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important contributions in the theological and philosophical realms to bolster the
Catholic Church's position. Some of these contributions include: The defense of Catholic Tradition, Scholasticism, in the Counter-Reformation, focused on defending and preserving Catholic tradition against challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation. Scholastics advocated for the authority of the Church and tradition in interpreting Scriptures, in contrast to the individualistic interpretations promoted by some Protestant reformers. Doctrinal Clarification: Scholastic thinkers worked on clarifying Catholic doctrines, providing detailed and systematic explanations on key theological matters. This involved the elaboration of theological treatises and the systematization of Catholic theology, helping strengthen the internal coherence of Church teachings. Theological Controversies: Scholasticism during the Counter-Reformation addressed various theological controversies that arose in the context of the Reformation. For example, it focused on debates regarding justification, grace, and sacraments, presenting arguments supporting Catholic positions and refuting Protestant objections. Development of Philosophy and Moral Theology: Scholastics contributed to the development of philosophy and moral theology. They explored ethical and moral questions within a philosophical framework, seeking to provide ethical and moral guidance in a context where Catholic practices and teachings were being questioned. Support for Catholic Education: Many scholastic thinkers were associated with Catholic educational institutions, such as the University of Salamanca, the University of Alcalá, the University of Coimbra or the University of Leuven, where they taught and promoted Catholic education. The training of Catholic priests and scholars was considered essential to counteract Reformed ideas and maintain Catholic orthodoxy. In summary, Scholasticism played a crucial role in the Counter-Reformation by offering intellectual and systematic defense of the Catholic faith, addressing theological controversies, and contributing to the development of theology and philosophy within the Catholic framework. These efforts helped consolidate and strengthen the Catholic Church's position during a period of significant challenges.
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contributions of this tradition to the
Reformation can be identified: Scholasticism provided a systematic framework for theology, allowing reformers to structure and organize their own doctrines logically and coherently. This was particularly evident in the formulation of confessions of faith and catechisms that defined Protestant beliefs. Reformers employed scholastic methods of argumentation and debate to defend their theological views and refute positions held by the Catholic Church. This methodology influenced the creation of polemical writings and the systematic presentation of Reformed doctrines. Although reformers criticized certain aspects of Aristotelian logic used by Scholasticism, they still incorporated elements of logical reasoning into their theology. Logic and reason were used to establish theological arguments and present doctrines clearly and coherently. Scholasticism influenced the elaboration of systematic theologies within Protestantism. Reformers like John Calvin and Martin Luther, while critical of certain aspects of Scholasticism, systematically organized their teachings, creating theological systems that addressed various doctrinal issues. Despite the reformers' emphasis on returning to the Scriptures as the primary source of authority, they used terms and philosophical categories developed in the scholastic tradition. These terms were employed to express Reformed doctrines more precisely and to engage in theological dialogues of the time. Despite criticisms and a break with certain aspects of Scholasticism, the reformers benefited from the intellectual structure provided by this tradition. They used methods and tools from Scholasticism to articulate and defend their own interpretations of the faith, contributing to the development of theological thought in the context of the Protestant Reformation.
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period, Lutheran theologians undertook the task of articulating and defending
Lutheran beliefs through the lens of systematic theology. Central to this effort was the production of confessional documents like the Formula of Concord. These documents were instrumental in clarifying and unifying Lutheran teachings, particularly on contested issues such as the Lord's Supper, predestination, and free will. Theological discourse during Lutheran Orthodoxy was marked by the engagement with scholastic methods and the development of systematic theology. This emphasis on academic rigor sought to provide a logical and structured framework for Lutheran doctrines, enhancing clarity in theological expression. A notable feature of Lutheran Orthodoxy was the integration of Aristotelian philosophy into theological discussions. Theologians utilized philosophical concepts to explain and defend Lutheran doctrines, resulting in a more comprehensive understanding of theological principles. In response to the intellectual challenges of the time, Lutheran Orthodoxy witnessed the establishment of educational institutions. Lutheran universities and schools were founded to train theologians and pastors, contributing significantly to the preservation and transmission of Lutheran theology. In essence, Lutheran Orthodoxy played a crucial role in consolidating and preserving Lutheran theology amidst theological debates. This period contributed to the establishment of a systematic doctrinal framework, educational institutions, and liturgical practices, shaping the identity and theology of Lutheranism, which continues to resonate in contemporary expressions of the Lutheran tradition.
