1758:
1063:
642:
1423:
932:
1741:. Physical collection or removal is not economical or even currently possible. Moving satellites out to a graveyard orbit is also unsustainable because they remain there for hundreds of years. It will lead to the further pollution of space and future issues with space debris. When satellites deorbit much of it is destroyed during re-entry into the atmosphere due to the heat. This introduces more material and pollutants into the atmosphere. There have been concerns expressed about the potential damage to the ozone layer and the possibility of increasing the earth's
1137:
5478:
78:
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471:
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1796:, report that orbital pollution is getting increased significantly. A report from the SATCON1 workshop in 2020 concluded that the effects of large satellite constellations can severely affect some astronomical research efforts and lists six ways to mitigate harm to astronomy. The IAU is establishing a center (CPS) to coordinate or aggregate measures to mitigate such detrimental effects.
1829:
Also, it is very easy to transmit a carrier radio signal to a geostationary satellite and thus interfere with the legitimate uses of the satellite's transponder. It is common for Earth stations to transmit at the wrong time or on the wrong frequency in commercial satellite space, and dual-illuminate
1652:
and can also contribute to ozone loss through the formation of ice particles. Black carbon particles emitted by rockets can absorb solar radiation in the stratosphere and cause warming in the surrounding air which can then impact the circulatory dynamics of the stratosphere. Both warming and changes
1401:
Navigational satellites are satellites that use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite
587:
Astérix or A-1 (initially conceptualized as FR.2 or FR-2) is the first French satellite. It was launched on 26 November 1965 by a
Diamant A rocket from the CIEES launch site at Hammaguir, Algeria. With Astérix, France became the sixth country to have an artificial satellite and the third country to
3637:
Sutherland, W.J.; Atkinson, P.W.; Broad, S.; Brown, S.; Clout, M.; Dias, M.P.; Dicks, L.V.; Doran, H.; Fleishman, E.; Garratt, E.L.; Gaston, K.J.; Hughes, A.C.; Le Roux, X.; Lickorish, F.A.; Maggs, L.; Palardy, J.E.; Peck, L.S.; Pettorelli, N.; Pretty, J.; Spalding, M.D.; Tonneijck, F.H.; Walpole,
977:; satellites that are further away are affected more by other bodies' gravitational field by the Moon and the Sun. Satellites utilize ultra-white reflective coatings to prevent damage from UV radiation. Without orbit and orientation control, satellites in orbit will not be able to communicate with
1526:
The environmental impact of satellites is not currently well understood as they were previously assumed to be benign due to the rarity of satellite launches. However, the exponential increase and projected growth of satellite launches are bringing the issue into consideration. The main issues are
1715:
Given the current surge in satellites in the sky, soon hundreds of satellites may be clearly visible to the human eye at dark sites. It is estimated that the overall levels of diffuse brightness of the night skies has increased by up to 10% above natural levels. This has the potential to confuse
1543:
is a preferred metal in satellite construction due to its lightweight and relative cheapness and typically constitutes around 40% of a satellite's mass. Through mining and refining, aluminium has numerous negative environmental impacts and is one of the most carbon-intensive metals. Satellite
1479:
Since the mid-2000s, satellites have been hacked by militant organizations to broadcast propaganda and to pilfer classified information from military communication networks. For testing purposes, satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from the Earth.
1643:
through intermolecular reactions and can have huge impacts in trace amounts. However, it is currently understood that launch rates would need to increase by ten times to match the impact of regulated ozone-depleting substances. Whilst emissions of water vapour are largely deemed as inert,
1254:, atmospheric trace gas content, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields. By monitoring vegetation changes over time, droughts can be monitored by comparing the current vegetation state to its long term average. Anthropogenic emissions can be monitored by evaluating data of tropospheric NO
461:
In
February 1954, Project RAND released "Scientific Uses for a Satellite Vehicle", by R. R. Carhart. This expanded on potential scientific uses for satellite vehicles and was followed in June 1955 with "The Scientific Use of an Artificial Satellite", by H. K. Kallmann and W. W. Kellogg.
1724:
At all points of a satellite's lifetime, its movement and processes are monitored on the ground through a network of facilities. The environmental cost of the infrastructure as well as day-to-day operations is likely to be quite high, but quantification requires further investigation.
1716:
organisms, like insects and night-migrating birds, that use celestial patterns for migration and orientation. The impact this might have is currently unclear. The visibility of man-made objects in the night sky may also impact people's linkages with the world, nature, and culture.
749:
satellites, the first large satellite internet constellation to exceed 1000 active satellites on orbit in 2020, are designed to be 100% demisable and burn up completely on their atmospheric reentry at the end of their life, or in the event of an early satellite failure.
1360:
and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points. Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and
904:
plan to send a wooden satellite prototype called LingoSat into orbit in the summer of 2024. They have been working on this project for few years and sent first wood samples to the space in 2021 to test the material's resilience to space conditions.
307:, on October 4, 1957. As of December 31, 2022, there are 6,718 operational satellites in the Earth's orbit, of which 4,529 belong to the United States (3,996 commercial), 590 belong to China, 174 belong to Russia, and 1,425 belong to other nations.
439:, which stated "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century." The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the
3822:
Lawrence, Andy; Rawls, Meredith L.; Jah, Moriba; Boley, Aaron; Di Vruno, Federico; Garrington, Simon; Kramer, Michael; Lawler, Samantha; Lowenthal, James; McDowell, Jonathan; McCaughrean, Mark (April 2022). "The case for space environmentalism".
1825:
by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming, but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.
1773:
are increasing in magnitude and at the same time lack progress in national or international regulation. Space debris pose dangers to the spacecraft (including satellites) in or crossing geocentric orbits and have the potential to drive a
1830:
the transponder, rendering the frequency unusable. Satellite operators now have sophisticated monitoring tools and methods that enable them to pinpoint the source of any carrier and manage the transponder space effectively.
1368:. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.
1673:
is caused by atmospheric drag and to keep the satellite in the correct orbit the platform occasionally needs repositioning. To do this nozzle-based systems use a chemical propellant to create thrust. In most cases
1690:
as gas into the upper atmosphere. Also, the environment of the outer atmosphere causes the degradation of exterior materials. The atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere oxidises hydrocarbon-based polymers like
1556:, some of which have significant environmental consequences linked to their mining and processing and/or are in limited supply. Launch vehicles require larger amounts of raw materials to manufacture and the
1383:
When an Earth observation satellite or a communications satellite is deployed for military or intelligence purposes, it is known as a spy satellite or reconnaissance satellite.
715:—where on-orbit active satellites more than doubled over a period of five years—the companies building the constellations began to propose regular planned deorbiting of the older satellites that reached the
1607:
emitted by rockets is considered trivial as it contributes significantly less, around 0.01%, than the aviation industry yearly which itself accounts for 2-3% of the total global greenhouse gas emissions.
3194:
Flexer, Victoria; Baspineiro, Celso; Galli, Claudia (2018). "Lithium recovery from brines: A vital raw material for green energies with a potential environmental impact in its mining and processing".
136:, signals intelligence and, potentially, weapon delivery. Other satellites include the final rocket stages that place satellites in orbit and formerly useful satellites that later become defunct.
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attach solar panels to the satellite; the slip rings can rotate to be perpendicular with the sunlight and generate the most power. All satellites with a solar panel must also have
407:) and discussed the communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short with the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.
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MrĂłz, Przemek; Otarola, Angel; Prince, Thomas A.; Dekany, Richard; Duev, Dmitry A.; Graham, Matthew J.; Groom, Steven L.; Masci, Frank J.; Medford, Michael S. (1 January 2022).
