632:
647:
213:
to grow but kill off any forest seedlings. Others have suggested that the grassland may have been created and maintained by early pastoralists and point out that fire has a major role in the maintenance of the grassland. There is evidence for both and several features of the forest trees and the grasslands that have been considered and debated. Pollen analysis from bogs in the
Nilgiris suggest that the complex of grassland and forest existed 35,000 years ago, long before human impact began. Long-term studies on the dynamic processes of vegetation change continue.
663:
52:
119:
675:
364:
352:
40:
212:
The origin of the shola forest and grassland complex has been the subject of scientific debate. Some early researchers suggested that the floristic composition represents a stable final state or climax vegetation. This stability is maintained by climatic conditions such as frost which allow the grass
86:. The shola and grassland together form the shola-grassland complex or mosaic. Not all such high-elevation grasslands have sholas in their valleys, especially if they are isolated from other such meadows, such as the meadows found in the Idamalayar Reserve Forest in
109:
with forest regeneration and expansion restricted by climatic conditions such as frost or soil characteristics while others have suggested that it may have anthropogenic origins in the burning and removal of forests by early herders and shifting agriculturists.
514:, is a well known shrub endemic to Western Ghats that blossoms only once in 12 years. There is a thick concentration of mosses growing on the under story and many ferns in the sunlit narrow transition to grassland. Shola forests are interspersed with
631:
619:
The shola biome has a high water retention capacity and exists as the primary source of the water for the high elevation organisms is the origin of many streams and rivers in the
Western Ghats.
323:) are some of the 300+ species of birds that inhabit this area. The area shows high endemicity and is rivaled only by the forests in northeast India; 35 percent of the plants, 42 percent of the
886:
Jose, Shibu; Sreepathy, A.; Mohan Kumar, B.; Venugopal, V.K. (1994). "Structural, floristic and edaphic attributes of the grassland-shola forests of
Eravikulam in peninsular India".
295:, which includes gazelles, antelopes, and wild buffaloes) is endemic to the shola-grassland, and its range is now restricted to a 400-km stretch of shola-grassland mosaic, from the
271:, it is found at high elevations and subtropical climate. However, this is the only one found in South India. Among the many larger animals inhabiting a shola-grassland mosaic are
646:
524:
1090:
548:
542:
536:
612:
Periodic fires have been considered to help maintain the grassland, however, excessive burning has led to a shrinkage of forest patches and the growth of
470:
1085:
1080:
554:
205:. Although generally said to occur above 2000 meters above sea level, shola forests can be found at 1600 meters elevation in many hill ranges (e.g.
560:
846:
662:
1075:
720:
914:
82:. These patches of shola forest are found mainly in the valleys and are usually separated from one another by undulating
922:
Sahyadri : The Great
Escarpment of the Indian Subcontinent (Patterns of Landscape Development in the Western Ghats)
1017:
966:
63:
1065:
811:"Etude palynologique d'un nouveau sondage dans les marai de Sandynallah (Massif des Nilgiri, Sud-ouest de L'Inde)"
771:
Ranganathan, C. R. (1938). "Studies in the ecology of the shola grass-land vegetation of the
Nilgiri Plateau".
261:
is a species of butterfly endemic to shola grasslands above 2000m, sometimes being considered a subspecies of
938:
Premalatha S.; Sanil R.; Franklin
Charles Jose (2009). "Shola trees in the upper Nilgiris of Western Ghats".
1060:
654:
316:
869:
482:
1070:
983:
638:
498:
356:
464:
436:
430:
394:
232:. Some of the species found here have close relatives only in the distant evergreen forests of
31:
17:
447:
915:"Andisols of the Nilgiri highlands: new insight into their classification, age and genesis"
810:
600:
530:
458:
257:
252:
221:
Due to their isolation, elevation, and evergreen character, shola forests are home to many
8:
588:
are the consequence of commercial plantation and afforestation drives, especially in the
584:
476:
382:
300:
206:
182:
984:"The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India: Community ecology and conservation"
847:"The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India: Community ecology and conservation"
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573:
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83:
998:
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1018:"Shola grasslands of the Western Ghats: conservation status and management needs"
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178:
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99:
95:
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1002:
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400:
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248:
150:
51:
44:
1032:
122:
Shola forest interspersed in valleys among high elevation grasslands on the
736:
Meher-Homji VM (1997). "Phytogeography of the South Indian Hill
Stations".
