103:, the stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection profiles to understand the layering and packaging of sedimentary rocks in the subsurface using acoustic imaging. The advent of seismic stratigraphy made it possible to identify sequences representing shorter period of time ranging in duration from tens of thousands to a few million years; and to compare the sequence stratigraphic history around the globe. This in turn led to sequence stratigraphy becoming systematized and understood to have widespread application to stratigraphic study of rock outcrops on the earth's surface as well. During the 1980s this ushered in a revolution in stratigraphy based on the delineation of regional physical surfaces that separate the sedimentary rock into packages representing discrete and sequential periods of time and predictable patterns of sediment depositional history.
159:. Parasequence boundaries may be distinguished by differences in physical and chemical properties across the surface such as; formation water salinity, hydrocarbon properties, porosity, compressional velocities and mineralogy. Parasequence boundaries may not form a barrier to hydrocarbon accumulation but may inhibit vertical reservoir communication. After production begins the parasequences act as separate drainage units with the flooding surfaces, which are overlain by shales or carbonate-cemented horizons, forming a barrier to vertical reservoir communications. Sequence stratigraphic principles have optimized production potential once reservoir scale architecture is identified and separate drainage units identified.
451:. These lateral shifts in deposition create alternating layers of good reservoir quality rock (porous and permeable sands) and poorer-quality mudstones (capable of providing a reservoir "seal" to prevent the leakage of any accumulated hydrocarbons that may have migrated into the sandstones). Hydrocarbon prospectors look for places in the world where porous and permeable sands are overlain by low permeability rocks, and where conditions are right for hydrocarbons to be generated and migrate into these "traps".
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Peter Vail, Robert
Mitchum, and John Sangree, who completed dissertations studying the Pennsylvanian sedimentary rocks of the North American craton and became aware that global changes in sea level could have been responsible for the numerous widespread unconformities in those rocks. During their subsequent careers as research scientists at Exxon's research division Vail, Mitchum and others pioneered the practice of
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432:, if the water depth is decreasing, the shoreline migrates seaward (basinward) and the previous shoreline is eroded. A regression of the shoreline also occurs if more sediment is being supplied than the shoreline can erode, causing the shoreline to migrate seaward. The latter is called progradation. The cycle of strata deposited during repeated transgressions and regressions creates a depositional sequence.
2164:
815:, Flint, S. S. & Stollhofen, H. 1999. Incised valley fill sandstone bodies in Upper Carboniferous fluvio-deltaic strata: recognition and reservoir characterisation Southern North Sea analogues. In: Petroleum Geology of NW Europe: Proceedings of the 5th Conference. (Edited by Fleet, A.J. & Boldy, S.A.R.). The Geological Society, London. 771–788.
376:. The earth scientists who study the positions of coastal sediment deposits through time ("sequence stratigraphers") have noted dozens of similar basinward shifts of shorelines associated with a later recovery. The largest of these sedimentary cycles can in some cases be correlated around the world with great confidence.
98:
The origin of sequence stratigraphy can be traced back to the work of L.L. Sloss on interregional unconformities of the North
American craton. Sloss recognized six craton-wide sequences representing hundreds of millions of years of earth history. In the late 1960s Sloss had several students, notably
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formed on the margins of incised valleys. The valley infills are not genetically related to underlying depositional systems as previous interpretations thought. There are four criteria distinguishing incised valley fills from other types of multi-story sandstone deposits: a widespread correlation
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sea level is measured with reference to the base level, above which erosion can occur and below which deposition can occur. Both eustatic sea level changes and subsidence rates tend to be longer cycles. Sediment supply is largely thought to be controlled by local climatic conditions and can vary
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associations reflect a basinward shift in facies when compared with underlying units; erosional base of the valley removes preceding systems tracts and marine bands producing a time gap, the removed units will be preserved beneath the interfluves; increasing channel fill and fine grained units
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of rock units rather than time significance. Unconformities are particularly important in understanding geologic history because they represent erosional surfaces where there is a clear gap in the record. Conversely within a sequence the geologic record should be relatively continuous and
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Each stacking pattern will give different information on the behaviour of accommodation space, a major control of which is relative level. So a rapidly progradational pattern will be indicative of falling sea level, rapidly retrogradational is evidence for rapidly transgressing sea level and
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or their correlative conformities. Sequence boundaries are formed due to the sea level fall. For example, multi-story fluvial sandstone packages often infill incised valleys formed by the sea level drop associated with sequence boundaries. The incised valleys of sequence boundaries correlate
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deglaciation. The ancient shoreline of the last glacial period is now under approximately 390 feet (120 meters) of water. Although there is debate among earth scientists whether we are currently experiencing a "high stand" it is generally accepted that the eustatic sea level is rising.