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1518:. On 27 March 2019, India shot down a live test satellite at 300 km altitude in 3 minutes, becoming the fourth country to have the capability to destroy live satellites.
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and their effects are only beginning to be studied and it is likely that the impacts will be more critical than emissions in the troposphere. The stratosphere includes the
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through a negatively-charged grid. Ion propulsion is more efficient propellant-wise than chemical propulsion but its thrust is very small (around 0.5 N or 0.1 lb
4045:
447:. Project RAND eventually released the report, but considered the satellite to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda, rather than a potential military weapon.
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became the United States' first artificial satellite, on 31 January 1958. The information sent back from its radiation detector led to the discovery of the Earth's
3327:
Dallas, J.A.; Raval, S.; Gaitan, J.P.A.; Saydam, S.; Dempster, A.G. (2020). "The environmental impact of emissions from space launches: A comprehensive review".
3060:
Farjana, Shahjadi Hisan; Huda, Nazmul; Mahmud, M.A. Parvez (2019). "Impacts of aluminum production: A cradle to gate investigation using life-cycle assessment".
2759:
4537:
3114:
Gaston, Kevin; Anderson, Karen; Shutler, Jamie; Brewin, Robert; Yan, Xiaoyu (2023). "Environmental impacts of increasing numbers of artificial space objects".
2565:
2147:
2. H. K. Kallmann and W. W. Kellogg, Scientific Use of an
Artificial Satellite, Project RAND Research Memorandum. (Rand Corporation, Santa Monica) 8 June 1955.
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4735:
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316:
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3465:
Ross, Martin; Toohey, Darin; Peinemann, Manfred; Ross, Patrick (2009). "Limits on the Space Launch Market
Related to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion".
2507:
2117:
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1564:, which were composed mainly of steel, weighed around 38 tons each, to give an idea of the quantity of materials that are often left in the ocean.
2303:
3924:
3740:
Hamacher, Duane; Barsa, John; Passi, Segar; Tapim, Alo (2019). "Indigenous use of stellar scintillation to predict weather and seasonal change".
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1818:. Using wood as an alternative material has been posited in order to reduce pollution and debris from satellites that reenter the atmosphere.
340:
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Their uses include early missile warning, nuclear explosion detection, electronic reconnaissance, and optical or radar imaging surveillance.
650:
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2138:
R. R. Carhart, Scientific Uses for a
Satellite Vehicle, Project RAND Research Memorandum. (Rand Corporation, Santa Monica) 12 February 1954.
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1990:
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4358:
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742:(LEO)—satellites began to more frequently be designed to get destroyed, or breakup and burnup entirely in the atmosphere. For example,
2851:
2223:
218:; geostationary means the satellites stay still in the sky (relative to a fixed point on the ground). Some imaging satellites chose a
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around Earth increases, the threat of collision has become more severe. A small number of satellites orbit other bodies (such as the
4127:
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3529:
672:
4422:
3638:
M.; Watson, J.E.M; Wentworth, J.; Thornton, A. (2021). "A 2021 Horizon Scan of
Emerging Global Biological Conservation Issues".
3159:
Norgate, Terry; Haque, Nawshad (2012). "Using life cycle assessment to evaluate some environmental impacts of gold production".
3015:
Schulz, Leonard; Glassmeier, Karl-Heinz (2021). "On the anthropogenic and natural injection of matter into Earth's atmosphere".
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1808:
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resource use and the release of pollutants into the atmosphere which can happen at different stages of a satellite's lifetime.
1449:
are satellites that provide a recovery of reconnaissance, biological, space-production and other payloads from orbit to Earth.
1291:
1200:
applications. As of 2021, there are over 950 Earth observation satellites, with the largest number of satellites operated with
1111:
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Rocket launches release numerous pollutants into every layer of the atmosphere, especially affecting the atmosphere above the
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stages are usually dropped into the ocean after fuel exhaustion. They are not normally recovered. Two empty boosters used for
1342:
antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite. Others form
395:
explored the idea of using orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground in his 1928 book,
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satellites are proposed satellites that would collect energy from sunlight and transmit it for use on Earth or other places.
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152:
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to have consistent lighting and obtain a total view of the Earth. Depending on the satellites' functions, they might have a
1094:, because sunlight is blocked inside the launch vehicle and at night. The most common types of batteries for satellites are
688:
rocket from an
American spaceport. The same goes for Australia, whose launch of the first satellite involved a donated U.S.
179:
to space, most satellites are designed to be as lightweight and robust as possible. Most communication satellites are radio
4483:
4359:"Report Offers Roadmap to Mitigate Effects of Large Satellite Constellations on Astronomy | American Astronomical Society"
2951:
1156:. Most Earth observation satellites are placed in low Earth orbit for a high data resolution, though some are placed in a
692:
rocket and
American support staff as well as a joint launch facility with the United Kingdom. The first Italian satellite
4159:"Impact of satellite constellations on astronomical observations with ESO telescopes in the visible and infrared domains"
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1514:
610:
Early satellites were built to unique designs. With advancements in technology, multiple satellites began to be built on
424:
for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.
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2538:
1350:, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently.
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in
February 2008. On 18 November 2015, after two failed attempts, Russia successfully carried out a flight test of an
280:
can relay information to remote places. The signal delay from satellites and their orbit's predictability are used in
4792:
3551:
de Groh, Kim; Banks, Bruce; Miller, Sharon; Dever, Joyce (2018). "Chapter 28 - Degradation of
Spacecraft Materials".
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announced on 29 July 1955 that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as
399:. He described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book described
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While Canada was the third country to build a satellite which was launched into space, it was launched aboard an
17:
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42:
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3410:"Impact of Rocket Launch and Space Debris Air Pollutant Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate"
2712:
4888:
2531:"Digital Connectivity and Low Earth Orbit Satellite Constellations: Opportunities for Asia and the Pacific"
1927:
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is a commercial off-the-shelf software application for satellite mission analysis, design, and operations.
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2611:"Space - American Elements Assists NASA in Development of Ultra White Coating for Satellite Applications"
1962:
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of the earth's climate. After deorbiting 70% of satellites end up in the ocean and are rarely recovered.
1131:
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2434:
Technical Innovation in American History: An Encyclopedia of Science and Technology [3 volumes]
2316:
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1057:
708:. In similar occasions, almost all further first national satellites were launched by foreign rockets.
377:, which was the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the
69:
4296:"Impacts of Large Satellite Constellations on Astronomy: Live Updates | American Astronomical Society"
3916:
3596:"The proliferation of space objects is a rapidly increasing source of artificial night sky brightness"
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5177:
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38:
577:(TIROS) program, sent back the first television footage of weather patterns to be taken from space.
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528:. On 31 July, the Soviet Union announced its intention to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.
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where the byproducts of combustion can reside for extended periods. These pollutants can include
1474:
1454:
1419:
are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
1343:
962:
954:
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542:
428:
180:
172:
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1966:
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navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.
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through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the
5462:
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4777:
4715:
4230:"Impact of the SpaceX Starlink Satellites on the Zwicky Transient Facility Survey Observations"
2346:
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Several pollutants are released in the upper atmospheric layers during the orbital lifetime of
1427:
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was launched on 3 November 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named
404:
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362:
327:
203:
144:
3981:"Chinese official calls for protection of space assets, international coordination mechanisms"
592:
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because they can scan the entire globe with similar lighting. As the number of satellites and
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are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.
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132:, scientific research, and Earth observation. Additional military uses are reconnaissance,
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996:. Hypergolic means able to combust spontaneously when in contact with each other or to a
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The first published mathematical study of the possibility of an artificial satellite was
215:
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which could potentially curtail humanity from conducting space endeavors in the future.
