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marks some of the oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rock for its metal content has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, and has progressed at different rates in different places, in part because of the kind of metals available from the rock of a region.
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The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under the ground; pressure is
884:
Those three classes are subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard-and-fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions of their minerals, they pass through gradations from one to the other; the distinctive structures of one kind of rock may thus be
723:
Geology is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological
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Mining processes may create negative impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after mining has ceased. These potential impacts have led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative effects of mining operations.
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1258:. The temperatures and pressures required for this process are always higher than those found at the Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures greater than 1500 bars. This occurs, for example, when
2140:
Le Maitre, R. W.; Streckeisen, A.; Zanettin, B.; Le Bas, M. J.; Bonin, B.; Bateman, P.; Bellieni, G.; Dudek, A.; Efremova, S.; Keller, J.; Lamere, J.; Sabine, P. A.; Schmid, R.; Sorensen, H.; Woolley, A. R., eds. (2002).
1379:
that fall to Earth provide evidence of extraterrestrial rocks and their composition. They are typically heavier than rocks on Earth. Asteroid rocks can also be brought to Earth through space missions, such as the
865:. These physical properties are the result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can be transformed from one type into another, as described by a geological model called the
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1092:
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water (
1523:
has a tensile strength of around 350 MPa.) Relatively soft, easily worked sedimentary rock was quarried for construction as early as 4000 BCE in Egypt, and stone was used to build fortifications in
1685:
for mineral deposits, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once mining ceases.
1448:
Anthropic rock is synthetic or restructured rock formed by human activity. Concrete is recognized as a human-made rock constituted of natural and processed rock and having been developed since
1228:
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of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting.
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includes many theories of rocks and their origins that have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a formal science during the 19th century.
2143:
Igneous Rocks: A Classification and
Glossary of Terms, Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks
1076:
1166:). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of 6% limestone and 12% sandstone and
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3155:
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traced, gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in rock names simply correspond to selected points in a continuously graduated series.
954:. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.
1019:), and crustal rock tends to be high in silica. Silica content is thus the most important chemical criterion for classifying igneous rock. The content of
2816:; Raphael, Kate; Jaffe, Yitzhak (2011). "Sanzuodian: the structure, function and social significance of the earliest stone fortified sites in China".
3035:
451:
1250:, meaning to "change in form". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the
1270:. Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions.
1421:
The use of rock has had a huge impact on the cultural and technological development of the human race. Rock has been used by humans and other
2939:"Underground Mining Equipment Market 2017 Global Key Players, Share, Challenges, Industry Size, Growth Opportunities & Forecast To 2021"
2065:
2650:
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1464:. Geologist James R. Underwood has proposed anthropic rock as a fourth class of rocks alongside igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
1273:
Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess a texture are referred to as
1238:
Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to different
811:, that lack crystalline structure. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which it was formed.
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2322:"Particle size scales and classification of sediment types based on particle size distributions: Review and recommended procedures"
240:
1863:
1174:. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or
685:, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early
1735:
and distinct cultural identities. Stone tools were largely superseded by copper and bronze tools following the development of
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Though most understanding of rocks comes from those of Earth, rocks make up many of the universe's celestial bodies. In the
3162:
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1277:; the remainders are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present.
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dominant, and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as
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Klemm, Dietrich D.; Klemm, Rosemarie (2001). "The building stones of ancient Egypt – a gift of its geology".
854:
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was widely used in construction in the Middle Ages in Europe and remained popular into the 20th century.
697:. Modern technology has allowed the development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as
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The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since
Earliest Times and Their Impact on Developing Civilization
1112:
1009:. This occurs both because minerals low in silica crystallize out of the magma as it begins to cool (
250:
97:
1767:
1473:
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Magmas tend to become richer in silica as they rise towards the Earth's surface, a process called
773:
2853:"The Judicious Selection and Preservation of Tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*"
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About 65% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks. Of these, 66% are basalt and
39:
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition,
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47:
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1297:, with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock include
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8:
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Allen, Carlton; Allton, Judith; Lofgren, Gary; Righter, Kevin; Zolensky, Michael (2011).