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evolved to link the contemporaneous depositional systems. Systems tracts form subdivision in a sequence. Different kinds of systems tracts are assigned on the basis of stratal stacking pattern, position in a sequence, and in the sea level curve and types of bounding surfaces.
824:
Bryant, I.D. 1996. The
Application of Physical Measurements to Constrain Reservoir-Scale Sequence Stratigraphic Models. In: Howell, J.A. & Aitken, J.F. (eds). High Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy: Innovations and Applications. Geology Society Special Publication 104.
198:(HST) occurs during the late stage of base level rise when the rate of sea level rise drops below the sedimentation rate. In this period of sea level highstand is formed. It is bounded by maximum flooding surface at the base and composite surface at the top.
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varies (again explained by
Milankovitch). The next larger cycle ('3rd order') is about 110,000 years and corresponds to the rate at which the Earth's orbit oscillates from elliptical to circular. Lower order cycles are recognized, which seem to result from
180:(LST) forms when the rate of sedimentation outpaces the rate of sea level rise during the early stage of the sea level curve. It is bounded by a subaerial unconformity or its correlative conformity at the base and maximum regressive surface at the top.
250:
Comparison of two sea level reconstructions during the last 500 Myr. The black bar shows the magnitude of sea level change during the
Quaternary glaciations; this is for the past few million years, but the bar is offset further in the past for
547:
Van
Wagoner, J.C.; Posamentier, H.W.; Mitchum, R.M. Jr.; Vail, P.R.; Sarg, J.F.; Loutit, T.S.; Hardenbol, J. (1988). "An Overview of the Fundamentals of Sequence Stratigraphy and Key Definitions".
352:
These alternating high and low sea level stands repeat at several time scales. The smallest of these cycles is approximately 20,000 years, and corresponds to the rate of precession of the
360:) and are commonly referred to as '5th order' cycles. The next larger cycle ('4th order') is about 40,000 years and approximately matches the rate at which the Earth's inclination to the
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and their correlative surfaces. The flooding surfaces bounding parasequences are not of the same scale as the regional transgressive surface that is associated with a sequence boundary.
139:. There have been problems in the correlation and distribution of these bodies. Sequence stratigraphic principles and identification of significant surfaces have resolved some issues.
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by rain, frost, rivers, etc.) and a new shoreline was established at the new level, sometimes miles basinward of the former shoreline if the sea floor was shallowly inclined.
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Regressive systems tract forms in the marine part of the basin during the base level fall. Subaerial unconformities form in the landward side of the basin at the same time.
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framework allowing understanding of the evolution of the Earth's surface in a particular region through time. Sequence stratigraphy is a useful alternative to a purely
688:
Vail, P. R.; Mitchum, R. M.; Thompson, S. (1977). "Seismic
Stratigraphy and Global Changes of Sea Level, Part 3Relative Changes of Sea Level from Coastal Onlap1".
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upwards or changes in the character of the fluvial systems reflecting increasing accommodation space. Sandstone bodies associated with incised valleys can be good
711:
Vail, P.R.; Hardenbol, J.; Todd, R.G. (1984). "Jurassic
Unconformities, Chronostratigraphy and Sea-Level Changes from Seismic Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy".
918:(The different orders of cyclicity can be seen as higher frequency chatter on an overall asymmetric cycle. Today's date is on the right side of this chart.)
444:. Much of the development of this scientific discipline has occurred within or been funded by energy corporations and their geological research labs.
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Smaller and localised sedimentary cycles are not related to worldwide (eustatic) sea level changes but more to the supply of sediment to the adjacent
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where these sediments are being supplied. For example, when the basinward (oceanward) shift with progradation of shorelines was occurring in the
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Sequence boundaries have economic significance because these changes in sea level cause large lateral shifts in the depositional patterns of
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authoritative online encyclopedia from SEPM, a scientific society whose publications have been central to defining sequence stratigraphy.
