657:. Most often bipolar supply (+ and - ) voltages are supplied to the controller relative to the winding return. So 50% duty cycle results in zero current. 0% results in full V/R current in one direction. 100% results in full current in the opposite direction. This current level is monitored by the controller by measuring the voltage across a small sense resistor in series with the winding. This requires additional electronics to sense winding currents, and control the switching, but it allows stepper motors to be driven with higher torque at higher speeds than L/R drives. It also allows the controller to output predetermined current levels rather than fixed. Integrated electronics for this purpose are widely available.
533:
486:
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482:
connected, the shaft becomes harder to turn. One way to distinguish the center tap (common wire) from a coil-end wire is by measuring the resistance. Resistance between common wire and coil-end wire is always half of the resistance between coil-end wires. This is because there is twice the length of coil between the ends and only half from center (common wire) to the end. A quick way to determine if the stepper motor is working is to short circuit every two pairs and try turning the shaft. Whenever a higher-than-normal resistance is felt, it indicates that the circuit to the particular winding is closed and that the phase is working.
503:
753:
Several manufacturers show that their motors can easily maintain the 3% or 5% equality of step travel size as step size is reduced from full stepping down to 1/10 stepping. Then, as the microstepping divisor number grows, step size repeatability degrades. At large step size reductions it is possible to issue many microstep commands before any motion occurs at all and then the motion can be a "jump" to a new position. Some stepper controller ICs use increased current to minimise such missed steps, especially when the peak current pulses in one phase would otherwise be very brief.
1037:). NEMA stepper motors are labeled by faceplate size, NEMA 17 being a stepper motor with a 1.7 by 1.7 inches (43 mm × 43 mm) faceplate and dimensions given in inches. The standard also lists motors with faceplate dimensions given in metric units. These motors are typically referred with NEMA DD, where DD is the diameter of the faceplate in inches multiplied by 10 (e.g., NEMA 17 has a diameter of 1.7 inches). There are further specifiers to describe stepper motors, and such details may be found in the ICS 16-2001 standard.
341:. To make the motor shaft turn, one electromagnet is first given power, which magnetically attracts the gear's teeth. When the gear's teeth are aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. This means that when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one. From there the process is repeated. Each of the partial rotations is called a "step", with an
315:
1266:
121:
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25:
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since at some speed, the voltage U will be changing faster than the current I can keep up. In simple terms the rate of change of current is L / R (e.g. a 10 mH inductance with 2 ohms resistance will take 5 ms to reach approx 2/3 of maximum torque or around 24 ms to reach 99% of max torque). To obtain high torque at high speeds requires a large drive voltage with a low resistance and low inductance.
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to compensate. The advantage of half stepping is that the drive electronics need not change to support it. In animated figure shown above, if we change it to half-stepping, then it will take 8 steps to rotate by 1 tooth position. So there will be 25×8 = 200 steps per full rotation and each step will be 360/200 = 1.8°. Its angle per step is half of the full step.
677:(see Theory below), and it is ideally driven by sinusoidal current. A full-step waveform is a gross approximation of a sinusoid, and is the reason why the motor exhibits so much vibration. Various drive techniques have been developed to better approximate a sinusoidal drive waveform: these are half stepping and microstepping.
818:
When the motor moves a single step it overshoots the final resting point and oscillates round this point as it comes to rest. This undesirable ringing is experienced as motor rotor vibration and is more pronounced in unloaded motors. An unloaded or under loaded motor may, and often will, stall if the
773:
during each step. Winding inductance and counter-EMF generated by a moving rotor tend to resist changes in drive current, so that as the motor speeds up, less and less time is spent at full current—thus reducing motor torque. As speeds further increase, the current will not reach the rated value, and
761:
A step motor can be viewed as a synchronous AC motor with the number of poles (on both rotor and stator) increased, taking care that they have no common denominator. Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth on the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number of poles (reluctance motor).