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developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including
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Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called the
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1013:) and because the magma assimilates some of the crustal rock through which it ascends (
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1590:. The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include
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conditions than those in which the original rock was formed. This process is called
822:, and account for about one-third of all known mineral species and about 95% of the
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Parks and plates : the geology of our national parks, monuments, and seashores
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in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and properties.
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607:, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the
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to sedimentary rock so soft it can be crumbled with bare fingers (that is, it is
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942:. This magma may be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a
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1452:. Rock can also be modified with other substances to develop new forms, such as
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1254:, transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals, by
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623:. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including
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2751:
Bjorhovde, Reidar (2004). "Development and use of high performance steel".
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cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by
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149:
52:
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2851:
Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.; Cawood, C.; Winkler, E. M. (2005).
1490:
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2166:
1976:"Evolutionary Aspects of Biological Involvement in the Cycling of Silica"
1797:
1788: – Development of planet Earth from its formation to the present day
1712:
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1639:
1638:. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through
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1426:
1239:
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337:
3127:
3058:"Oldest tool use and meat-eating revealed | Natural History Museum"
2730:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute.
2078:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 327.
1478:
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Stone tools have been used for millions of years by humans and earlier
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2464:"Curating NASA's extraterrestrial samples—Past, present, and future"
2020:
A collector's guide to rock, mineral & fossil localities of Utah
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in a source area and then transported to the place of deposition by
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1800: – Includes rocks over 4 billion years old from the Hadean Eon
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30:"Rocks", "Stone", and "Stones" redirect here. For other uses, see
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2265:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall.
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collide. Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume.
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was developed as a theory during this time, and the discovery of
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2972:. Denver, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
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rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or
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690:
631:. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include
179:
1309:. Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include
869:. This transformation produces three general classes of rock:
795:
Rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are
2573:"Epoxy granite: a structural material for precision machines"
2510:
William
Haviland, Dana Walrath, Harald Prins, Bunny McBride,
1707:. The Stone Age was a period of widespread stone tool usage.
1671:
1407:
1356:
1298:
1143:
1051:
935:
911:
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1868:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–259.
2119:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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1111:) to settle and accumulate or for minerals to chemically
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matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its
595:) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of
2292:(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. p. 438.
1802:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1123:. The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and
728:
understanding of human history, and the development of
1654:. Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any
3298:
3170:
2850:
957:
Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories:
818:, compounds that include silica tetrahedra in their
807:, which are rigid, mineral-like substances, such as
3080:
2812:
2705:
2604:"Forgotten but not lost: the secret of Coade Stone"
2433:. Astronomers' Universe. Springer. pp. 11–23.
2289:
The
Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution
2203:
2201:
2199:
1794: – List of rock types recognized by geologists
1776: – System that relates geologic strata to time
1764: – Natural rock fragment larger than 10 inches
803:into an orderly structure. Some rocks also contain
635:that studies the rocks of other celestial objects.
2243:
1980:Biogeochemical Cycling of Mineral-Forming Elements
1910:
1281:are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of
759:developed in the second half of the 20th century.
638:Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups:
611:, and most of its interior, except for the liquid
55:, an incision through layers of sedimentary rocks.
2844:
1809: – Part of the primary sector of the economy
1054:composition. Granite and similar rocks, known as
3322:
2196:
2175:(2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon. p. 68.
1134:Before being deposited, sediments are formed by
452:Lists of geological features of the Solar System
2117:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
1185:sedimentary rocks can be further classified by
2698:"Strength properties of rocks and rock masses"
2425:"Rocks and Dust in the Planetary Neighborhood"
2285:
1815: – Skill of throwing a stone across water
1719:tools featured sharpened points to be used as
1677:Mining of rock and metals has been done since
1178:, and may be referred to as stratified rocks.
3156:
2887:Conservation of building and decorative stone
2570:
2512:Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge
2114:
564:
2883:
2523:
2263:Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy
2207:
2145:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2115:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1973:
2970:Sustainable Management of Mining Operations
1978:. In Trudinger, P.A.; Swaine, D.J. (eds.).