288:
263:
937:
198:
142:
67:
66:
found in valleys amid rolling grassland in the higher montane regions of
105:
The shola-forest and grassland complex has been described as a climatic
757:
222:
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146:
1015:
830:
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340:
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237:
186:
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134:
79:
75:
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725:(4th ed.), Evangelical Lutheran Mission Pub. House, p. 457
129:
Shola forests are found in the higher elevation hill regions of the
924:. No. 47. Bangalore: Geological Society of India. pp. 905–918.
442:
130:
576:
are a serious threat to this high elevation ecosystem. Some, like
422:
spp. Shola forests have an upper storey of small trees, generally
376:
At least 25 types of trees are present in the major sholas of the
118:
885:
808:
699:
406:
328:
292:
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158:
138:
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Shola forest & grasslands on way to the
Tadiandamol peak
519:
493:
351:
272:
162:
324:
284:
981:
718:
492:. Below the upper story is a low under story and a dense
194:
174:
39:
1025:
ENVIS Bulletin on
Grassland Ecosystems and Agroforestry
27:
Patch of stunted tropical montane forest in South India
790:
Bor, N. L. (1938). "The vegetation of the
Nilgiris".
933:
931:
1016:Rawat, G.S; Karunakaran, P.V.; Uniyal, V.K (2003).
809:Sutra, J-P; R Bonnefille & M. Fontugne (1997).
244:. Some others are found nowhere else in the world.
912:
770:
652:Shola, grass and mountain en route to Grass Hills,
343:, that live in these forests are endemic species.
928:
416:(atti or cluster fig tree or gular fig tree) and
1091:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
1052:
920:. In Y. Gunnell & B.P. Radhakrishna (eds.).
845:Thomas, S. M. Thomas & M. W. Palmer (2007).
380:. The dominant trees in this type of forest are
94:. The word 'Shola' is probably derived from the
735:
722:J. P. Fabricius's Tamil and English dictionary
518:, characterized by frost- and fire-resistant
961:. London: Academic Press. pp. 138–139.
956:
592:. Other threatening invasive species include
339:, about 25 percent not being found east of
789:
113:
62:are the local name for patches of stunted
829:
1086:South Western Ghats montane rain forests
1081:North Western Ghats montane rain forests
362:
350:
117:
50:
38:
315:, and some of the endemic flycatchers (
267:. Like most other species in the genus
14:
1053:
940:Journal of Basic & Applied Biology
982:Thomas, S. M.; Palmer, M. W. (2007).
738:Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
712:
251:are one of the globally recognized
24:
913:Caner, L & Bourgeon G (2001).
818:Géographie Physique et Quaternaire
719:Fabricius, Johann Philipp (1972),
157:and associated ranges in parts of
25:
1102:
1076:Montane grasslands and shrublands
1046:
673:
661:
645:
637:Shola-Grasslands complex in the
630:
1009:
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950:
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906:
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335:, and about 13 percent of the
13:
1:
957:Burley; Styles, eds. (1976).
888:Forest Ecology and Management
705:
626:
900:10.1016/0378-1127(94)90176-7
7:
683:
655:Indira Gandhi National Park
317:black-and-orange flycatcher
55:Shola forest and grassland
10:
1107:
1031:(1): 57–64. Archived from
622:
567:
98:word cōlai (சோலை) meaning
29:
483:Actinodaphne bourdillonii
372:, a shola grassland plant
1003:10.1556/ComEc.8.2007.1.9
866:10.1556/ComEc.8.2007.1.9
525:Chrysopogon nodulibarbis
346:
331:, and 75 percent of the
216:
1066:Indomalayan realm flora
639:Kudremukh National Park
549:Arundinella tuberculata
499:Strobilanthes kunthiana
114:Distribution and origin
64:tropical montane forest
543:Arundinella mesophylla
465:Elaeocarpus recurvatus
437:Chionanthus ramiflorus
431:Heptapleurum racemosum
395:Calophyllum tomentosum
373:
360:
126:
56:
48:
32:Shola (disambiguation)
449:Rhododendron arboreum
366:
355:A hillside with mass
354:
253:biodiversity hotspots
153:to the south and the
121:
54:
42:
894:(2&3): 279–291.