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After the late 2010s, and especially after the advent and operational fielding of large
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1955:
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1603:, but the mix of pollutants is dependent on rocket design and fuel type. The amount of
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1338:, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the
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in orbit and carry dozens of transponders, each with a bandwidth of tens of megahertz.
3501:
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1821:
Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, they are prone to
1799:
Some notable satellite failures that polluted and dispersed radioactive materials are
392:
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3502:"The Climate and Ozone Impacts of Black Carbon Emissions From Global Rocket Launches"
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When satellites reach the end of life they are intentionally deorbited or moved to a
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344:(1687). The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a
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that are used to insulate and protect the satellite which then emits gasses like CO
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2472:"Material selection for a CubeSat structural bus complying with debris mitigation"
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flows, etc. Environmental monitoring satellites can detect changes in the Earth's
1152:
Earth observation satellites are designed to monitor and survey the Earth, called
965:
or attitude. Satellites close to Earth are affected the most by variations in the
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2760:"Military Satellite Communications Fundamentals | The Aerospace Corporation"
1931:
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1180:, or atmospheric instruments. Earth observation satellite's data is most used in
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4419:"Protection of the Dark and Quiet Sky from Satellite Constellation Interference"
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are satellites that are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a
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Maloney, Christopher; Portmann, Robert; Ross, Martin; Rosenlof, Karen (2022).
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Ryan, Robert; Marais, Eloise; Balhatchet, Chloe; Eastham, Sebastian (2022).
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of obtaining a launch license. The largest artificial satellite ever is the
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Miraux, Lois (2022). "Environmental limits to the space sector's growth".
3288:"Earth observation from space – The issue of environmental sustainability"
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France is the third country to launch a satellite on its own rocket, the
521:
505:. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the
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3144:
2642:"How many Earth observation satellites are orbiting the planet in 2021?"
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In June 1961, three and a half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the
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299:
The first artificial satellite launched into the Earth's orbit was the
239:
195:
109:
2752:
549:, and the International Geophysical Year, the Army and Navy worked on
5429:
4997:
4878:
4799:
4782:
4606:
4603:"Libya Pinpointed as Source of Months-Long Satellite Jamming in 2006"
4510:
3135:
2825:
1675:
1596:
1540:
1535:
Resource use is difficult to monitor and quantify for satellites and
1362:
1315:
1223:
1087:
1082:
to generate power, and a few in deep space with limited sunlight use
1029:
1001:
997:
762:
758:
630:
600:
531:
509:
in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the
482:
475:
304:
3763:
2920:"Navy Missile Successful as Spy Satellite Is Shot Down (With Video)"
1496:
have demonstrated the ability to eliminate satellites. In 2007, the
497:
as chief designer. Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high
210:. As of 2018, about 90% of the satellites orbiting the Earth are in
4246:
4175:
3837:
3754:
3612:
3029:
1789:
1687:
1683:
1561:
1505:
1327:
1323:
1145:
1071:
1024:), and thus requires a longer burn time. The thrusters usually use
878:
850:
834:
746:
510:
276:. Because satellites can see a large portion of the Earth at once,
3779:"Environmental sustainability of future proposed space activities"
77:
3886:"Problem Weltraumschrott: Die kosmische Müllkippe – Wissenschaft"
2697:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
1679:
1553:
1545:
1501:
1335:
1033:
886:
802:
794:
786:
766:
754:
731:
704:(Virginia, United States) with an Italian launch team trained by
604:
596:
570:
168:
82:
2589:"Japanese scientists want to send a wooden satellite into space"
2067:"Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship"
5243:
5107:
4648:
4329:"SpaceX's Dark Satellites Are Still Too Bright for Astronomers"
4128:"Light pollution from satellites will get worse. But how much?"
1786:
1742:
1696:
1692:
1500:
military shot down an aging weather satellite, followed by the
1481:
1442:
1247:
1160:
for an uninterrupted coverage. Some satellites are placed in a
1000:. The most commonly used propellant mixtures on satellites are
882:
858:
854:
846:
838:
814:
798:
774:
770:
743:
619:
155:(RTGs). Most satellites also have a method of communication to
4665:
3594:
Kocifaj, M.; Kundracik, F.; Barentine, J.C.; Bara, S. (2021).
2100:
Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center
470:
437:
Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship
120:. They have a variety of uses, including communication relay,
3817:
3815:
3593:
1700:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1319:
1307:
1287:
1211:
1173:
1025:
870:
822:
818:
806:
790:
782:
778:
535:
113:
86:
3636:
2190:"50th anniversary of first U.S. satellite launch celebrated"
1653:
in circulation can then cause depletion of the ozone layer.
64:
This article is about human-made satellites. For moons, see
3777:
Miraux, Lois; Willson, Andrew; Calabuig, Guillermo (2022).
3499:
3407:
3113:
2162:
2071:
1549:
1235:
1219:
924:"Altitude control" redirects here. Not to be confused with
901:
810:
705:
167:
to save cost and work, the most popular of which are small
4068:"What happens if two bits of space junk actually collide?"
3812:
3600:
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters
171:. Similar satellites can work together as groups, forming
5124:
4157:
Hainaut, Olivier R.; Williams, Andrew P. (1 April 2020).
3691:
Foster, J.; Smolka, J.; Nilsson, D.E.; Dacke, M. (2018).
2245:
Tatem, Andrew J.; Goetz, Scott J.; Hay, Simon I. (2008).
1588:
1239:
730:
By the early 2000s, and particularly after the advent of
573:
spacecraft, launched on April 1, 1960, as part of NASA's
125:
3690:
2852:"AsiaSat accuses Falungong of hacking satellite signals"
2791:"8 types of satellites that make your modern world work"
4389:"Astronomers stand up to satellite mega-constellations"
4227:
3951:"What would a sustainable space environment look like?"
3739:
3697:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3550:
3464:
3326:
2884:
Broad, William J.; Sanger, David E. (18 January 2007).
1012:
bipropellants. Ion thrusters on satellites usually are
659: Satellite operation, launched by foreign supplier
186:
Satellites are placed from the surface to the orbit by
4476:"Japan developing wooden satellites to cut space junk"
2952:"India successfully tests anti-satellite weapon: Modi"
1619:
and pollutants emitted from rockets can contribute to
618:. The first standardized satellite bus design was the
198:. Satellites can then change or maintain the orbit by
5503:
4507:"U.S.-Led Forces Destroy GPS Jamming Systems in Iraq"
4038:"Space is becoming too crowded, Rocket Lab CEO warns"
3821:
3776:
3193:
1539:
due to their commercially sensitive nature. However,
1330:
applications. Many communications satellites are in
2302:
Portree, David S. F.; Loftus, Joseph P. Jr. (1999).
1953:
Bleiler, Everett Franklin; Bleiler, Richard (1991).
1761:
The growth of all tracked objects in space over time
1745:, reducing warming but also resulting in accidental
1678:
is the chemical propellant used which then releases
2887:"China Tests Anti-Satellite Weapon, Unnerving U.S."
2469:
4421:. Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, Bonn.