1050:is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of
3163:
3149:
2777:
2726:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Friable".
2608:Proceedings of the Geologists' Association
2524:Fookes, Peter G.; Walker, Mike J. (2010).
2254:
1948:
1857:
571:
557:
3050:
3028:The Future of strategic Natural Resources
2884:Ashurst, John; Dimes, Francis G. (1998).
2868:
2750:
2651:"Anthropic rocks as a fourth basic class"
2648:
2601:
2495:
2286:Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (2008).
2023:, Utah Geological Survey, pp. 1–22,
2003:
1860:"The Structure of Geological Revolutions"
1336:
2753:Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2655:Environmental and Engineering Geoscience
2319:
2214:, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 23–24,
1974:Heinen, Wouter; Oehler, John H. (1979).
1949:Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996).
1835:Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology
1552:
1535:used it for many buildings and bridges.
1489:
1477:
1401:
1226:
1127:at moderate temperatures and pressures (
1075:
898:
832:
772:
241:Principle of cross-cutting relationships
46:
3082:. Smithsonian Institution. 29 June 2022
2877:
2725:
2649:Underwood, James R. (1 February 2001).
2399:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
2238:
2172:Plate Tectonics & Crustal Evolution
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1681:times. Modern mining processes involve
14:
3323:
3038:from the original on 20 September 2014
3021:
2992:
2890:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 117.
2394:
2320:Blott, Simon J.; Pye, Kenneth (2012).
2228:from the original on 19 November 2016.
2165:
2159:
2037:from the original on 19 November 2016.
2016:
1833:Haldar, S. K. (2013). "Introduction".
1832:
1711:tools were simple implements, such as
1501:Rock varies greatly in strength, from
1474:Building material § Stone or rock
724:understanding of Earth's history, the
251:Principle of inclusions and components
3144:
3032:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2967:
2936:
2918:from the original on 20 February 2008
2378:, W.H.Freeman, 2nd ed., 1996, p. 355
2260:
2208:Bucher, Kurt; Grapes, Rodney (2011),
2096:. Oxford University Press. March 2021
2060:
2041:
1917:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1908:
1782: – Scientific study of landforms
1527:as early as 2800 BCE. The soft rock,
27:Naturally occurring mineral aggregate
2571:McKeown, P.A.; Morgan, G.H. (1979).
2419:
1982:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 431.
1931:
457:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
2374:Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy,
1837:. Elsevier Science. pp. 1–37.
1216:
1065:
976:. A common example of this type is
226:Principle of original horizontality
24:
2695:
2430:Stardust: The Cosmic Seeds of Life
1578:materials from the earth, from an
1363:are composed of rock, as are many
1170:. Sedimentary rocks often contain
968:rocks result when magma cools and
930:is formed through the cooling and
861:of the constituent particles, and
670:, which in turn are formed by the
25:
3357:
3172:Types and processes of weathering
3097:
2780:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2602:Freestone, Ian (1 January 1991).
2211:Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks
1460:has also been developed, such as
1437:
762:
3308:
3126:
3114:
3103:
3060:. 18 August 2010. Archived from
2870:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00215.x
2707:. University of Colorado Boulder
2550:10.1111/j.1365-2451.2010.00748.x
2346:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2012.01335.x
2048:
650:. Igneous rocks are formed when
538:
80:
3068:
3024:"Environmental Risks of Mining"
3015:
2986:
2961:
2937:Gajul, Shekhar (28 July 2018).
2930:
2912:"Welcome to the Limestone City"
2904:
2806:
2771:
2744:
2719:
2689:
2642:
2595:
2564:
2517:
2504:
2455:
2413:
2388:
2368:
2313:
2279:
2232:
2133:
2108:
1293:has visible bands of differing
910:Igneous rock (derived from the
888:
654:cools in the Earth's crust, or
236:Principle of lateral continuity
2082:
1967:
1953:(2nd ed.). W.H. Freeman.