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Sequence stratigraphy is and essential tool in the application of geology to the exploration for oil and gas, as a part of the field of
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at the top. This systems tracts forms when the rate of sedimentation is outpaced by the rate of sea level rise in the sea level curves.
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428:, less sediment is being supplied than the rate of increase in the depth of water, and thus the shoreline migrates landward. In a
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90:. A secondary influence is the rate of sediment supply to the basin which determines the rate at which that space is filled.
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Lesser importance is attached to parasequence boundaries, however, there is a suggestion that flooding surfaces representing
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subsidence as a sedimentary basin is filled). The net changes resulting from these vertical forces increases or reduces
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Seismic
Stratigraphy Interpretation Using Sequence Stratigraphy: Part 2: Key Definitions of Sequence Stratigraphy
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rapidly. These variations in local sediment supply affect the local and relative sea level which causes local
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A parasequence is a relatively conformable, genetically related succession of beds and bedsets bounded by
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boundaries may be more laterally extensive leaving more evidence than sequence boundaries because the
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424:. These sedimentary cycles are representative of the amount of supply of sediment to the basin. In a
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30:, that attempts to discern and understand historic geology through time by subdividing and linking
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302:. When the world's sea level was at this "low stand", former sea bed sediments were subjected to
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Sequence boundaries are deemed the most significant surfaces. Sequence boundaries are defined as
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259:. The graph on the right illustrates two recent interpretations of sea level changes during the
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units primarily in terms of changes in relative sea level (the combination of global changes in
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that is more widespread than the erosional bases of individual channels within the valley;
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The three controls on stratigraphic architecture and sedimentary cycle development are:
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267:. The blue spikes near date zero represent the sea level changes associated with the
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Sloss, L. L.; Krumbein, W. C.; Dapples, E. C. (1949). "Integrated Facies
Analysis".
469: – Study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions
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In the distant past, sea level has been significantly higher than today. During the
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based on identification of surfaces which are assumed to represent time lines (e.g.
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and load-induced subsidence as the weight of accumulated sediment and water cause
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approach, which emphasizes solely based on the compositional similarity of the
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bounded units on a variety of scales. The essence of the method is mapping of
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events like the opening of new ocean basins by splitting continental masses.
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661:
Sloss, L. L. (1963). "Sequences in the Cratonic Interior of North America".
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Van Wagoner, J.C.; Mitchum, R.M. Jr.; Posamentier, H.W.; Vail, P.R. (1987).
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is the sea level with reference to a fixed point, the centre of the Earth.
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Seismic Stratigraphy II: An Integrated Approach to Hydrocarbon Exploration
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Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication
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275:(BP). During this glaciation event, the world's sea level was about 320
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Sloss, L.L. (1950). "Paleozoic stratigraphy in the Montana area".
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Hundreds of similar glacial cycles have occurred throughout the
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Cross, T A; Lessenger, M A (May 1988). "Seismic Stratigraphy".
575:. American Association of Petroleum Geologists. pp. 11–14.
187:(TST) is bounded by maximum regressive surface at the base and
131:
690:
Seismic Stratigraphy — Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration
46:, maximum flooding surfaces), thereby placing stratigraphy in
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263:. The modern age is depicted on the left side, labeled N for
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aggradational will be indicative of gently rising sea level.
872:. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.
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the shorelines were receding or transgressing northwards in
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Today, sea level is at a relative "high stand" within the
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10.1130/0016-7606(1963)74[93:SITCIO]2.0.CO;2
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The parasequences are separated into stacking patterns:
333:(labeled K on the graph), sea level was so high that a
839:. St. John's Nfld.: Geological Association of Canada.
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271:, which reached its maximum extent about 20,000 years
205:
644:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin
614:
463: – Very large-scale lithostratographic sequence
16:
Study and analysis of groups of sedimentary deposits
744:Berg, Orville Roger; Woolverton, Donald G. (1985).
687:
559:
535:
241:
1895:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
710:
2192:
906:by the University of Georgia's Stratigraphy Lab.
1885:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
916:A chart of sea level for the past 140,000 years
283:) lower than today, due to the large amount of
62:Stratigraphers explain sequence boundaries and
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681:
510:
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779:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
59:complete record that is genetically related.