2885:
2379:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
1954:
1544:manufacturing also requires rare elements such as
381:required for a minimal orbit, and inferred that a
317:Timeline of first artificial satellites by country
3059:
2562:"The Countries with the Most Satellites in Space"
5539:
3014:
1924:"Rockets in Science Fiction (Late 19th Century)"
1148:, collecting data on Earth's weather and climate
4156:
738:—frequently launched to the lower altitudes of
553:with two competing programs. The army used the
1952:
1719:
753:In different periods, many countries, such as
636:
4681:
4098:"IAU's statement on satellite constellations"
3285:
2430:
2369:
2301:
2247:"Fifty Years of Earth-observation Satellites"
2244:
1752:
1661:
984:Chemical thrusters on satellites usually use
913:
516:In the context of activities planned for the
450:In 1946, American theoretical astrophysicist
4570:"Iran government jamming exile satellite TV"
3742:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria
3158:
2528:
2150:
2114:"Hubble Essentials: About Lyman Spitzer, Jr"
2028:
1814:Generally liability has been covered by the
1356:used for telecommunications links travel by
1070:'s black solar panels on the left and white
541:In early 1955, after being pressured by the
375:Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices
2883:
2522:
2157:Gray, Tara; Garber, Steve (2 August 2004).
2029:Pratt, Timothy; Allnutt, Jeremy E. (2019).
1737:further away from Earth in order to reduce
696:was launched on 15 December 1964 on a U.S.
557:, while the civilian–Navy program used the
341:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
23:
4688:
4674:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3273:
2529:Garrity, John; Husar, Arndt (April 2021).
2470:Slejko, EA; Gregorio, A; Lughi, V (2021).
2156:
1792:, the astronomical community, such as the
24:
4263:
4245:
4192:
4174:
3944:
3942:
3836:
3753:
3716:
3667:
3621:
3611:
3568:
3441:
3311:
3223:
3143:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3028:
3010:
3008:
2431:Welch, Rosanne; Lamphier, Peg A. (2019).
2278:
2097:
1310:. Communications satellites are used for
584:cataloged 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.
575:Television Infrared Observation Satellite
4638:) is being considered for deletion. See
4445:"International Astronomical Union | IAU"
3116:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
2788:
2710:
2559:
2343:Space Programs Outside the United States
2340:
1756:
1421:
1334:22,236 miles (35,785 km) above the
1135:
1061:
1040:and storable as a high-pressure liquid.
1016:, which generate thrust by accelerating
930:
675:project at advanced stage or indigenous
640:
582:United States Space Surveillance Network
469:
420:described in detail the possible use of
416:article, English science fiction writer
76:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
5173:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
4600:
4011:"The Kessler Effect and how to stop it"
3883:
3403:
3401:
3270:
2879:
2877:
2822:"Hack a Satellite while it is in orbit"
2819:
2738:"Satellites - Communication Satellites"
1656:
1521:
599:A rocket from the CIEES launch site at
147:system for equipment on board, such as
59:Objects intentionally placed into orbit
14:
5540:
5195:Psychological and sociological effects
4535:
4504:
4473:
4369:from the original on 24 September 2020
3939:
3914:
3553:Handbook of Environmental Degreadation
3361:
3286:Durrieu, Sylvie; Nelson, Ross (2013).
3096:
3005:
2980:
2586:
2401:
2222:. New Mexico Museum of Space History.
2001:from the original on 16 September 2016
1112:Transponder (satellite communications)
1084:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
153:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
4669:
4538:"Homemade GPS jammers raise concerns"
4486:from the original on 29 December 2020
4209:from the original on 19 December 2020
2711:Labrador, Virgil (19 February 2015).
2451:from the original on 14 February 2021
2238:
2208:
2187:
2159:"A Brief History of Animals in Space"
1904:from the original on 20 December 2019
629:launched in 1972. Beginning in 1997,
588:launch a satellite on its own rocket
356:" (1869). The idea surfaced again in
4582:from the original on 14 January 2006
3948:
3884:Seidler, Christoph (22 April 2017).
3458:
3398:
2874:
2639:
2587:Cairns, Rebecca (11 November 2023).
2169:from the original on 11 October 2004
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
1125:
288:are satellites designed for robotic
238:) or many bodies at once (two for a
4613:from the original on 29 April 2008.
4474:Harper, Justin (29 December 2020).
4339:from the original on 2 January 2021
4090:
4035:
3917:"Space Debris and Human Spacecraft"
3877:
2993:from the original on 1 January 2018
2672:"Drought and Vegetation Monitoring"
2568:from the original on 4 October 2023
2120:from the original on 9 October 2018
481:The first artificial satellite was
465:
272:to observe objects with the entire
96:'s Small Satellite Orbital Deployer
56:
4904:Weather and environment monitoring
4455:from the original on 13 March 2022
4425:from the original on 15 March 2022
4399:from the original on 10 March 2022
4308:from the original on 19 April 2022
4138:from the original on 28 April 2021
4017:from the original on 22 March 2022
3961:from the original on 22 March 2022
3927:from the original on 22 March 2022
3896:from the original on 23 April 2017
3561:10.1016/B978-0-323-52472-8.00029-0
2928:. 21 February 2008. Archived from
2900:from the original on 17 April 2017
2858:. 22 November 2004. Archived from
2801:from the original on 30 March 2024
2560:Buchholz, Katharina (4 May 2023).
321:
296:are in essence crewed satellites.
89:after being deployed from the ISS
57:
5569:
4642:to help reach a consensus. ›
4621:
4326:
4234:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
3991:from the original on 21 July 2022
3640:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3532:from the original on 18 June 2024
3258:from the original on 6 March 2023
2962:from the original on 12 July 2021
2652:from the original on 21 July 2022
2621:from the original on 6 April 2023
2541:from the original on 21 July 2022
2188:Chang, Alicia (30 January 2008).
2079:from the original on 15 June 2010
2013:
1372:
1105:
713:satellite internet constellations
403:satellites (first put forward by
5525:
5513:
5487:
5477:
5476:
4108:from the original on 27 May 2020
4102:International Astronomical Union
4078:from the original on 26 May 2022
4048:from the original on 26 May 2022
3364:Science of the Total Environment
3196:Science of the Total Environment
3062:Science of the Total Environment
2983:"India's Anti-Satellite Weapons"
2789:Ericsson, Karin (13 June 2018).
2692:
2510:from the original on 3 June 2022
2226:from the original on 15 May 2018
1957:Science-fiction, the Early Years
1290:telecommunication signals via a
1265:
1142:Earth Radiation Budget Satellite
945:Most satellites use chemical or
900:Japan's space agency (JAXA) and
897:, had some satellites in orbit.
268:take advantage of outer space's
4948:Space launch market competition
4695:
4594:
4562:
4529:
4498:
4467:
4437:
4411:
4381:
4351:
4320:
4288:
4221:
4150:
4120:
4060:
4029:
4003:
3973:
3908:
3806:10.1016/j.actaastro.2022.07.034
3770:
3733:
3684:
3630:
3587:
3544:
3493:
3384:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150862
3355:
3320:
3240:
3216:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.223
3187:
3152:
3082:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.400
3053:
2974:
2944:
2912:
2844:
2813:
2782:
2730:
2704:
2664:
2633:
2603:
2580:
2553:
2463:
2424:
2408:Springer Science+Business Media
2395:
2363:
2334:
2295:
2181:
2141:
2132:
1781:With increase in the number of
1728:
1530:
1433:
1120:
5185:Health threat from cosmic rays
3915:Garcia, Mark (13 April 2015).
3693:"How animals follow the stars"
3313:10.1016/j.spacepol.2013.07.003
2981:Vasani, Harsh (14 June 2016).
2820:Morrill, Dan (13 April 2007).
2766:. 1 April 2010. Archived from
2312:Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
2304:"Orbital Debris: A Chronology"
2106:
2091:
2059:
1983:
1946:
1916:
1886:
1862:
1840:High-altitude platform station
665: Satellite in development
518:International Geophysical Year
13:
1:
4627:
4301:American Astronomical Society
3349:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120209
3329:Journal of Cleaner Production
3181:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.01.042
3161:Journal of Cleaner Production
1898:Union of Concerned Scientists
1879:
1390:
908:
4163:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2870:– via AccessMyLibrary.