685:
In this drive method only a single phase is activated at a time. It has the same number of steps as the full-step drive, but the motor will have significantly less torque than rated. It is rarely used. The animated figure shown above is a wave drive motor. In the animation, rotor has 25 teeth and it
652:
Chopper drive circuits are referred to as controlled current drives because they generate a controlled current in each winding rather than applying a constant voltage. Chopper drive circuits are most often used with two-winding bipolar motors, the two windings being driven independently to provide a
631:
dI/dt = V/L. The resulting current for a voltage pulse is a quickly increasing current as a function of inductance. This reaches the V/R value and holds for the remainder of the pulse. Thus when controlled by a constant voltage drive, the maximum speed of a stepper motor is limited by its inductance
724:
When half-stepping, the drive alternates between two phases on and a single phase on. This increases the angular resolution. The motor also has less torque (approx 70%) at the full-step position (where only a single phase is on). This may be mitigated by increasing the current in the active winding
605:
may be extended to greater speeds if the stator poles can be reversed more quickly, the limiting factor being a combination of the winding inductance. To overcome the inductance and switch the windings quickly, one must increase the drive voltage. This leads further to the necessity of limiting the
481:
in the right order, and this ease of operation makes unipolar motors popular with hobbyists; they are probably the cheapest way to get precise angular movements. For the experimenter, the windings can be identified by touching the terminal wires together in PM motors. If the terminals of a coil are
1002:
Datasheets from the manufacturer often indicate
Inductance. Back-EMF is equally relevant, but seldom listed (it is straightforward to measure with an oscilloscope). These figures can be helpful for more in-depth electronics design, when deviating from standard supply voltages, adapting third party
622:
drives because a constant positive or negative voltage is applied to each winding to set the step positions. However, it is winding current, not voltage that applies torque to the stepper motor shaft. The current I in each winding is related to the applied voltage V by the winding inductance L and
782:
This is the measure of the torque produced by a stepper motor when it is operated without an acceleration state. At low speeds the stepper motor can synchronize itself with an applied step frequency, and this pull-in torque must overcome friction and inertia. It is important to make sure that the
635:
With an L/R drive it is possible to control a low voltage resistive motor with a higher voltage drive simply by adding an external resistor in series with each winding. This will waste power in the resistors, and generate heat. It is therefore considered a low performing option, albeit simple and
1175:
The driver (or amplifier) converts the indexer command signals into the power necessary to energize the motor windings. There are numerous types of drivers, with different voltage and current ratings and construction technology. Not all drivers are suitable to run all motors, so when designing a
737:
in which the winding current approximates a sinusoidal AC waveform. The common way to achieve sine-cosine current is with chopper-drive circuits. Sine–cosine microstepping is the most common form, but other waveforms can be used. Regardless of the waveform used, as the microsteps become smaller,
348:
The circular arrangement of electromagnets is divided into groups, each group called a phase, and there is an equal number of electromagnets per group. The number of groups is chosen by the designer of the stepper motor. The electromagnets of each group are interleaved with the electromagnets of
609:
An additional limitation, often comparable to the effects of inductance, is the back-EMF of the motor. As the motor's rotor turns, a sinusoidal voltage is generated proportional to the speed (step rate). This AC voltage is subtracted from the voltage waveform available to induce a change in the
544:
Because windings are better utilized, they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of the same weight. This is due to the physical space occupied by the windings. A unipolar motor has twice the amount of wire in the same space, but only half used at any point in time, hence is 50% efficient (or
522:
A typical driving pattern for a two coil bipolar stepper motor would be: A+ B+ A− B−. I.e. drive coil A with positive current, then remove current from coil A; then drive coil B with positive current, then remove current from coil B; then drive coil A with negative current (flipping polarity by
457:
circuit can be simply a single switching transistor for each half winding. Typically, given a phase, the center tap of each winding is made common: three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five
752:
Example: many modern hybrid step motors are rated such that the travel of every full step (example 1.8 degrees per full step or 200 full steps per revolution) will be within 3% or 5% of the travel of every other full step, as long as the motor is operated within its specified operating ranges.