1902:
1890:
1851:
1826:
1531:, is common in Italy, and the
1181:Sediment and the particles of
246:Principle of faunal succession
13:
1:
3283:Factors of polymer weathering
3131:The dictionary definition of
2800:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00085-9
2765:10.1016/S0143-974X(03)00118-4
2628:10.1016/S0016-7878(08)80072-7
2017:Wilson, James Robert (1995),
1820:
1189:. The smallest sediments are
3030:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
2589:10.1016/0141-6359(79)90104-1
2526:"Concrete: a man-made rock?"
2488:10.1016/j.chemer.2010.12.003
1770:Rocks as a building material
1567:Mining is the extraction of
1482:A stonehouse on the hill in
1397:
841:along a mountain creek near
7:
2439:10.1007/978-3-642-32802-2_2
1752: – Small rock fragment
1742:
1467:
1030:, 16% are granite, and 17%
991:, forming minerals such as
755:of rocks. Understanding of
356:Geological history of Earth
10:
3362:
2675:10.2113/gseegeosci.7.1.104
2395:Lillie, Robert J. (2005).
1913:Introduction to mineralogy
1909:Nesse, William D. (2000).
1865:A Brief History of Geology
1858:O'Hara, Kieran D. (2018).
1731:tools were developed with
1696:
1546:
1471:
1441:
1340:
1220:
1069:
892:
766:
708:
208:Laws, principles, theories
87:Science of the solid Earth
29:
3245:
3214:
3178:
2968:Botin, J.A., ed. (2009).
2830:10.1017/S0003598X00067405
1874:10.1017/9781316809990.013
1542:
1325:—a metamorphosed form of
1768:Rock (building material)
1692:
1394:have also been studied.
751:in 1896 allowed for the
704:
216:Stratigraphic principles
2993:Wilson, Arthur (1996).
2075:Encyclopædia Britannica
1321:. This branch contains
1205:. Some systems include
1096:). This process causes
1023:is next in importance.
1011:Bowen's reaction series
40:Stones (disambiguation)
2997:. Cambridge, England:
1642:processes, or created
1632:construction aggregate
1564:
1498:
1487:
1427:2.5 million years
1418:
1337:Extraterrestrial rocks
1235:
1089:
907:
850:
792:
56:
36:Stone (disambiguation)
32:Rocks (disambiguation)
2577:Precision Engineering
2246:Principles of Geology
1899:, Unusual Places.org.
1758: – Clast of rock
1556:
1493:
1481:
1405:
1230:
1079:
1006:magma differentiation
902:
836:
776:
709:Further information:
50:
3123:at Wikimedia Commons
1558:Mi Vida uranium mine
1519:). (For comparison,
1138:of earlier rocks by
1103:(pieces of rock) or
826:. The proportion of
605:chemical composition
231:Law of superposition
3215:Physical weathering
3179:Chemical weathering
2999:Woodhead Publishing
2792:2001JAfES..33..631K
2728:Glossary of geology
2667:2001EEGeo...7..104U
2620:1991PrGA..102..135F
2542:2010GeolT..26...65F
2480:2011ChEG...71....1A
2338:2012Sedim..59.2071B
2261:Boggs, Sam (2006).
1774:Geologic time scale
1497:with natural stones
1231:Metamorphic banded
1021:alkali metal oxides
814:Most rocks contain
375:Branches of geology
314:Landform structures
195:Geologic time scale
3064:on 18 August 2010.
1792:List of rock types
1715:and sharp flakes.
1674:) from the earth.
1565:
1499:
1488:
1419:
1365:natural satellites
1260:continental plates
1236:
1090:
972:slowly within the
908:
903:Sample of igneous
851:
799:formed from atoms
797:crystalline solids
793:
769:Formation of rocks
753:radiocarbon dating
741:history of geology
736:in human society.
545:Geology portal
465:By planet and body
333:Structural Geology
305:Structure of Earth
57:
3296:
3295:
3201:Mineral hydration
3119:Media related to
3008:978-1-85573-301-5
2979:978-0-87335-267-3
2897:978-0-7506-3898-2
2221:978-3-540-74168-8
2090:""igneous, adj.""
