156–172. 3109: 3083: 3044: 3032: 2956: 2937:(2): 107–119. 2927:Apis mellifera 2917: 2910: 2889: 2882: 2861: 2837: 2780: 2773: 2755: 2732: 2723: 2668: 2629: 2622: 2601: 2592: 2539: 2485: 2478: 2457: 2426: 2419: 2401: 2392: 2362: 2355: 2337: 2302: 2285: 2255: 2237: 2188: 2180:Safety Science 2171: 2164: 2144: 2137: 2113: 2100: 2077: 2048: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2041: 2040: 2034: 2028: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2014: 2008: 2002: 1996: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1972: 1963: 1957: 1948: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1933: 1927: 1921: 1916: 1910: 1904: 1898: 1889: 1883: 1877: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1843:Main article: 1826: 1825: 1805: 1803: 1792: 1789: 1746: 1743: 1718: 1715: 1700: 1697: 1643:more efficient 1637: 1636: 1616: 1614: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1590: 1584: 1573: 1562: 1552: 1551: 1550: 1536: 1521: 1508: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1421: 1415: 1412: 1409: 1399:spacing effect 1364:drill and kill 1352: 1349: 1341:learning space 1328:Problems like 1325: 1322: 1314:Main article: 1311: 1308: 1303:Main article: 1300: 1297: 1280: 1277: 1265: 1264: 1258: 1252: 1238:Benjamin Bloom 1233:(1901 or 1910) 1223: 1220: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1186: 1183: 1172:Main article: 1169: 1166: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1092: 1072: 1069: 1049:Main article: 1046: 1043: 1031:Main article: 1028: 1025: 1001:Main article: 998: 995: 983:Main article: 980: 977: 957: 954: 931:Main article: 928: 925: 920: 919: 916: 913: 877:Main article: 874: 871: 856:Main article: 853: 850: 828: 825: 802:Main article: 799: 796: 787: 786: 783: 780: 777: 774: 720:Main article: 717: 714: 702:Main article: 699: 696: 684:Main article: 681: 678: 666:John B. Watson 637:Main article: 634: 631: 607:Main article: 604: 601: 585: 582: 568:. Conversely, 549:Main article: 546: 543: 528:Main article: 525: 522: 486:Main article: 483: 480: 453: 450: 422: 419: 267: 266: 264: 263: 256: 249: 241: 238: 237: 236: 235: 230: 225: 217: 216: 210: 209: 208: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 179: 178: 172: 171: 165: 164: 158: 157: 151: 150: 149: 148: 143: 138: 133: 125: 124: 118: 117: 111: 110: 109: 108: 103: 98: 93: 85: 84: 78: 77: 69: 68: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6820: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6687: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6665:Consolidation 6663: 6662: 6660: 6658: 6654: 6648: 6645: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6627: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6605: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6570: 6568: 6566: 6562: 6556: 6553: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6513:Consciousness 6511: 6509: 6508:Comprehension 6506: 6504: 6501: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6464: 6460: 6451: 6446: 6444: 6439: 6437: 6432: 6431: 6428: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6394: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6365: 6361: 6355: 6354:Sensitization 6352: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6344: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6327: 6322: 6320: 6315: 6313: 6308: 6307: 6304: 6292: 6288: 6280: 6279: 6276: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6232:Psychometrics 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6219: 6217: 6213: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6172: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6160:Understanding 6158: 6155: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6087:Communication 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6056: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6018: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6005: 5998: 5993: 5991: 5986: 5984: 5979: 5978: 5975: 5963: 5955: 5954: 5951: 5945: 5944: 5940: 5938: 5937: 5933: 5931: 5930: 5926: 5924: 5923: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5884: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5847:Thomas Sebeok 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5837:Konrad Lorenz 5835: 5833: 5832:Julian Huxley 5830: 5828: 5827:Heini Hediger 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5763: 5757: 5756:Zoomusicology 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5689:Neuroethology 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5638: 5635: 5634: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5597:Anthrozoology 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5547: 5542: 5540: 5535: 5533: 5528: 5527: 5524: 5518: 5511: 5505: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5494: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5483: 5473: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5457: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5422: 5416: 5412: 5411: 5405: 5401: 5395: 5390: 5389: 5382: 5381: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5342: 5334: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5283: 5275: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5242: 5240: 5231: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5190: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5148: 5141: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5079: 5072: 5057:on 2013-11-13 5053: 5046: 5045: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5030: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4960: 4943: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4880: 4872: 4857: 4853: 4846: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4779: 4764: 4760: 4754: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4687: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4660: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4608: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4486: 4478: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4335: 4332: 4327: 4319: 4313: 4309: 4302: 4294: 4288: 4284: 4277: 4270: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4255: 4248: 4244: 4241: 4240:, May 7, 2015 4239: 4233: 4225: 4219: 4215: 4208: 4200: 4194: 4190: 4183: 4175: 4171: 4170:Science Press 4164: 4156: 4149: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4114: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4093: 4084: 4080: 4074: 4070: 4069:10.17226/9853 4066: 4062: 4061: 4053: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4030:(1): 16–25 . 