794:
The stepper motor pull-out torque is measured by accelerating the motor to the desired speed and then increasing the torque loading until the motor stalls or misses steps. This measurement is taken across a wide range of speeds and the results are used to generate the stepper motor's dynamic
715:
This is the usual method for full-step driving the motor. Two phases are always on so the motor will provide its maximum rated torque. As soon as one phase is turned off, another one is turned on. Wave drive and single phase full step are both one and the same, with same number of steps but
639:
Modern voltage-mode drivers overcome some of these limitations by approximating a sinusoidal voltage waveform to the motor phases. The amplitude of the voltage waveform is set up to increase with step rate. If properly tuned, this compensates the effects of inductance and
329:
is applied to their terminals. The stepper motor is known for its property of converting a train of input pulses (typically square waves) into a precisely defined increment in the shaft’s rotational position. Each pulse rotates the shaft through a fixed angle.
795:
performance curve. As noted below this curve is affected by drive voltage, drive current and current switching techniques. A designer may include a safety factor between the rated torque and the estimated full load torque required for the application.
255:
The left electromagnet (4) is energized, rotating again by 3.6°. When the top electromagnet (1) is again enabled, the rotor will have rotated by one tooth position; since there are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to make a full rotation in this
653:
specific motor torque CW or CCW. On each winding, a "supply" voltage is applied to the winding as a square wave voltage; example 8 kHz. The winding inductance smooths the current which reaches a level according to the square wave
1014:, which is specified by the manufacturer at particular drive voltages or using their own drive circuitry. Dips in the torque curve suggest possible resonances, whose impact on the application should be understood by designers.
1006:
A stepper's low-speed torque will vary directly with current. How quickly the torque falls off at faster speeds depends on the winding inductance and the drive circuitry it is attached to, especially the driving voltage.
514:
Bipolar motors have a pair of single winding connections per phase. The current in a winding needs to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more complicated, typically with an
284:. The step position can be rapidly increased or decreased to create continuous rotation, or the motor can be ordered to actively hold its position at one given step. Motors vary in size, speed, step resolution, and
900:
239:
Animation of a simplified stepper motor turned on, attracting the nearest teeth of the gear-shaped iron rotor. With the teeth aligned to electromagnet 1, they will be slightly offset from right electromagnet (2).
826:
of operation. When the excitation frequency matches this resonance the ringing is more pronounced, steps may be missed, and stalling is more likely. Motor resonance frequency can be calculated from the formula:
349:
other groups to form a uniform pattern of arrangement. For example, if the stepper motor has two groups identified as A or B, and ten electromagnets in total, then the grouping pattern would be ABABABABAB.
452:
per phase. Each section of windings is switched on for each direction of magnetic field. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the polarity of the common wire, the
523:
switching the wires e.g. with an H bridge), then remove current from coil A; then drive coil B with negative current (again flipping polarity same as coil A); the cycle is complete and begins anew.
436:
999:
will produce the rated winding current at DC: but this is mostly a meaningless rating, as all modern drivers are current limiting and the drive voltages greatly exceed the motor rated voltage.
545:
approximately 70% of the torque output available). Though a bipolar stepper motor is more complicated to drive, the abundance of driver chips means this is much less difficult to achieve.
333:
Stepper motors effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged as a stator around a central rotor, a gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external
738:
motor operation becomes smoother, thereby greatly reducing resonance in any parts the motor may be connected to, as well as the motor itself. Resolution will be limited by the mechanical
786:
The pull-in curve defines an area called the start/stop region. Into this region, the motor can be started/stopped instantaneously with a load applied and without loss of synchronism.
561:
Bipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor on only half the available windings, which will reduce the available low speed torque but require less current
393:
Permanent magnet stepper motors have simple DC switching electronics, a power-off detent, and no position readout. These qualities are ideal for applications such as paper printers,
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The top electromagnet (1) is turned off, and the right electromagnet (2) is energized, pulling the teeth into alignment with it. This results in a rotation of 3.6° in this example.
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remains at that shaft location. This detent has a predictable spring rate and specified torque limit; slippage occurs if the limit is exceeded. If current is removed, a lesser
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capable of generating step pulses and direction signals for the driver. In addition, the indexer is typically required to perform many other sophisticated command functions.