2315:. p. 18. Archived from
1928:Marshall Space Flight Center
1710:
1707:and CO into the atmosphere.
1405:
489:on 4 October 1957 under the
250:Earth observation satellites
7:
5301:Self-replicating spacecraft
5137:International Space Station
4194:10.1051/0004-6361/202037501
1991:"Introduction to satellite"
1963:Kent State University Press
1833:
1720:Ground-based infrastructure
1567:
1132:Earth observation satellite
1068:International Space Station
725:International Space Station
637:Later Satellite Development
595:, on 26 November 1965 by a
547:National Science Foundation
397:The Problem of Space Travel
10:
5574:
4815:Space Liability Convention
4601:Selding, Peter de (2007).
3855:10.1038/s41550-022-01655-6
3660:10.1016/j.tree.2020.10.014
3017:Advances in Space Research
2476:Advances in Space Research
2098:Rosenthal, Alfred (1968).
1753:Pollution and interference
1662:Low earth orbit satellites
1648:O is the source gas for HO
1464:
1409:
1394:
1376:
1306:at different locations on
1286:that relays and amplifies
1269:
1129:
1109:
1058:Solar panels on spacecraft
1047:
1004:-based monopropellants or
923:
917:
914:Orbit and altitude control
734:and increased launches of
330:, a thought experiment by
314:
310:
143:, most satellites have an
108:is an object, typically a
70:Satellite (disambiguation)
63:
5471:
5438:
5391:
5343:
5229:
5178:Space adaptation syndrome
5165:
5070:
4990:
4981:
4869:
4703:
4659:23 September 2013 at the
3487:10.1080/14777620902768867
3252:The European Space Agency
3047:10.1016/j.asr.2020.10.036
2740:. Satellites.spacesim.org
2713:"satellite communication"
2496:10.1016/j.asr.2020.11.037
2437:. ABC-CLIO. p. 126.
2341:Burleson, Daphne (2005).
2035:John Wiley & Sons Ltd
1868:to distinguish them from
1460:
567:Van Allen radiation belts
422:communications satellites
334:to explain the motion of
278:communications satellites
4911:Communications satellite
4640:templates for discussion
4265:10.3847/2041-8213/ac470a
2404:Europe's Space Programme
2031:Satellite Communications
1894:"UCS Satellite Database"
1855:
1783:satellite constellations
1611:Rocket emissions in the
1379:Reconnaissance satellite
1344:satellite constellations
1280:communications satellite
1272:Communications satellite
1190:environmental monitoring
1043:
274:electromagnetic spectrum
163:. Many satellites use a
39:latest accepted revision
5415:reusable launch systems
5032:Extravehicular activity
4943:Commercial use of space
4847:Militarisation of space
4820:Registration Convention
4736:Accidents and incidents
4505:Singer, Jeremy (2003).
4185:2020A&A...636A.121H
2640:Andy (18 August 2021).
2347:McFarland & Company
2194:San Francisco Chronicle
1639:deplete stratospheric O
1475:Early warning satellite
1455:Space-based solar power
1417:Astronomical satellites
1242:mapping, boundaries of
653:and satellite operation
627:communication satellite
561:to launch a satellite.
543:American Rocket Society
429:United States Air Force
252:gather information for
190:, high enough to avoid
5463:Mission control center
5425:Non-rocket spacelaunch
4859:Billionaire space race
3709:10.1098/rspb.2017.2322
3623:10.1093/mnrasl/slab030
2678:. NASA. Archived from
2402:Harvey, Brian (2003).
1762:
1430:
1428:Hubble Space Telescope
1149:
1075:
1054:Nuclear power in space
963:three axis of rotation
942:
681:
612:single model platforms
478:
405:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
373:(1857–1935) published
371:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
292:outside of Earth, and
284:systems, such as GPS.
264:, ocean, forest, etc.
262:monitoring the weather
175:. Because of the high
145:electricity generation
97:
68:. For other uses, see
5313:Spacecraft propulsion
4763:European Space Agency
2828:Blogs. Archived from
1760:
1623:in a number of ways.
1506:defunct spy satellite
1471:Anti-satellite weapon
1425:
1296:communication channel
1162:Sun-synchronous orbit
1139:
1065:
1014:Hall-effect thrusters
992:(two-parts) that are
934:
920:Spacecraft propulsion
918:Further information:
644:
473:
454:proposed an orbiting
441:Bureau of Aeronautics
220:Sun-synchronous orbit
80:
4938:Satellite navigation
4536:Brewin, Bob (2003).
3526:10.1029/2021JD036373
3434:10.1029/2021EF002612
3420:(6): e2021EF002612.
2856:Press Trust of India
2216:"James A. Van Allen"
1997:. 2 September 2016.
1850:Satellite refuelling
1816:Liability Convention
1657:Operational lifetime
1522:Environmental Impact
1397:Satellite navigation
1284:artificial satellite
1232:sand and dust storms
1078:Most satellites use
1010:dinitrogen tetroxide
955:maintain their orbit
389:could achieve this.
282:satellite navigation
106:artificial satellite
5323:Electric propulsion
5010:Life-support system
4894:Imagery and mapping
4854:Private spaceflight
4654:EO Portal directory
4395:. 4 February 2022.
4333:Scientific American
4256:2022ApJ...924L..30M
4074:. 16 October 2020.
3847:2022NatAs...6..428L
3798:2022AcAau.200..329M
3652:2021TEcoE..36...87S
3518:2022JGRD..12736373M
3479:2009AstPo...7...50R
3426:2022EaFut..1002612R
3376:2022ScTEn.80650862M
3341:2020JCPro.25520209D
3304:2013SpPol..29..238D
3208:2018ScTEn.639.1188F
3173:2012JCPro..29...53N
3128:2023FrEE...21..289G
3074:2019ScTEn.663..958F
3039:2021AdSpR..67.1002S
2770:on 5 September 2015
2488:2021AdSpR..67.1468S
2322:on 1 September 2000
2263:10.1511/2008.74.390
2204:on 1 February 2008.
2102:. NASA. p. 15.
1934:on 1 September 2000
1447:Recovery satellites
1332:geostationary orbit
1158:geostationary orbit
1006:monomethylhydrazine
971:gravitational field
719:, as a part of the
363:The Begum's Fortune
350:Edward Everett Hale
328:Newton's cannonball
270:near perfect vacuum
216:geostationary orbit
122:weather forecasting
29:Page version status
5276:Robotic spacecraft
5202:Space and survival
5057:Space colonization
4953:Space architecture
4805:Outer Space Treaty
3957:. Universe Today.
2893:The New York Times
2251:American Scientist
1870:natural satellites
1763:
1431:
1208:Weather satellites
1150:
1140:Deployment of the
1098:, and in the past
1076:
1050:Batteries in space
975:radiation pressure
943:
721:regulatory process
682:
677:ballistic missiles
499:atmospheric layers
485:, launched by the
479:
445:United States Navy
383:multi-stage rocket
336:natural satellites
141:passive satellites
98:
35:
5558:Soviet inventions
5501:
5500:
5448:Flight controller
5225:
5224:
4983:Human spaceflight
4958:Space exploration
4884:Earth observation
4036:Wattles, Jackie.
3987:. 10 March 2022.
3786:Acta Astronautica
3580:978-0-323-52472-8
2958:. 27 March 2019.