4029: 4025: 4018: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3979:on 2014-07-14 3975: 3971: 3967: 3964: 3960: 3953: 3952: 3944: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3900:on 2020-08-03 3896: 3892: 3885: 3878: 3864: 3860: 3853: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3827: 3819: 3815: 3808: 3801: 3787:on 2023-04-19 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3767: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3740: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3672: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3623: 3621: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3573: 3559:on 2014-10-16 3558: 3554: 3548: 3546: 3539:, August 1999 3538: 3534: 3530: 3527: 3521: 3507: 3503: 3497: 3483:on 2014-10-15 3482: 3478: 3472: 3470: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3402: 3386: 3382: 3375: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3322: 3318: 3315: 3310: 3303: 3297: 3290: 3284: 3276: 3270: 3266: 3259: 3257: 3248: 3242: 3238: 3231: 3223: 3217: 3213: 3206: 3197: 3188: 3180: 3174: 3170: 3163: 3155: 3148: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3113: 3106: 3102: 3101:1-59385-332-7 3098: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3039: 3037: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2913: 2907: 2903: 2896: 2894: 2885: 2879: 2875: 2868: 2866: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2784: 2776: 2770: 2766: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2649:(2): e12124. 2648: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2625: 2619: 2615: 2608: 2606: 2596: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2563:(7): 2254–8. 2562: 2558: 2554: 2552: 2543: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2492: 2490: 2481: 2475: 2471: 2464: 2462: 2447:on 2014-01-03 2443: 2436: 2430: 2422: 2416: 2412: 2405: 2396: 2389: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2366: 2358: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2294: 2289: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2259: 2251: 2247: 2241: 2233: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2208:(3): e10286. 2207: 2203: 2199: 2192: 2185: 2181: 2175: 2167: 2161: 2157: 2156: 2152:OECD (2007). 2148: 2140: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2125: 2117: 2110: 2104: 2097: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2081: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2059: 2053: 2049: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2022: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1999:Occam's razor 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1871: 1854: 1852: 1846: 1822: 1819:February 2020 1813: 1809: 1806:This section 1804: 1801: 1797: 1796: 1788: 1785: 1780: 1779:mimosa pudica 1775: 1773: 1772:Pisum sativum 1767: 1763: 1759: 1757: 1756:Pisum sativum 1753: 1742: 1739: 1734: 1731: 1730: 1723: 1714: 1712: 1707: 1696: 1694: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1633: 1624: 1620: 1617:This section 1615: 1612: 1608: 1607: 1603: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1570:air pollution 1567: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1556:mental trauma 1553: 1548: 1544: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1516: 1515: 1513: 1505: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1464:demethylation 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1439:occurring in 1438: 1432: 1420: 1416: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1360:Rote learning 1357: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1321: 1317: 1306: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1285: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1232: 1231:Future school 1228: 1219: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1182: 1180: 1175: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1142: 1141: 1135: 1131: 1130: 1129:Extra Credits 1125: 1122: 1118: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1096:muscle memory 1093: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1086: 1081: 1079: 1068: 1064: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1042: 1039: 1034: 1024: 1021: 1014: 1009: 1004: 994: 992: 986: 976: 974: 973:rote learning 970: 969: 963: 953: 951: 947: 943: 939: 938:Rote learning 934: 933:Rote learning 927:Rote learning 924: 917: 914: 911: 910: 909: 906: 904: 900: 895: 893: 889: 885: 880: 870: 868: 864: 859: 849: 846: 842: 838: 833: 824: 820: 818: 817:acculturation 814: 810: 809:Enculturation 805: 804:Enculturation 798:Enculturation 795: 792: 784: 781: 778: 775: 772: 771: 770: 767: 763: 761: 757: 753: 750:and possibly 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 728: 723: 713: 710: 705: 695: 692: 687: 677: 675: 674:Little Albert 671: 667: 662: 660: 655: 651: 646: 640: 630: 626: 622: 618: 615: 610: 600: 598: 594: 590: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 562: 561:metacognition 557: 552: 542: 540: 536: 535:Sensitization 531: 530:Sensitization 524:Sensitization 521: 519: 518: 513: 512: 511:Mimosa pudica 507: 503: 499: 494: 489: 479: 477: 476:sensitization 473: 468: 467:, or injury. 466: 462: 458: 449: 447: 443: 439: 432: 428: 418: 416: 411: 406: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 330: 328: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 276:understanding 273: 262: 257: 255: 250: 248: 243: 242: 240: 239: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 220: 219: 218: 215: 212: 211: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 182: 181: 180: 177: 174: 173: 170: 167: 166: 163: 160: 159: 156: 155:Metacognition 153: 152: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 128: 127: 126: 123: 120: 119: 116: 113: 112: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 88: 87: 86: 83: 80: 79: 75: 71: 70: 67: 64: 63: 58: 53: 47: 43: 36: 34: 19: 6798:Intelligence 6783:Memorization 6720: 6332: 6289: / 6267: / 6263: / 6259: 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O. Wilson 5822:Jane Goodall 5782:Donald Broom 5751:Zoosemiotics 5704:Sociobiology 5683: 5497: 5486: 5461: 5440: 5409: 5387: 5363:. Retrieved 5351: 5341: 5296: 5292: 5282: 5255: 5251: 5206:(1): 38–55. 5203: 5199: 5189: 5178:the original 5157: 5153: 5140: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5088: 5084: 5071: 5059:. Retrieved 5052:the original 5043: 5016:. Retrieved 5012: 5002: 4972:(1): 23–48. 4969: 4965: 4959: 4945:. Retrieved 4941: 4887: 4883: 4871: 4859:. Retrieved 4856:Science News 4855: 4845: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4766:. Retrieved 4762: 4753: 4702: 4698: 4686: 4674:. Retrieved 4668: 4659: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4556: 4552: 4542: 4499: 4495: 4485: 4450: 4446: 4436: 4401: 4397: 4390:Erratum in: 4359: 4355: 4345: 4326: 4307: 4301: 4282: 4276: 4259: 4254: 4237: 4232: 4213: 4207: 4188: 4182: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4154: 4148: 4123: 4119: 4113: 4104: 4100: 4059: 4052: 4027: 4023: 4017: 4005:. Retrieved 4001: 3992: 3981:. Retrieved 3974:the original 3950: 3943: 3931:. Retrieved 3922: 3913: 3902:. 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