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Electromagnets within the same group are all energized together. Because of this, stepper motors with more phases typically have more wires (or leads) to control the motor.
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Precise positioning and repeatability of movement, since good stepper motors have an accuracy of 3–5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.
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resulting from rotor velocity. The resultant current promotes damping, so the drive circuit characteristics are important. The rotor ringing can be described in terms of
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still remains, holding shaft position against spring or other torque influences. Stepping can then be resumed while reliably being synchronized with control electronics.
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An 8-lead stepper is like a unipolar stepper, but the leads are not joined to common internally to the motor. This kind of motor can be wired in several configurations:
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930:
644:, allowing decent performance relative to current-mode drivers, but at the expense of design effort (tuning procedures) that are simpler for current-mode drivers.
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arrangement (however there are several off-the-shelf driver chips available to make this a simple affair). There are two leads per phase, none is common.
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A stepper motor system consists of three basic elements, often combined with some type of user interface (host computer, PLC or dumb terminal):
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Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore, the life of the motor is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
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Multi-phase stepper motors with many phases tend to have much lower levels of vibration. While they are more expensive, they do have a higher
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Stepper motors like this are often accompanied by a reduction gear mechanism to increase the output torque. The one shown here was used in a
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driver electronics, or gaining insight when choosing between motor models with otherwise similar size, voltage, and torque specifications.
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810:, and sometimes included in the specifications) when not driven electrically. Soft iron reluctance cores do not exhibit this behavior.
415:
Hybrid synchronous motors are a combination of the permanent magnet and variable reluctance types, to maximize power in a small size.
397:, and robotics. Such applications track position simply by counting the number of steps that each motor has been instructed to take.
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that rotates in a series of small and discrete angular steps. Stepper motors can be set to any given step position without needing a
746:, and other sources of error between the motor and the end device. Gear reducers may be used to increase resolution of positioning.
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Stepper motors' nameplates typically give only the winding current and occasionally the voltage and winding resistance. The rated
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by programming the motors to rotate at the frequencies of different musical tones, in a sequence that imitates that found in a
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electromagnets. Pulses move the rotor clockwise or anticlockwise in discrete steps. If left powered at a final step, a strong
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The motor's response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.
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I=V/R. The inductance L determines the maximum rate of change of the current in the winding according to the formula for an
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Dithering the stepper signal at a higher frequency than the motor can respond to will reduce this "static friction" effect.
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Bipolar with parallel windings. This requires higher current but can perform better as the winding inductance is reduced.
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A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized, as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.
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It is possible to achieve very low-speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.
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Step size reduction is an important step motor feature and a fundamental reason for their use in positioning.
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1033:(NEMA) standardises various dimensions, marking and other aspects of stepper motors, in NEMA standard (NEMA
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The stepper motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation.
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load on the motor is frictional rather than inertial as the friction reduces any unwanted oscillations.
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Clarence W. de Silva. Mechatronics: An
Integrated Approach (2005). CRC Press. p. 675. "The terms
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378:(PM) in the rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor magnet and the
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is the rotor inertia in kg·m². The magnitude of the undesirable ringing is dependent on the
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Static friction effects using an H-bridge have been observed with certain drive topologies.
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are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count. They generally employ closed-loop
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Resonance effect often exhibited at low speeds and decreasing torque with increasing speed.
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of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.
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Bipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower current per winding.
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To achieve full rated torque, the coils in a stepper motor must reach their full rated
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the winding resistance R. The resistance R determines the maximum current according to
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and with the appropriate drive electronics are often better suited to the application.
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Clarence W. de Silva. Mechatronics: An
Integrated Approach (2005). CRC Press. p. 675.
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412:. Variable reluctance motors have detents when powered on, but not when powered off.
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Different drive modes showing coil current on a 4-phase unipolar stepper motor.
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occurs with minimum gap, so the rotor points are attracted toward the stator's
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http://www.applied-motion.com/videos/intro-amps-ip65-rated-motors-motordrives
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The bottom electromagnet (3) is energized; another 3.6° rotation occurs.