2925:Popular Mechanics
2682:on 19 August 2008
2676:Earth Observatory
2615:American Elements
2444:978-1-61069-094-2
2417:978-1-85233-722-3
2388:978-1-56347-705-8
2375:Blazing the Trail
2356:978-0-7864-1852-7
2220:nmspacemuseum.org
2044:978-1-119-48217-8
1976:978-0-87338-416-2
1605:green house gases
1512:missile known as
1439:Tether satellites
1298:between a source
1126:Earth observation
961:to control their
520:(1957–1958), the
427:In May 1946, the
385:fueled by liquid
290:space exploration
66:Natural satellite
47:16 September 2024
26:
16:(Redirected from
5565:
5530:
5529:
5528:
5518:
5517:
5516:
5509:
5491:
5480:
5479:
5190:Space psychology
5015:Animals in space
4988:
4987:
4968:Space technology
4810:Rescue Agreement
4690:
4683:
4676:
4667:
4666:
4615:
4614:
4598:
4592:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4555:
4550:on 22 April 2008
4546:. Archived from
4533:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4522:
4513:. Archived from
4502:
4496:
4495:
4493:
4491:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4432:
4430:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4374:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4344:
4324:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4267:
4249:
4225:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4196:
4178:
4154:
4148:
4147:
4145:
4143:
4134:. 14 June 2019.
4124:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4113:
4094:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4064:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4033:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4022:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3966:
3949:Williams, Matt.
3946:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3881:
3875:
3874:
3840:
3825:Nature Astronomy
3819:
3810:
3809:
3783:
3774:
3768:
3767:
3757:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3720:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3671:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3615:
3591:
3585:
3584:
3572:
3570:2060/20040112017
3548:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3497:
3491:
3490:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3445:
3405:
3396:
3395:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3283:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3248:"Boosters (EAP)"
3244:
3238:
3237:
3227:
3191:
3185:
3184:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3136:10.1002/fee.2624
3111:
3094:
3093:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3032:
3023:(3): 1002–1025.
3012:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2889:
2881:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2832:on 20 March 2008
2817:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2708:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2482:(5): 1468–1476.
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2321:
2308:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2282:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2200:. Archived from
2198:Associated Press
2185:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2154:
2148:
2145:
2139:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2033:(3rd ed.).
2026:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1960:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1930:. Archived from
1920:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1890:
1873:
1866:
1776:Kessler syndrome
1504:shooting down a
1032:, can be easily
967:Earth's magnetic
926:Attitude control
670:
664:
658:
648:
555:Jupiter C rocket
526:Project Vanguard
466:First satellites
418:Arthur C. Clarke
266:Space telescopes
165:standardized bus
85:orbiting around
21:
5573:
5572:
5568:
5567:
5566:
5564:
5563:
5562:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5526:
5524:
5514:
5512:
5504:
5502:
5497:
5467:
5434:
5406:Escape velocity
5387:
5339:
5306:Space telescope
5259:Reentry capsule
5221:
5161:
5066:
5037:Overview effect
5020:Bioastronautics
4977:
4865:
4699:
4694:
4661:Wayback Machine
4643:
4624:
4619:
4618:
4599:
4595:
4585:
4583:
4568:
4567:
4563:
4553:
4551:
4534:
4530:
4520:
4518:
4503:
4499:
4489:
4487:
4472:
4468:
4458:
4456:
4443:
4442:
4438:
4428:
4426:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4402:
4400:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4372:
4370:
4357:
4356:
4352:
4342:
4340:
4325:
4321:
4311:
4309:
4294:
4293:
4289:
4226:
4222:
4212:
4210:
4155:
4151:
4141:
4139:
4126:
4125:
4121:
4111:
4109:
4096:
4095:
4091:
4081:
4079:
4072:The Independent
4066:
4065:
4061:
4051:
4049:
4034:
4030:
4020:
4018:
4009:
4008:
4004:
3994:
3992:
3979:
3978:
3974:
3964:
3962:
3947:
3940:
3930:
3928:
3913:
3909:
3899:
3897:
3882:
3878:
3820:
3813:
3781:
3775:
3771:
3764:10.1071/RS19003
3738:
3734:
3689:
3685:
3635:
3631:
3592:
3588:
3581:
3549:
3545:
3535:
3533:
3506:JGR Atmospheres
3498:
3494:
3463:
3459:
3406:
3399:
3360:
3356:
3325:
3321:
3284:
3271:
3261:
3259:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3192:
3188:
3157:
3153:
3112:
3097:
3058:
3054:
3013:
3006:
2996:
2994:
2979:
2975:
2965:
2963:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2935:
2933:
2932:on 1 April 2008
2918:
2917:
2913:
2903:
2901:
2882:
2875:
2865:
2863:
2862:on 19 July 2012
2850:
2849:
2845:
2835:
2833:
2818:
2814:
2804:
2802:
2795:Melbourne Space
2787:
2783:
2773:
2771:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2743:
2741:
2736:
2735:
2731:
2721:
2719:
2709:
2705:
2693:
2685:
2683:
2670:
2669:
2665:
2655:
2653:
2638:
2634:
2624:
2622:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2592:
2585:
2581:
2571:
2569:
2558:
2554:
2544:
2542:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2511:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2452:
2445:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2410:. p. 114.
2400:
2396:
2389:
2381:. p. 426.
2368:
2364:
2357:
2339:
2335:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2306:
2300:
2296:
2243:
2239:
2229:
2227:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2186:
2182:
2172:
2170:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2123:
2121:
2116:. Hubble Site.
2112:
2111:
2107:
2096:
2092:
2082:
2080:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2045:
2027:
2014:
2004:
2002:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1951:
1947:
1937:
1935:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1907:
1905:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1876:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1836:
1771:light pollution
1755:
1735:graveyard orbit
1731:
1722:
1713:
1706:
1668:LEO satellites.
1664:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1621:ozone depletion
1594:
1589:nitrogen oxides
1585:
1570:
1537:launch vehicles
1533:
1524:
1477:
1465:Main articles:
1463:
1436:
1414:
1412:Space telescope
1408:
1399:
1393:
1381:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1348:low Earth orbit
1294:; it creates a
1274:
1268:
1261:
1257:
1134:
1128:
1123:
1114:
1108:
1100:nickel–hydrogen
1060:
1048:Main articles:
1046:
1023:
979:ground stations
959:reaction wheels
957:, coupled with
941:'s ion thruster
929:
922:
916:
911:
740:low Earth orbit
680:
668:
666:
662:
660:
656:
654:
646:
639:
616:satellite buses
559:Vanguard rocket
551:Project Orbiter
491:Sputnik program
474:Replica of the
468:
456:space telescope
393:Herman PotoÄŤnik
324:
322:Early proposals
319:
313:
244:Lissajous orbit
212:low Earth orbit
188:launch vehicles
157:ground stations
73:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
18:Space satellite
15:
12:
11:
5:
5571:
5561:
5560:
5555:
5550:
5535:
5534:
5522:
5499:
5498:
5496:
5495:
5484:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5453:Ground station
5450:
5444:
5442:
5440:Ground segment
5436:
5435:
5433:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5408:
5403:
5397:
5395:
5389:
5388:
5386:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5373:Interplanetary
5370:
5369:
5368:
5366:Geosynchronous
5363:
5353:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5340:
5338:
5337:
5336:
5335:
5333:Gravity assist
5330:
5325:
5320:
5310:
5309:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5273:
5268:
5267:
5266:
5264:Service module
5261:
5256:
5254:Orbital module
5246:
5241:
5239:Launch vehicle
5235:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5220:
5219:
5217:Space sexology
5214:
5209:
5207:Space medicine
5204:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5187:
5182:
5181:
5180:
5169:
5167:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5133:
5132:
5122:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5110:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5074:
5072:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5042:Weightlessness
5039:
5034:
5029:
5028:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5007:
5006:
5005:
4994:
4992:
4985:
4979:
4978:
4976:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4963:Space research
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4934:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4901:
4899:Reconnaissance
4896:
4891:
4881:
4875:
4873:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4863:
4862:
4861:
4851:
4850:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4797:
4796:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4768:European Union
4765:
4760:
4755:
4745:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4713:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4700:
4693:
4692:
4685:
4678:
4670:
4664:
4663:
4651:
4623:
4622:External links
4620:
4617:
4616:
4593:
4561:
4528:
4517:on 26 May 2008
4497:
4466:
4436:
4410:
4380:
4350:
4327:Zhang, Emily.