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as John Calvin and Martin Luther. This period of consolidation and theological articulation sought to systematically establish the fundamental beliefs of the
Reformed tradition. In this context, confessions of faith and catechisms were formulated to express the Reformed doctrines clearly and systematically. Notable examples include the Westminster Confession, the Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism. These documents became doctrinal standards and guides for teaching in Reformed churches. "Reformed Orthodoxy" was characterized by a rigorous focus on dogmatic theology, aiming to systematize key doctrines of the Christian faith. This included soteriology (doctrine of salvation), the doctrine of God, Christology, Pneumatology, and other areas of systematic theology. Emphasis was placed on coherence and logical structure in formulating beliefs. Theological debates and controversies arose during this period, especially in areas such as predestination and the relationship between divine grace and human responsibility. These debates led to the drafting of documents like the Canons of Dort in response to Arminian controversies. Key theologians in this movement include Theodore Beza, Zacharias Ursinus, Francis Turretin, and others. Each made significant contributions to the development and formulation of Reformed theology during this period. "Reformed Orthodoxy" left a lasting legacy in Reformed churches, influencing theology and the identity of these communities to this day. The confessions and catechisms drafted during this period remain important in teaching and preaching in many Reformed churches.
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Among the tendencies of scholastic thought typical of the
Protestant environment, two must be highlighted: The Reformed Orthodoxy which refers to the theological tradition that flourished in Reformed churches during the 16th and 17th centuries, following the Protestant Reformation led by figures such
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The
Lutheran Orthodoxy, spanning the late 16th to the mid-18th centuries, represents a pivotal era within Lutheranism, characterized by efforts to systematize and define Lutheran doctrines in response to theological challenges and controversies that arose after Martin Luther's death. During this
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Scholasticism played a significant role during the
Counter-Reformation, a movement within the Catholic Church that emerged in response to the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. During this period, spanning roughly from the mid-16th to the mid-17th centuries, scholastic thinkers made several
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Scholasticism, as a predominant philosophical and theological tradition in the Middle Ages, influenced the context of the 16th-century
Protestant Reformation in various ways. Although the reformers often criticized Scholasticism in their quest to return to biblical sources, some important
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helped spread the ideas of the second scholasticism throughout the New World and Europe, where the orders, supported by monarchies and local authorities, founded academies, seminaries, universities also directing numerous prestigious universities of the period.
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Unlike the "First", i.e. medieval scholasticism, a typical feature of second scholasticism was the development of schools of thought, developing the intellectual heritage of their "teacher". Two schools survived from earlier phases of scholasticism,
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Along with these more orthodox authors as far as the scholastic current is concerned, we must also highlight the thought of other philosophers close to scholasticism who experimented with new ideas, "independent" thinkers like
742:, philosophers like Jaime Servera and Tomás Vicente Tosca y Mascó attempted to provide a new innovative impulse to modern scholasticism. They aimed to synthesize the works and ideas of previous philosophers such as Suárez and
369:) in the number of its proponents, the breadth of its scope, the analytical complexity, sense of historical and literary criticism, and the volume of editorial production, most of which remains hitherto little explored.
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retained influence for an extended period. Despite its decline, the second half of the 17th century and the early 18th century saw the emergence of influential authors who had a minor impact in the
Catholic realm.
545:. The "Jesuits" are considered a third "school" of second scholasticism, although this refers more to the common style of academic work rather than to some common doctrine. The important figures include
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languages. These philosophers were not entirely free from the impact of second scholasticism—which indeed played a significant role for many of them—but sought alternatives to the dominant
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to the new ideas of French and
British philosophers during the Enlightenment, further impacted modern scholasticism. Additionally, a notable decline occurred after the suppression of the
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735:, among others, contributed to this period. Their impact did not match the extensive influence of scholastic authors from the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century.
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emerged as challengers. Second scholasticism also faced competition from more experimental and mathematical approaches to science promoted by the
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in the 19th century. Despite this, during the 18th century, modern scholasticism faced significant criticism from scholars associated with the
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of the 18th century, second scholasticism remained largely dormant outside the Spanish empire and Portugal. Despite this, scholastics like
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universities, the modern scholastic culture persisted strongly into the 19th century, setting the stage for the emergence of
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Online Resources for the study of early-modern scholasticism (1500–1800): authors, sources, institutions
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Ens rationis from Suárez to Caramuel: A Study in Scholasticism of the Baroque Era
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The emergence of the second scholasticism during Renaissance in the
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La Seconda scolastica nella formazione del diritto privato moderno
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Manlio Bellomo, The Common Legal Past of Europe, 1000–1800, p. 225
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and many others. The joint intellectual and didactic work between
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R. Ariew and D. Gabbay, "The scholastic background", in
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The Philosophical Origins of Modern Contract Doctrine
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17th century classroom at the University of Salamanca
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Cambridge History of Seventeenth Century Philosophy
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638:Ramus awaiting his murderers: wood engraving by
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626:Second scholasticism in Protestant ambit
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583:Thomas Compton Carleton
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924:Daniel D. NovotnĂ˝,
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820:School of Salamanca
604:Sebastián Izquierdo
595:Counter-Reformation
468:School of Salamanca
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