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using permanent magnets have a resonant position holding torque (called
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Modern steppers are of hybrid design, having both permanent magnets and
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The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized)
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895:{\displaystyle f={\frac {100}{2\pi }}{\sqrt {\frac {2pM_{h}}{J_{r}}}}}
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they are frequently used in precision positioning equipment such as
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The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
1142:. Some programming hobbyists have used arrays of stepper motors as
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Step motors adapted to harsh environments are often referred to as
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https://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~jones/step/physics.html#friction
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vibration experienced is enough to cause loss of synchronisation.
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driver, is one of the most popular stepper motors among hobbyists.
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1423:
Instrument
Engineers' Handbook: Process Control and Optimization
1176:
motion control system, the driver selection process is critical.
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takes 4 steps to rotate by one tooth position. So there will be
536:
A bipolar stepper motor with gear reduction mechanism used in a
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or stepper motor controller can be used to activate the drive
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1087:. Other uses are in packaging machinery, and positioning of
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1018:
1052:. They are typically digitally controlled as part of an
665:
1056:
system for use in holding or positioning applications.
733:
What is commonly referred to as microstepping is often
606:
current that these high voltages may otherwise induce.
597:
Stepper motor performance is strongly dependent on the
1458:"Stepper Motor – Types, Advantages & Applications"
404:
rotor and operate based on the principle that minimum
958:
938:
911:
836:
1933:
Dual-rotor permanent magnet induction motor (DRPMIM)
1470:
See "Friction and the Dead Zone" by
Douglas W Jones
1261:
690:= 100 steps per full rotation and each step will be
1611:
Controlling a stepper motor without microcontroller
1356:
are synonymous and are often used interchangeably."
774:eventually the motor will cease to produce torque.
432:
in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar.
145:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
75:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
1539:http://www.cncitalia.net/file/pdf/nemastandard.pdf
1231:Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
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944:
924:
894:
710:
1045:Computer controlled stepper motors are a type of
428:There are two basic winding arrangements for the
2312:
1010:Steppers should be sized according to published
1510:"Microstepping: Myths and Realities - MICROMO"
1365:
448:A unipolar stepper motor has one winding with
360:There are three main types of stepper motors:
1670:
1031:National Electrical Manufacturers Association
990:
16:Electric motor for discrete partial rotations
1650:Stepping Motor Drive Guide from Dover Motion
680:
618:L/R driver circuits are also referred to as
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1677:
1663:
1204:Can operate in an open loop control system
660:
1098:Commercially, stepper motors are used in
647:
223:Learn how and when to remove this message
205:Learn how and when to remove this message
103:Learn how and when to remove this message
87:, without removing the technical details.
1368:"A Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering"
1216:Can be used in robotics in a wide scale.
813:
664:
590:Motor Shield drive circuit for use with
581:
531:
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484:
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313:
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234:
1628:Control of Stepping Motors - A Tutorial
1366:Escudier, Marcel; Atkins, Tony (2019).
1153:
400:Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a
2313:
1585:"Advanced Micro Systems - stepper 101"
1419:
1413:
1024:
613:
1684:
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1195:High torque at startup and low speeds
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85:make it understandable to non-experts
1526:More on what is an IP65 step motor:
1376:10.1093/acref/9780198832102.001.0001
1340:
1338:
143:adding citations to reliable sources
114:
59:
18:
13:
1551:"Yakety Sax - Stepper Motor music"
1484:"electricmotors.machinedesign.com"
1456:Tarun, Agarwal (24 October 2013).
1207:Low maintenance (high reliability)
789:
577:
443:
14:
2337:
1604:
1440:
1335:
1316:Three-phase AC synchronous motors
1165:The indexer (or controller) is a
952:is the number of pole pairs, and
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34:This article has multiple issues.
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719:
506:A bipolar stepper motor used in
119:
64:
23:
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1543:
1532:
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711:Full-step drive (two phases on)
673:A stepper motor is a polyphase
465:The 28BYJ-48, accompanied by a
130:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
2062:Timeline of the electric motor
1502:
1490:
1476:
1464:
1449:
1359:
1144:electronic musical instruments
932:is the holding torque in N·m,
510:for moving the laser assembly.