912:a fairly extensive online education resource
944:
930:
868:The Sedimentary Record of Sea-Level Change
587:"An Online Guide to Sequence Stratigraphy"
516:
287:that had evaporated and been deposited as
142:
951:
834:
491:
93:
904:An Online Guide to Sequence Stratigraphy
837:Sequence stratigraphy of clastic systems
485:
435:
245:
106:
2193:
1216:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
818:
663:Geological Society of America Bulletin
111:
925:
660:
641:
617:Geological Society of America Memoirs
517:Emery, Dominic; Myers, Keith (1996).
496:(2nd ed.). San Diego: Elsevier.
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805:
317:glacial cycles because of rapid end-
155:has a lower gradient than the inner
863:
799:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.001535
494:Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy
206:Parasequences and stacking patterns
13:
2043:National Oceanographic Data Center
1470:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
1358:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
857:
70:and regional subsidence caused by
14:
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1890:Global Sea Level Observing System
891:
162:
86:for sediments to accumulate in a
2173:
2162:
2153:
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1348:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
1264:
1253:
2078:Ocean thermal energy conversion
1801:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
910:USC's Sequence Stratigraphy Web
770:
737:
704:
242:Sea level through geologic time
811:Hampson, G.J., Davies, S. J.,
654:
635:
608:
579:
337:extended across the center of
1:
521:. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
478:
126:with a regional, high relief
1338:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
1308:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
1064:Luke's variational principle
835:Catuneanu, Octavian (2003).
713:The Jurassic of the Gulf Rim
492:Catuneanu, Octavian (2022).
386:Subsidence rate of the basin
121:laterally with interfluves,
7:
454:
185:transgressive systems tract
26:, specifically a branch of
10:
2222:
1403:Ocean dynamical thermostat
1251:
383:Eustatic sea level changes
269:most recent glacial period
2148:
1987:
1961:
1938:Ocean acoustic tomography
1923:
1875:
1814:
1751:Mohorovičić discontinuity
1709:
1581:
1478:
1343:General circulation model
1273:
979:Benjamin–Feir instability
959:
2068:Ocean surface topography
1443:Thermohaline circulation
1433:Subsurface ocean current
1373:Hydrothermal circulation
1206:Wave–current interaction
984:Boussinesq approximation
356:'s rotational axis (see
212:marine flooding surfaces
189:maximum flooding surface
44:subaerial unconformities
2105:Sea surface temperature
2088:Outline of oceanography
1283:Atmospheric circulation
1221:shallow water equations
1211:Waves and shallow water
1104:Significant wave height
864:Coe, Angela L. (2002).
255:Sea level changes over
196:highstand systems tract
143:Parasequence boundaries
2100:Sea surface microlayer
1465:Wind generated current
721:10.5724/gcs.84.03.0347
252:
178:lowstand systems tract
137:hydrocarbon reservoirs
94:Historical development
2201:Sequence stratigraphy
1933:Deep scattering layer
1915:World Geodetic System
1423:Princeton Ocean Model
1303:Coriolis–Stokes force
953:Physical oceanography
898:Sequence Stratigraphy
519:Sequence stratigraphy
436:Economic significance
249:
20:Sequence stratigraphy
1953:Underwater acoustics
1513:Perigean spring tide
1378:Langmuir circulation
1089:Rossby-gravity waves
107:Significant surfaces
101:seismic stratigraphy
2115:Science On a Sphere
1721:Convergent boundary
1393:Modular Ocean Model
1353:Geostrophic current
1069:Mild-slope equation
791:1988AREPS..16..319C
358:Milankovitch cycles
297:Northern Hemisphere
112:Sequence boundaries
84:accommodation space
72:tectonic subsidence
48:chronostratigraphic
2206:Historical geology
1771:Seafloor spreading
1761:Outer trench swell
1726:Divergent boundary
1626:Continental margin
1611:Carbonate platform
1508:Lunitidal interval
473:Relative sea level
449:seafloor sediments
403:sedimentary cycles
394:Eustatic sea level
253:
76:thermal subsidence
68:eustatic sea level
52:lithostratigraphic
2188:
2187:
2180:Oceans portal
2140:World Ocean Atlas
2130:Underwater glider
2073:Ocean temperature
1736:Hydrothermal vent
1701:Submarine volcano
1636:Continental shelf
1616:Coastal geography
1606:Bathymetric chart
1488:Amphidromic point
1176:Wave nonlinearity
1034:Infragravity wave
730:978-1-944966-02-7
629:10.1130/MEM39-p91
528:978-0-632-03706-3
503:978-0-08-088513-1
467:Cyclostratigraphy
461:Cratonic sequence
442:Petroleum geology
157:continental shelf
128:erosional surface
88:sedimentary basin
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2095:Pelagic sediment
2033:Marine pollution
1827:Deep ocean water
1696:Submarine canyon
1631:Continental rise
1523:Rule of twelfths
1438:Sverdrup balance
1368:Humboldt Current
1293:Boundary current
1268:
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1074:Radiation stress
1044:Iribarren number
1019:Equatorial waves
974:Ballantine scale
969:Airy wave theory
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593:. Archived from
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389:Sediment supply.