2062:Flett, John Smith
2030:978-1-55791-336-4
1960:978-0-7167-2438-4
1883:978-1-316-80999-0
1721:projectile points
1509:in excess of 300
1495:Raised garden bed
1431:Lithic technology
1343:Planetary geology
1283:lamellar minerals
1256:recrystallization
1213:as measurements.
1060:continental crust
989:fragmental ejecta
816:silicate minerals
801:chemically bonded
749:radioactive decay
674:, transport, and
648:metamorphic rocks
644:sedimentary rocks
633:planetary geology
581:
580:
445:Planetary geology
397:Geological survey
16:(Redirected from
3353:
3341:Stone (material)
3313:
3312:
3304:
3278:Space weathering
3222:Frost weathering
3165:
3158:
3151:
3142:
3141:
3130:
3118:
3107:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3054:
3048:
3047:
3045:
3043:
3019:
3013:
3012:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2945:. Archived from
2934:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2786:(3–4): 631–642.
2775:
2769:
2768:
2759:(3–5): 393–400.
2748:
2742:
2741:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2702:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2521:
2515:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2497:2060/20100042395
2459:
2453:
2452:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2392:
2386:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2332:(7): 2071–2096.
2317:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2205:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2086:
2080:
2079:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2014:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1946:
1929:
1928:
1916:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1830:
1803:
1786:History of Earth
1756:Cobble (geology)
1717:Middle Stone Age
1521:structural steel
1507:tensile strength
1458:Artificial stone
1223:Metamorphic rock
1217:Metamorphic rock
1072:Sedimentary rock
1066:Sedimentary rock
1038:. Only 0.6% are
573:
566:
559:
543:
542:
347:Geologic history
84:
59:
58:
21:
3361:
3360:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3351:
3350:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3307:
3299:
3297:
3292:
3241:
3232:Thermal fatigue
3210:
3174:
3169:
3100:
3095:
3085:
3083:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3041:
3039:
3020:
3016:
3009:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2966:
2962:
2952:
2950:
2949:on 28 July 2018
2943:Journalist Book
2935:
2931:
2921:
2919:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2882:
2878:
2849:
2845:
2814:Shelach, Gideon
2811:
2807:
2776:
2772:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2724:
2720:
2710:
2708:
2700:
2694:
2690:
2647:
2643:
2600:
2596:
2569:
2565:
2522:
2518:
2509:
2505:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2393:
2389:
2373:
2369:
2318:
2314:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2259:
2255:
2250:. W.H. Freeman.
2237:
2233:
2222:
2206:
2197:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2167:Condie, Kent C.
2164:
2160:
2153:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2031:
2015:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1947:
1932:
1925:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1856:
1852:
1845:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1801:
1745:
1709:Early Stone Age
1701:
1695:
1636:dimension stone
1596:precious metals
1551:
1545:
1476:
1470:
1446:
1440:
1400:
1345:
1339:
1225:
1219:
1074:
1068:
1058:, dominate the
897:
891:
820:crystal lattice
789:"strange stone"
771:
765:
757:plate tectonics
721:
707:
615:and pockets of
577:
537:
530:
529:
528:
469:
461:
447:
437:
436:
435:
410:
402:
401:
388:
370:
362:
361:
360:
351:
343:
342:
318:
310:
309:
280:
272:
270:
262:
261:
260:
221:
211:
209:
201:
200:
199:
175:Plate tectonics
170:
135:
127:
89:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3359:
3349:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3318:
3317:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3249:
3247:
3246:Related topics
3243:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3168:
3167:
3160:
3153:
3145:
3139:
3138:
3124:
3112:
3099:
3098:External links
3096:
3094:
3093:
3067:
3049:
3014:
3007:
2985:
2978:
2960:
2929:
2903:
2896:
2876:
2863:(3): 485–510.
2843:
2824:(327): 11–26.
2805:
2770:
2743:
2736:
2718:
2688:
2661:(1): 104–110.
2641:
2614:(2): 135–138.
2594:
2583:(4): 227–229.