4319:
4287:
4220:
4149:
4119:
4089:
4059:
4028:
4002:
3972:
3938:
3907:
3876:
3831:(4): 428–435.
3811:
3792:(1): 329–346.
3769:
3732:
3683:
3629:
3606:(1): L40–L44.
3586:
3579:
3543:
3492:
3457:
3414:Earth's Future
3397:
3354:
3319:
3298:(4): 238–250.
3269:
3239:
3186:
3151:
3122:(6): 289–296.
3095:
3052:
3004:
2973:
2943:
2911:
2873:
2843:
2812:
2781:
2751:
2729:
2717:Britannica.com
2703:
2663:
2632:
2602:
2579:
2552:
2535:think-asia.org
2521:
2462:
2443:
2423:
2416:
2394:
2387:
2362:
2355:
2349:. p. 43.
2333:
2294:
2257:(5): 390–398.
2237:
2207:
2180:
2149:
2140:
2131:
2105:
2090:
2058:
2043:
2012:
1982:
1975:
1945:
1915:
1900:. 1 May 2022.
1884:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1845:Solar aircraft
1842:
1835:
1832:
1809:Transit 5-BN-3
1754:
1751:
1747:geoengineering
1730:
1727:
1721:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1704:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1592:
1583:
1569:
1566:
1532:
1529:
1523:
1520:
1510:anti-satellite
1462:
1459:
1435:
1432:
1410:Main article:
1407:
1404:
1395:Main article:
1392:
1389:
1377:Main article:
1374:
1373:Spy satellites
1371:
1340:satellite dish
1276:
1275:
1270:Main article:
1267:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1244:ocean currents
1198:reconnaissance
1154:remote sensing
1130:Main article:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1110:Main article:
1107:
1106:Communications
1104:
1045:
1042:
1028:because it is
1021:
988:(one-part) or
986:monopropellant
981:on the Earth.
973:and the Sun's
947:ion propulsion
915:
912:
910:
907:
891:United Kingdom
702:Wallops Island
673:Orbital launch
667:
661:
655:
651:Orbital launch
645:
638:
635:
623:geosynchronous
507:Sputnik crisis
495:Sergei Korolev
467:
464:
413:Wireless World
354:The Brick Moon
323:
320:
312:
309:
294:space stations
254:reconnaissance
242:, three for a
181:relay stations
173:constellations
124:, navigation (
118:celestial body
112:, placed into
58:
36:
30:
27:
25:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5570:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5545:
5543:
5533:
5523:
5521:
5511:
5510:
5507:
5494:
5490:
5485:
5483:
5474:
5473:
5470:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5445:
5443:
5441:
5437:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5401:Direct ascent
5399:
5398:
5396:
5394:
5390:
5384:
5383:Intergalactic
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5342:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5318:Rocket engine
5316:
5315:
5314:
5311:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5251:
5250:
5249:Space capsule
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5236:
5234:
5232:
5228:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5212:Space nursing
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5196:
5193:
5192:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5179:
5176:
5175:
5174:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5166:Health issues
5164:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5131:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5120:Space Shuttle
5118:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5052:Space tourism
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5012:
5011:
5008:
5004:
5001:
5000:
4999:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4980:
4974:
4973:Space weather
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4909:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4886:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4872:
4868:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4855:
4852:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4837:Space command
4835:
4834:
4833:
4832:Space warfare
4830:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4798:
4794:
4793:United States
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
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4711:Astrodynamics
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4132:astronomy.com
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3467:Astropolitics
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3209:
3205:
3202:: 1188–1204.
3201:
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3141:
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2707:
2700:
2699:public domain
2681:
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2398:
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2384:
2380:
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2372:
2371:Mike Gruntman
2366:
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2203:
2199:
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2184:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2153:
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2135:
2119:
2115:
2109:
2101:
2094:
2078:
2075:. July 1946.
2074:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2000:
1996:
1995:www.sasmac.cn
1992:
1986:
1978:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1958:
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1933:
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1925:
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1681:
1677:
1672:
1671:Orbital decay
1669:
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1626:
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1609:
1606:
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1586:
1579:
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1491:
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1486:United States
1483:
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1472:
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1458:
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1451:Biosatellites
1448:
1444:
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1429:
1424:
1420:
1418:
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1398:
1388:
1385:
1380:
1367:
1364:
1359:
1358:line of sight
1355:
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1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
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1297:
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1285:
1281:
1273:
1266:Communication
1263:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1222:, effects of
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1166:normal camera
1163:
1159:
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1138:
1133:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1041:
1039:
1036:, has a high
1035:
1031:
1027:
1019:
1018:positive ions
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
982:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
940:
939:
933:
927:
921:
906:
903:
898:
896:
895:United States
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
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860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
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808:
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800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
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748:
745:
741:
737:
733:
728:
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709:
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703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
678:
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652:
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634:
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628:
624:
621:
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602:
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583:
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514:
512:
508:
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492:
488:
484:
477:
472:
463:
459:
457:
453:
452:Lyman Spitzer
448:
446:
442:
438:
435:released the
434:
430:
425:
423:
419:
415:
414:
408:
406:
402:
401:geostationary
398:
394:
390:
388:
384:
380:
379:orbital speed
376:
372:
367:
365:
364:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
342:
337:
333:
329:
318:
308:
306:
302:
297:
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287:
283:
279:
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263:
259:
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251:
247:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
208:ion thrusters
205:
202:, usually by
201:
197:
193:
192:orbital decay
189:
184:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
135:
134:early warning
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
95:
93:
88:
84:
79:
75:
71:
67:
62:
48:
44:
40:
33:
28:
19:
5393:Space launch
5378:Interstellar
5344:Destinations
5280:
5113:Apollo–Soyuz
5062:Space diving
5047:Space toilet
4871:Applications
4788:Soviet Union
4748:Space policy
4743:Space launch
4633:
4596:
4584:. Retrieved
4573:
4564:
4552:. Retrieved
4548:the original
4541:
4531:
4519:. Retrieved
4515:the original
4500:
4488:. Retrieved
4479:
4469:
4457:. Retrieved
4448:
4439:
4427:. Retrieved
4413:
4401:. Retrieved
4392:
4383:
4373:16 September
4371:. Retrieved
4362:
4353:
4343:16 September
4341:. Retrieved
4332:
4322:
4310:. Retrieved
4299:
4290:
4237:
4233:
4223:
4211:. Retrieved
4166:
4162:
4152:
4140:. Retrieved
4131:
4122:
4110:. Retrieved
4101:
4092:
4080:. Retrieved
4071:
4062:
4050:. Retrieved
4041:
4031:
4019:. Retrieved
4005:
3993:. Retrieved
3984:
3975:
3963:. Retrieved
3954:
3929:. Retrieved
3920:
3910:
3898:. Retrieved
3889:
3879:
3828:
3824:
3789:
3785:
3772:
3745:
3741:
3735:
3700:
3696:
3686:
3646:(1): 87–97.