232:Retrogradational
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1796:Transform fault
1746:Mid-ocean ridge
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1671:Oceanic plateau
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1563:Tidal resonance
1533:Theory of tides
1474:
1383:Longshore drift
1333:Ekman transport
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1201:Wave turbulence
1134:Trochoidal wave
1059:Longshore drift
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858:Further reading
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374:Earth's history
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167:The concept of
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22:is a branch of
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1945:
1940:
1935:
1929:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1910:Sea level rise
1907:
1905:Sea level drop
1902:
1897:
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1873:
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1681:Passive margin
1678:
1676:Oceanic trench
1673:
1668:
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1658:
1653:
1648:
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1408:Ocean dynamics
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1298:Coriolis force
1295:
1290:
1285:
1279:
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1271:
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1252:
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1247:
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1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
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1146:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1119:Stokes problem
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1054:Kinematic wave
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
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976:
971:
965:
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892:External links
890:
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785:(1): 319–354.
769:
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591:strata.uga.edu
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367:plate tectonic
273:Before Present
243:
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227:Progradational
224:
207:
204:
203:
202:
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192:
181:
169:systems tracts
164:
163:Systems tracts
161:
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118:unconformities
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34:deposits into
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2028:Marine energy
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2024:
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2019:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2008:
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2003:
2001:
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1996:
1995:Acidification
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1980:
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1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1948:SOFAR channel
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1756:Oceanic crust
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1731:Fracture zone
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1609:
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1599:
1597:
1596:Abyssal plain
1594:
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1589:
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1586:
1584:
1580:
1574:
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1529:
1526:
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1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1503:Internal tide
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1471:
1468:
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1404:
1401:
1399:
1398:Ocean current
1396:
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1379:
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1256:
1244:
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1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1196:Wave shoaling
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1156:Ursell number
1154:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
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1120:
1117:
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1110:
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1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1039:Internal wave
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
989:Breaking wave
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
966:
964:
962:
958:
954:
947:
942:
940:
935:
933:
928:
927:
924:
917:
914:
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908:
905:
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899:
896:
895:
885:
883:0-521-53842-4
879:
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869:
862:
861:
848:
846:0-919216-90-0
842:
838:
831:
821:
814:
808:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
773:
765:
763:0-89181-316-0
759:
755:
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747:
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732:
726:
722:
718:
714:
707:
699:
695:
691:
684:
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664:
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622:
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611:
597:on 2022-04-01
596:
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565:
563:
554:
550:
543:
541:
539:
530:
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488:
484:
474:
471:
468:
465:
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459:
458:
452:
450:
445:
443:
433:
431:
427:
426:transgression
423:
419:
415:
411:
406:
404:
399:
395:
388:
385:
382:
381:
380:
377:
375:
370:
368:
363:
359:
355:
350:
348:
344:
340:
339:North America
336:
332:
327:
324:
320:
316:
311:
309:
305:
301:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
257:geologic time
248:
239:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
222:Aggradational
220:
219:
218:
215:
213:
200:
197:
193:
190:
186:
182:
179:
175:
174:
173:
170:
160:
158:
154:
153:coastal plain
150:
140:
138:
133:
129:
124:
119:
104:
102:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
64:stratigraphic
60:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
2135:Water column
2083:Oceanography
2058:Observations
2053:Explorations
2023:Marginal sea
2016:
1974:OSTM/Jason-2
1806:Volcanic arc
1781:Slab suction
1498:Head of tide
1388:Loop Current
1328:Ekman spiral
1114:Stokes drift
1024:Gravity wave
999:Cnoidal wave
867:
836:
830:
820:
807:
782:
778:
772:
745:
739:
712:
706:
689:
683:
666:
662:
656:
647:
643:
637:
620:
616:
610:
599:. Retrieved
595:the original
590:
581:
572:
552:
548:
518:
512:
493:
487:
446:
439:
407:
397:
392:
378:
371:
351:
347:Arctic Ocean
328:
312:
306:weathering (
254:
251:readability.