601:Ageratina adenophora
531:Cymbopogon flexuosus
459:Berberis napaulensis
327:, 48 percent of the
258:Colias nilagiriensis
30:For other uses, see
1061:Ecoregions of India
585:Eucalyptus globulus
537:Arundinella ciliata
477:Magnolia nilagirica
404:(Indian mahogany),
383:Magnolia nilagirica
309:Nilgiri woodpigeons
301:Agasthyamalai Hills
207:Biligiriranga Hills
183:Sindhudurg district
43:Sholas in southern
574:introduced species
516:montane grasslands
389:Bischofia javanica
374:
361:
321:Nilgiri flycatcher
127:
88:Ernakulam district
57:
49:
991:Community Ecology
854:Community Ecology
590:Nilgiri Mountains
369:Exacum tetragonum
359:flowering in 2018
287:. The endangered
185:in the states of
173:up the north, to
107:climax vegetation
84:montane grassland
16:(Redirected from
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1038:on 2 March 2005.
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875:on 20 July 2011.
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868:. Archived from
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831:10.7202/033140ar
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614:invasive species
489:Litsea wightiana
471:Ilex denticulata
425:Prunus ceylanica
305:Laughingthrushes
124:Brahmagiri Hills
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579:Acacia mearnsii
570:
555:Themeda tremula
413:Ficus glomerata
410:(myrtle) spp.,
392:(bishop wood),
349:
291:(of the family
234:Northeast India
219:
179:Satara district
116:
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1047:External links
1045:
1042:
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1008:
974:
968:978-0121451509
967:
959:Tropical Trees
949:
946:(3–4): 97–102.
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561:Sehima nervosa
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242:Southeast Asia
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167:Baba Budangiri
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96:Tamil language
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401:Toona ciliata
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378:Nilgiri Hills
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1033:the original
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1011:
997:(1): 67–73.
994:
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977:
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870:the original
860:(1): 67–73.
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608:Conservation
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508:Neelakurinji
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289:Nilgiri tahr
264:Colias erate
262:
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128:
104:
59:
58:
36:
502:, known as
453:nilagiricum
199:Maharashtra
143:Palni hills
68:South India
1055:Categories
798:: 600–609.
779:: 523–541.
706:References
333:amphibians
313:shortwings
223:threatened
203:Tamil Nadu
147:Meghamalai
695:Grassland
572:Invasive
341:Bangalore
281:elephants
238:Himalayas
187:Karnataka
171:Kudremukh
137:, around
135:Anaimalai
80:Tamilnadu
76:Karnataka
684:See also
443:Syzygium
419:Mallotus
329:reptiles
277:leopards
131:Nilgiris
758:2483901
700:Bugyals
623:Gallery
568:Threats
504:Kurinji
496:layer.
451:subsp.
407:Eugenia
357:Kurinji
337:insects
299:to the
293:Bovidae
230:species
227:endemic
159:Wayanad
139:Anamudi
965:
756:
690:Meadow
558:, and
486:, and
446:spp.,
273:tigers
269:Colias
236:, the
191:Kerala
155:Malnad
92:Kerala
72:Kerala
60:Sholas
18:Sholas
1036:(PDF)
1021:(PDF)
987:(PDF)
918:(PDF)
873:(PDF)
850:(PDF)
814:(PDF)
754:JSTOR
520:grass
512:Tamil
494:shrub
347:Flora
217:Fauna
163:Coorg
100:grove
963:ISBN
598:and
325:fish
319:and
285:gaur
283:and
247:The
240:and
225:and
201:and
181:and
78:and
999:doi
896:doi
862:doi
826:doi
746:doi
582:and
510:in
506:or
209:).
195:Goa
175:Goa
90:of
1057::
1027:.
1023:.
993:.
989:.
942:.
930:^
892:65
890:.
856:.
852:.
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1001::
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944:3
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858:8
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34:.
20:)
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