2563:
2516:
2503:
2454:
2447:
2412:
2405:
2387:
2367:
2312:
2298:
2278:
2271:
2253:
2240:Gilluly, James
2231:
2220:
2195:
2181:
2158:
2151:
2132:
2125:
2107:
2081:
2070:Chisholm, Hugh
2040:
2029:
2002:
1988:
1966:
1959:
1930:
1923:
1901:
1889:
1882:
1850:
1843:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1813:Stone skipping
1810:
1807:Stone industry
1804:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1729:Late Stone Age
1697:Main article:
1694:
1691:
1547:Main article:
1544:
1541:
1525:Inner Mongolia
1469:
1466:
1444:Anthropic rock
1442:Main article:
1439:
1438:Anthropic rock
1436:
1399:
1396:
1341:Main article:
1338:
1335:
1221:Main article:
1218:
1215:
1193:, followed by
1070:Main article:
1067:
1064:
1001:
1000:
981:
932:solidification
893:Main article:
890:
887:
809:volcanic glass
779:balancing rock
764:
763:Classification
761:
726:archaeological
706:
703:
687:infrastructure
579:
578:
576:
575:
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134:Key components
133:
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3266:
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3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3244:
3238:
3237:Thermal shock
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3161:
3159:
3154:
3152:
3147:
3146:
3143:
3137:at Wiktionary
3136:
3135:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3101:
3081:
3077:
3076:"Stone Tools"
3071:
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3053:
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3033:
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3000:
2996:
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2964:
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2889:
2888:
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2789:
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2699:
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2684:
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2656:
2652:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2530:Geology Today
2527:
2520:
2513:
2507:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2450:
2448:9783642328022
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2408:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2385:
2384:0-7167-2438-3
2381:
2377:
2371:
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2359:
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2326:Sedimentology
2323:
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2299:9780495554806
2295:
2291:
2290:
2282:
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2264:
2257:
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2247:
2241:
2235:
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2217:
2213:
2212:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2184:
2182:9781483100142
2178:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2162:
2154:
2152:0-521-66215-X
2148:
2144:
2136:
2128:
2126:9780521880060
2122:
2118:
2111:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2057:public domain
2044:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
1991:
1989:9780080874623
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1962:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1926:
1924:9780195106916
1920:
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1898:
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1885:
1879:
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1871:
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1846:
1844:9780124167100
1840:
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1814:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1780:Geomorphology
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1733:craftsmanship
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1690:
1686:
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1680:
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1633:
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1625:
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1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1570:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1454:epoxy granite
1451:
1445:
1435:
1432:
1428:
1425:for at least
1424:
1417:
1413:
1410:of rocks, an
1409:
1404:
1395:
1393:
1392:Martian rocks
1389:
1385:
1384:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
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1234:
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1224:
1214:
1212:
1208:
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1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1156:mass movement
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1094:sedimentation
1087:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1048:oceanic crust
1045:
1042:and 0.3% are
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1007:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
979:
975:
974:Earth's crust
971:
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882:
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876:
872:
868:
864:
863:particle size
860:
856:
848:
844:
840:
835:
831:
829:
825:
824:earth's crust
821:
817:
812:
810:
806:
802:
798:
790:
786:
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731:
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720:
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712:
702:
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696:
692:
688:
684:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
664:lithification
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
640:igneous rocks
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
621:asthenosphere
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
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569:
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560:
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552:
551:
546:
541:
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323:Geomorphology
321:
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295:Sedimentology
293:
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266:
265:
257:
256:Walther's law
254:
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41:
37:
33:
19:
3267:
3133:
3111:at Wikibooks
3084:. Retrieved
3079:
3070:
3062:the original
3052:
3042:10 September
3040:. Retrieved
3027:
3022:Terrascope.
3017:
2994:
2988:
2969:
2963:
2951:. Retrieved
2947:the original
2942:
2932:
2920:. Retrieved
2906:
2886:
2879:
2860:
2857:Archaeometry
2856:
2846:
2821:
2817:
2808:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2727:
2721:
2709:. Retrieved
2704:
2691:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2611:
2607:
2597:
2580:
2576:
2566:
2536:(2): 65–71.