3643:
3639:
3632:
3603:
3599:
3589:
3552:
3546:
3534:. Retrieved
3509:
3505:
3495:
3473:(1): 50–82.
3470:
3466:
3460:
3417:
3413:
3367:
3363:
3357:
3332:
3328:
3322:
3295:
3292:Space Policy
3291:
3260:. Retrieved
3251:
3242:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3145:10871/132935
3119:
3115:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3020:
3016:
2995:. Retrieved
2987:The Diplomat
2986:
2976:
2964:. Retrieved
2955:
2946:
2934:. Retrieved
2930:the original
2923:
2914:
2902:. Retrieved
2891:
2864:. Retrieved
2860:the original
2846:
2834:. Retrieved
2830:the original
2815:
2803:. Retrieved
2794:
2784:
2772:. Retrieved
2768:the original
2763:
2754:
2742:. Retrieved
2732:
2720:. Retrieved
2716:
2706:
2684:. Retrieved
2680:the original
2675:
2666:
2654:. Retrieved
2645:
2635:
2623:. Retrieved
2614:
2605:
2593:. Retrieved
2582:
2570:. Retrieved
2564:. statista.
2555:
2543:. Retrieved
2534:
2524:
2512:. Retrieved
2479:
2475:
2465:
2453:. Retrieved
2433:
2426:
2403:
2397:
2374:
2365:
2342:
2336:
2324:. Retrieved
2317:the original
2310:
2297:
2254:
2250:
2240:
2228:. Retrieved
2219:
2210:
2202:the original
2193:
2183:
2171:. Retrieved
2152:
2143:
2134:
2122:. Retrieved
2108:
2099:
2093:
2081:. Retrieved
2070:
2061:
2030:
2003:. Retrieved
1994:
1985:
1956:
1948:
1936:. Retrieved
1932:the original
1918:
1906:. Retrieved
1897:
1888:
1864:
1828:
1820:
1813:
1798:
1780:
1769:, radio and
1767:space debris
1765:Issues like
1764:
1739:space debris
1732:
1729:Degeneration
1723:
1714:
1665:
1613:stratosphere
1610:
1601:water vapour
1578:black carbon
1571:
1534:
1531:Resource use
1525:
1513:
1478:
1467:Space weapon
1437:
1434:Experimental
1415:
1400:
1386:
1382:
1277:
1206:
1151:
1121:Applications
1080:solar panels
1077:
1074:on the right
990:bipropellant
983:
944:
938:Deep Space 1
936:
899:
867:South Africa
863:Saudi Arabia
752:
729:
710:
698:Scout rocket
683:
609:
590:
586:
579:
540:
530:
515:
487:Soviet Union
480:
460:
449:
433:Project RAND
426:
411:
409:
396:
391:
374:
368:
361:
339:
332:Isaac Newton
325:
301:Soviet Union
298:
286:Space probes
248:
224:space debris
185:
161:transponders
149:solar panels
138:
130:broadcasting
105:
101:
99:
91:
74:
61:
46:
37:This is the
31:
5532:Outer space
5520:Spaceflight
5351:Sub-orbital
5286:Space probe
5152:New Shepard
5130:Shuttle–Mir
4889:Archaeology
4842:Space force
4825:Moon Treaty
4697:Spaceflight
4628:‹ The
4490:29 December
4449:www.iau.org
4213:22 November
3890:Der Spiegel
3555:: 601–645.
3225:11336/91034
3068:: 958–970.
2904:23 February
2774:10 February
2744:10 February
2722:10 February
2595:11 November
2572:11 November
2326:21 November
1938:21 November
1805:Kosmos 1402
1617:ozone layer
1366:frequencies
1354:radio waves
1300:transmitter
1292:transponder
1216:city lights
1202:Planet Labs
1194:meteorology
1186:cartography
1182:archaeology
1096:lithium-ion
1038:atomic mass
875:Switzerland
843:Netherlands
831:South Korea
717:end of life
694:San Marco 1
522:White House
387:propellants
358:Jules Verne
346:short story
177:launch cost
139:Except for
5553:Spacecraft
5548:Satellites
5542:Categories
5420:Launch pad
5411:Expendable
5361:Geocentric
5328:Solar sail
5271:Spaceplane
5231:Spacecraft
5025:Space suit
5003:commercial
4931:Television
4726:Space Race
4575:Iran Focus
4247:2201.05343
4240:(2): L30.
4176:2003.01992
4142:7 November
3838:2204.10025
3755:1903.01060
3613:2103.17125
3030:2008.13032
2646:Pixalytics
2124:16 October
2053:1098222848
1965:. p.
1880:References
1801:Kosmos 954
1627:such as NO
1574:tropopause
1391:Navigation
1312:television
1252:vegetation
1178:photometer
1088:Slip rings
994:hypergolic
935:Firing of
909:Components
827:Kazakhstan
563:Explorer 1
503:ionosphere
410:In a 1945
315:See also:
240:halo orbit
234:, and the
200:propulsion
196:atmosphere
110:spacecraft
5430:Spaceport
5281:Satellite
4998:Astronaut
4926:Telephone
4879:Astronomy
4800:Space law
4753:Australia
4645:Satellite
4607:Space.com
4511:Space.com
4480:bbc.co.uk
4282:245986575
4274:2041-8205
4203:0004-6361
3985:SpaceNews
3871:248300127
3863:2397-3366
3748:(1): 24.
3167:: 53–63.
2826:ITtoolbox
2764:Aerospace
2504:233841294
2455:4 October
2271:0003-0996
1711:Night sky
1676:hydrazine
1635:, and ClO
1597:aluminium
1541:aluminium
1406:Telescope
1363:microwave
1316:telephone
1224:pollution
1092:batteries
1072:radiators
1002:hydrazine
763:Australia
759:Argentina
736:microsats
631:FreeFlyer
601:Hammaguir
532:Sputnik 2
483:Sputnik 1
476:Sputnik 1
369:In 1903,
338:, in his
305:Sputnik 1
159:, called
116:around a
102:satellite
5482:Category
5147:Tiangong
5142:Shenzhou
5071:Programs
4916:Internet
4721:Timeline
4657:Archived
4630:template
4611:Archived
4586:25 March
4580:Archived
4578:. 2008.
4554:25 March
4521:25 March
4484:Archived
4459:10 March
4453:Archived
4429:10 March
4423:Archived
4403:10 March
4397:Archived
4393:BBC News
4367:Archived
4337:Archived
4312:22 March
4306:Archived
4207:Archived
4169:: A121.
4136:Archived
4106:Archived
4076:Archived
4046:Archived
4021:22 March
4015:Archived
3995:22 March
3989:Archived
3965:22 March
3959:Archived
3955:phys.org
3931:22 March
3925:Archived
3900:22 April
3894:Archived
3727:29367394
3703:(1871).
3678:33213887
3530:Archived
3452:35865359
3392:34637875
3262:10 April
3256:Archived
3234:29929287
3090:30739864
2997:27 March
2991:Archived
2966:27 March
2960:Archived
2956:The Week
2936:25 March
2898:Archived
2836:25 March
2799:Archived
2650:Archived
2619:Archived
2566:Archived
2539:Archived
2508:Archived
2449:Archived
2373:(2004).
2289:19498953
2224:Archived
2167:Archived
2118:Archived
2077:Archived
1999:Archived
1908:30 March
1902:Archived
1834:See also
1807:and the
1790:Starlink
1688:nitrogen
1684:hydrogen
1625:Radicals
1568:Launches
1562:Ariane 5
1328:military
1324:internet
1304:receiver
1210:monitor
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