318:A bipolar hybrid stepper motor
1:
1847:Dahlander pole changing motor
1328:
1192:Low cost for control achieved
1186:
1616:Zaber Microstepping Tutorial
1571:"Arduino MIDI Stepper Synth"
1296:Fractional horsepower motors
1213:Will work in any environment
1210:Less likely to stall or slip
439:Unipolar stepper motor coils
423:
301:
7:
1891:Brushless DC electric motor
1426:. CRC Press. p. 2464.
1286:Brushless DC electric motor
1257:
804:Synchronous electric motors
368:, and hybrid synchronous.
274:Brushless DC electric motor
10:
2342:
1618:. Retrieved on 2007-11-15.
1201:Simplicity of construction
991:Ratings and specifications
292:Switched reluctance motors
2182:
2121:
2095:
2050:
1981:
1908:Switched reluctance (SRM)
1886:Brushed DC electric motor
1822:
1799:
1724:
1692:
1624:. Retrieved on 2023-7-20.
1323:(stepper motor) driver IC
1301:Lavet-type stepping motor
1281:Brushed DC electric motor
756:
735:sine–cosine microstepping
681:Wave drive (one phase on)
418:
325:rotate continuously when
2096:Experimental, futuristic
2013:Variable-frequency drive
1420:Liptak, Bela G. (2005).
808:detent torque or cogging
355:
2113:Superconducting machine
1751:Coil winding technology
1622:Stepper System Overview
661:Phase current waveforms
372:Permanent magnet motors
1636:The University of Iowa
1401:Cite journal requires
973:
946:
926:
896:
822:Stepper motors have a
716:difference in torque.
670:
648:Chopper drive circuits
594:
541:
511:
494:
470:
440:
319:
311:
257:
2154:Power-to-weight ratio
2018:Direct torque control
1093:fluid control systems
974:
972:{\displaystyle J_{r}}
947:
927:
925:{\displaystyle M_{h}}
897:
814:Ringing and resonance
668:
585:
535:
505:
488:
464:
438:
430:electromagnetic coils
317:
309:
238:
2149:Open-loop controller
2042:Ward Leonard control
1766:DC injection braking
1154:Stepper motor system
1128:intelligent lighting
956:
936:
909:
834:
675:AC synchronous motor
139:improve this article
2052:History, education,
1698:Alternating current
1589:www.stepcontrol.com
1025:NEMA stepper motors
614:L/R driver circuits
586:Stepper motor with
366:variable reluctance
2215:Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
2174:Voltage controller
2129:Blocked-rotor test
2067:Ball bearing motor
2037:Motor soft starter
1991:AC-to-AC converter
1852:Wound-rotor (WRIM)
1814:Electric generator
1600:Final Drive Motors
1272:Electronics portal
1100:floppy disk drives
1050:positioning system
969:
942:
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892:
671:
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566:Higher-phase count
542:
512:
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320:
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258:
2308:
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2144:Open-circuit test
1983:Motor controllers
1864:Synchronous motor
1686:Electric machines
1433:978-0-8493-1081-2
1385:978-0-19-883210-2
1108:computer printers
945:{\displaystyle p}
890:
889:
856:
824:natural frequency
323:Brushed DC motors
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113:
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105:
57:
2333:
2159:Two-phase system
2139:Electromagnetism
2087:Mouse mill motor
2054:recreational use
1928:Permanent magnet
1857:Linear induction
1710:Permanent magnet
1679:
1672:
1665:
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1632:Douglas W. Jones
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1219:High reliability
1104:flatbed scanners
1069:linear actuators
1059:In the field of
978:
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376:permanent magnet
362:permanent magnet
339:micro controller
264:, also known as
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147:
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2321:Electric motors
2311:
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2309:
2304:
2178:
2117:
2091:
2082:Mendocino motor
2055:
2053:
2046:
1977:
1837:Induction motor
1818:
1795:
1741:Braking chopper
1729:
1727:
1720:
1688:
1683:
1607:
1597:
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1537:
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1514:www.micromo.com
1508:
1507:
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1499:, microstepping
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1077:rotation stages
1043:
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831:
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801:
792:
790:Pull-out torque
780:
764:soft iron cores
759:
731:
722:
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692:
691:
687:
683:
663:
650:
616:
580:
578:Driver circuits
568:
538:flatbed scanner
500:
491:flatbed scanner
475:microcontroller
446:
444:Unipolar motors
426:
421:
358:
310:A stepper motor
304:
278:position sensor
251:
246:
241:
229:
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217:
216:
211:
200:
194:
191:
154:"Stepper motor"
148:
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136:
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109:
98:
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89:
81:help improve it
78:
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28:
24:
17:
12:
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5:
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2164:Inchworm motor
2161:
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2134:Circle diagram
2131:
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2123:
2122:Related topics
2119:
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2110:
2105:
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2097:
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2092:
2090:
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2084:
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2072:Barlow's wheel
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2023:Vector control
2020:
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1761:Damper winding
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1726:Components and
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1706:
1704:Direct current
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1605:External links
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1403:|journal=
1384:
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1179:Stepper motors
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1167:microprocessor
1163:
1155:
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1120:image scanners
1047:motion-control
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1026:
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985:damping factor
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779:
778:Pull-in torque
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498:Bipolar motors
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410:magnetic poles
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343:integer number
335:driver circuit
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270:stepping motor
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1953:Electrostatic
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799:Detent torque
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772:
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747:
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729:Microstepping
726:
720:Half-stepping
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155:
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150:Find sources:
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128:This article
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73:This article
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1415:
1394:cite journal
1361:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1157:
1136:CNC machines
1124:compact disc
1097:
1058:
1044:
1041:Applications
1028:
1016:
1012:torque curve
1009:
1005:
1001:
994:
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195:October 2023
192:
182:
175:
168:
161:
149:
137:Please help
132:verification
129:
99:
93:October 2023
90:
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
2077:Lynch motor
1842:Shaded-pole
1728:accessories
1306:Servo motor
1140:3D printers
1091:stages for
1089:valve pilot
1081:goniometers
1035:ICS 16-2001
479:transistors
455:commutation
395:3D printers
296:commutators
2315:Categories
1973:Axial flux
1963:Ultrasonic
1938:Servomotor
1918:Doubly fed
1913:Reluctance
1809:Alternator
1801:Generators
1771:Field coil
1756:Commutator
1716:commutated
1714:SC - Self-
1645:RepRapWiki
1641:NEMA motor
1354:step motor
1329:References
1198:Ruggedness
1187:Advantages
655:duty cycle
508:DVD drives
450:center tap
406:reluctance
327:DC voltage
266:step motor
165:newspapers
39:improve it
2326:Actuators
2290:Steinmetz
2205:Davenport
2003:Amplidyne
1903:Universal
1881:Homopolar
1869:Repulsion
1781:Slip ring
1497:zaber.com
1054:open loop
853:π
625:Ohm's law
610:current.
552:Unipolar.
424:Two phase
402:soft iron
302:Mechanism
45:talk page
2295:Sturgeon
2225:Ferraris
2210:Davidson
2032:Metadyne
1948:Traction
1896:Unipolar
1876:DC motor
1832:AC motor
1736:Armature
1321:ULN2003A
1311:Solenoid
1258:See also
1162:Indexers
1126:drives,
1112:plotters
981:back EMF
744:backlash
740:stiction
642:back-EMF
629:inductor
588:Adafruit
517:H-bridge
282:feedback
256:example.
253:Frame 4:
248:Frame 3:
243:Frame 2:
2285:Sprague
2280:Siemens
2255:Maxwell
2220:Faraday
2169:Starter
2108:Railgun
2103:Coilgun
1943:Stepper
1791:Winding
1556:YouTube
1172:Drivers
1029:The US
1021:rated.
997:voltage
771:current
695:⁄
636:cheap.
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