2533:
2529:
2519:
2511:
2506:
2471:
2468:Geochemistry
2467:
2457:
2429:
2415:
2396:
2390:
2375:
2370:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2303:. Retrieved
2288:
2281:
2262:
2256:
2245:
2234:
2210:
2186:. Retrieved
2171:
2161:
2142:
2135:
2116:
2110:
2098:. Retrieved
2093:
2084:
2073:
2043:
2019:
1993:. Retrieved
1979:
1969:
1950:
1912:
1904:
1892:
1864:
1853:
1834:
1828:
1713:hammerstones
1702:
1687:
1676:
1644:artificially
1640:agricultural
1566:
1514:
1500:
1450:Ancient Rome
1447:
1420:
1381:
1349:Solar System
1346:
1272:
1264:
1248:metamorphism
1237:
1180:
1133:
1091:
1080:Sedimentary
1032:granodiorite
1025:
1016:country rock
1014:
1004:
1002:
988:
983:Volcanic or
970:crystallizes
956:
927:
923:
919:
915:
909:
895:Igneous rock
889:Igneous rock
883:
855:permeability
852:
813:
794:
788:
782:
738:
722:
680:
637:
592:
588:
582:
464:
409:Applications
391:
346:
313:
285:Geochemistry
275:
214:
145:
86:
71:
53:Grand Canyon
44:
3191:Carbonation
2922:13 February
2696:Amadei, B.
2474:(1): 1–20.
1798:Oldest rock
1723:, awls, or
1683:prospecting
1679:prehistoric
1664:natural gas
1592:base metals
1462:Coade stone
1406:Ceremonial
1388:Lunar rocks
1240:temperature
1162:(agents of
1125:cementation
1113:precipitate
1107:particles (
879:metamorphic
875:sedimentary
805:mineraloids
787:(literally
730:engineering
416:Engineering
338:Volcanology
276:Composition
160:Metamorphic
155:Sedimentary
3325:Categories
3227:Haloclasty
3196:Hydrolysis
3186:Biological
2737:0922152349
2406:0393924076
2272:0131547283
2094:OED Online
1821:References
1737:metallurgy
1699:Stone tool
1648:laboratory
1576:geological
1562:Moab, Utah
1503:quartzites
1472:See also:
1377:Meteorites
1373:meteoroids
1319:serpentine
1187:grain size
1164:denudation
1136:weathering
1129:diagenesis
1086:iron oxide
1056:granitoids
1044:ultramafic
867:rock cycle
847:Costa Rica
767:See also:
739:While the
734:technology
719:Mineralogy
676:deposition
672:weathering
660:diagenesis
629:mineralogy
613:outer core
601:mineraloid
328:Glaciology
290:Mineralogy
185:Weathering
3346:Materials
3331:Petrology
3288:Taphonomy
3273:Saprolite
3258:Etchplain
3206:Oxidation
2838:163488276
2818:Antiquity
2683:1078-7275
2636:0016-7878
2558:129456840
2421:Kwok, Sun
2376:Petrology
2362:130084299
2354:0037-0746
2066:Petrology
2064:(1911). "
1951:Petrology
1897:Kummakivi
1660:petroleum
1624:rock salt
1620:oil shale
1616:limestone
1574:or other
1537:Limestone
1505:having a
1486:, Finland
1484:Sastamala
1398:Human use
1386:mission.
1369:asteroids
1327:sandstone
1323:quartzite
1315:soapstone
1303:phyllites
1295:lightness
1252:protolith
1119:) from a
1117:evaporite
1101:sediments
1082:sandstone
985:extrusive
966:intrusive
784:Kummakivi
745:Plutonism
715:Petrology
683:Stone Age
668:sediments
625:petrology
426:Forensics
380:Geologist
300:Petrology
3263:Fracture
3086:9 August
3036:Archived
2916:Archived
2711:18 April
2514:, p. 166
2423:(2013).
2305:13 April
2242:(1959).