236:
216:
209:
195:
184:
177:
168:
166:
149:parasequence
146:
115:
97:
61:
36:unconformity
28:stratigraphy
19:
18:
2125:Thermocline
1842:Mesopelagic
1815:Ocean zones
1786:Slab window
1651:Hydrography
1591:Abyssal fan
1558:Tidal range
1548:Tidal power
1543:Tidal force
1428:Rip current
1363:Gulf Stream
1323:Ekman layer
1313:Downwelling
1288:Baroclinity
1275:Circulation
1171:Wave height
1161:Wave action
1144:megatsunami
1124:Stokes wave
1084:Rossby wave
1049:Kelvin wave
1029:Green's law
813:Elliott, T.
414:Book Cliffs
319:Pleistocene
261:Phanerozoic
32:sedimentary
2195:Categories
2063:Reanalysis
1962:Satellites
1943:Sofar bomb
1791:Subduction
1766:Ridge push
1661:Ocean bank
1641:Contourite
1568:Tide gauge
1553:Tidal race
1538:Tidal bore
1528:Slack tide
1493:Earth tide
1413:Ocean gyre
1233:Wind setup
1228:Wind fetch
1191:Wave setup
1186:Wave radar
1181:Wave power
1079:Rogue wave
1009:Dispersion
650:: 425–451.
623:: 91–124.
601:2018-08-05
479:References
430:regression
331:Cretaceous
321:and early-
315:Quaternary
123:palaeosols
1925:Acoustics
1877:Sea level
1776:Slab pull
1713:tectonics
1621:Cold seep
1583:Landforms
1460:Whirlpool
1455:Upwelling
1238:Wind wave
1166:Wave base
1094:Sea state
1014:Edge wave
1004:Cross sea
669:(2): 93.
304:subaerial
285:sea water
80:isostatic
56:lithology
2158:Category
2110:Seawater
1837:Littoral
1832:Deep sea
1691:Seamount
1573:Tideline
1518:Rip tide
1448:shutdown
1418:Overflow
1151:Undertow
994:Clapotis
555:: 39–45.
455:See also
416:area of
398:Relative
323:Holocene
300:glaciers
2168:Commons
2038:Mooring
1988:Related
1979:Jason-3
1969:Jason-1
1852:Pelagic
1847:Oceanic
1822:Benthic
1139:Tsunami
1109:Soliton
787:Bibcode
422:Wyoming
345:to the
308:erosion
265:Neogene
24:geology
1857:Photic
1686:Seabed
1099:Seiche
880:
843:
760:
727:
525:
500:
410:basins
335:seaway
281:meters
132:facies
40:strata
2048:Ocean
2017:Alvin
1867:Swash
1711:Plate
1656:Knoll
1646:Guyot
1601:Atoll
1480:Tides
1243:model
1129:Swell
961:Waves
876:–98.
825:51–64
354:Earth
343:Texas
341:from
2015:DSV
2000:Argo
1862:Surf
1318:Eddy
878:ISBN
841:ISBN
758:ISBN
725:ISBN
523:ISBN
498:ISBN
418:Utah
291:and
289:snow
279:(98
277:feet
795:doi
750:doi
717:doi
694:doi
671:doi
625:doi
362:Sun
295:in
293:ice
2197::
874:57
793:.
783:16
781:.
756:.
748:.
723:.
715:.
692:.
667:74
665:.
648:34
646:.
621:39
619:.
589:.
561:^
553:42
551:.
537:^
405:.
349:.
194:A
183:A
176:A
74:,
945:e
938:t
931:v
886:.
849:.
801:.
797::
789::
766:.
752::
733:.
719::
700:.
696::
677:.
673::
631:.
627::
604:.
531:.
506:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.