2226:archived
2188:13 April
2169:(2015).
2100:17 April
2035:archived
1995:13 April
1743:See also
1725:scrapers
1705:hominids
1670:or even
1656:resource
1612:diamonds
1572:minerals
1569:valuable
1468:Building
1423:hominids
1416:Mongolia
1383:Hayabusa
1331:hornfels
1307:mylonite
1285:such as
1275:foliated
1244:pressure
1211:boulders
1160:glaciers
1121:solution
1109:detritus
962:Plutonic
926:meaning
920:of fire,
918:meaning
699:concrete
597:minerals
431:Military
369:Research
166:Sediment
141:Minerals
122:Timeline
113:Glossary
108:Category
64:a series
62:Part of
3315:Geology
3253:Erosion
2953:28 July
2788:Bibcode
2663:Bibcode
2616:Bibcode
2538:Bibcode
2476:Bibcode
2334:Bibcode
2072:(ed.).
2059::
1762:Boulder
1652:factory
1604:uranium
1516:friable
1414:, from
1361:Mercury
1279:Schists
1207:cobbles
1183:clastic
1172:fossils
1168:arkoses
1140:erosion
1105:organic
1098:clastic
1040:syenite
1036:diorite
978:granite
916:igneus,
871:igneous
859:texture
839:outcrop
781:called
711:Geology
619:in the
585:geology
474:Mercury
392:Methods
190:Erosion
150:Igneous
118:History
103:Outline
73:Geology
3301:Portal
3005:
2976:
2894:
2836:
2734:
2681:
2634:
2556:
2445:
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2068:". In
2053:
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1957:
1921:
1880:
1841:
1750:Pebble
1658:(e.g.
1628:potash
1582:body,
1549:Mining
1543:Mining
1533:Romans
1371:, and
1359:, and
1317:, and
1311:marble
1305:, and
1299:slates
1291:gneiss
1233:gneiss
1203:gravel
1201:, and
1176:strata
1046:. The
1028:gabbro
997:basalt
993:pumice
948:mantle
944:planet
905:gabbro
828:silica
717:, and
695:metals
691:Mining
524:Charon
514:Triton
421:Mining
269:Topics
180:Strata
38:, and
3336:Rocks
3121:rocks
3109:Rocks
2834:S2CID
2701:(PDF)
2554:S2CID
2358:S2CID
1693:Tools
1672:water
1646:in a
1560:near
1408:cairn
1357:Venus
1329:—and
1287:micas
1144:water
1088:bands
1084:with
1052:mafic
952:crust
936:magma
928:fire)
924:ignis
922:from
914:word
912:Latin
843:OrosĂ
837:Rock
705:Study
652:magma
617:magma
609:crust
593:stone
519:Pluto
509:Titan
499:Ceres
494:Vesta
479:Venus
384:List)
98:Index
18:Stone
3268:Rock
3134:rock
3088:2022
3044:2014
3003:ISBN
2974:ISBN
2955:2018
2924:2008
2892:ISBN
2732:ISBN
2713:2021
2679:ISSN
2632:ISSN
2443:ISBN
2401:ISBN
2380:ISBN
2350:ISSN
2307:2020
2294:ISBN
2267:ISBN
2216:ISBN
2190:2020
2177:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2121:ISBN
2102:2021
2025:ISBN
1997:2020
1984:ISBN
1955:ISBN
1919:ISBN
1878:ISBN
1839:ISBN
1668:salt
1634:and
1608:coal
1600:iron
1588:seam
1584:vein
1529:tuff
1412:ovoo
1390:and
1353:Mars
1289:. A
1268:jade
1242:and
1209:and
1199:sand
1195:silt
1191:clay
1148:wind
1034:and
940:lava
877:and
732:and
662:and
656:lava
646:and
627:and
591:(or
589:rock
489:Mars
484:Moon
146:Rock
51:The
2865:doi
2826:doi
2796:doi
2761:doi
2671:doi
2624:doi
2612:102
2585:doi
2546:doi
2492:hdl
2484:doi
2435:doi
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1870:doi
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