1180:
1139:
31:
319:
484:
the cellular receptor for the AIDS virus, HIV. He then applied molecular biology to neuroscience revealing over a thousand genes involved in the recognition of odours, a discovery for which he shared the Nobel Prize in 2004. He currently explores how odour recognition is translated into internal representations in the brain.
483:
Richard Axel is a distinguished molecular biologist and neuroscientist. He developed gene transfer techniques that permit the introduction of virtually any gene into any cell permitting the production of a large number of clinically important proteins and leading to the isolation of a gene for CD4,
447:
In addition to making contributions as a scientist, Axel has also mentored many leading scientists in the field of neurobiology. Seven of his trainees have become members of the
National Academy of Sciences, and currently six of his trainees are affiliated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute's
310:. However, he was poorly suited to medicine and graduated on the promise to his department chairman that he would not practice clinically. He found his calling in research and returned to Columbia later that year, eventually becoming a full professor in 1978.
354:
companies, this patent proved quite lucrative for
Columbia University, earning it almost $ 100 million a year at one time, and a top spot on the list of top universities by licensing revenue. The Axel patents expired in August 2000.
346:, now colloquially referred to as the "Axel patents", covering this technique were filed for February 1980 and were issued in August 1983. As a fundamental process in recombinant DNA research as performed at
411:
Axel's primary research interest is on how the brain interprets the sense of smell, specifically mapping the parts of the brain that are sensitive to specific olfactory receptors. He holds the titles of
863:
Maddon, P. J.; Dalgleish, A. G.; McDougal, J. S.; Clapham, P. R.; Weiss, R. A.; Axel, R (1986). "The T4 gene encodes the AIDS virus receptor and is expressed in the immune system and the brain".
718:
Wigler, M; Sweet, R; Sim, G. K.; Wold, B; Pellicer, A; Lacy, E; Maniatis, T; Silverstein, S; Axel, R (1979). "Transformation of mammalian cells with genes from procaryotes and eucaryotes".
675:
Pellicer, A; Robins, D; Wold, B; Sweet, R; Jackson, J; Lowy, I; Roberts, J. M.; Sim, G. K.; Silverstein, S; Axel, R (1980). "Altering genotype and phenotype by DNA-mediated gene transfer".
4079:
3132:
497:. Previously, he had been married to Ann Axel, who is a social worker at Columbia University Medical Center. Owing to his tall stature, Axel played basketball during high school.
1322:
4129:
3302:
3152:
400:
remarkably only expresses one kind of olfactory receptor protein and that the input from all neurons expressing the same receptor is collected by a single dedicated
436:. In addition to contributions to neurobiology, Axel has also made seminal discoveries in immunology, and his lab was one of the first to identify the link between
820:
Wigler, M; Silverstein, S; Lee, L. S.; Pellicer, A; Cheng, Yc; Axel, R (1977). "Transfer of purified herpes virus thymidine kinase gene to cultured mouse cells".
4139:
3566:
3125:
3713:
239:
3620:
3614:
3380:
1315:
4064:
3224:
3158:
2865:
553:
3662:
3650:
3362:
3248:
3230:
1331:
4114:
3470:
3118:
3236:
3164:
632:
Pellicer, A; Wigler, M; Axel, R; Silverstein, S (1978). "The transfer and stable integration of the HSV thymidine kinase gene into mouse cells".
3176:
1308:
618:
4134:
3374:
3206:
4124:
1113:
4104:
4074:
2823:
2812:
2797:
2778:
4144:
3014:
4119:
3952:
3747:
3141:
122:
4099:
2858:
2989:
1335:
1156:
594:
457:
263:
128:
4109:
4094:
3696:
1206:
4084:
4069:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
2851:
2695:
79:
2711:
1976:
1099:
433:
413:
247:
1888:
3862:
2919:
1403:
1091:
506:
2427:
342:, a process which allows foreign DNA to be inserted into a host cell to produce certain proteins. A family of
2786:
2638:
2614:
561:
2335:
461:
3705:
1538:
1300:
1278:
476:
456:
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Axel has won numerous awards and honors. He was elected a Fellow of the
4089:
3536:
2315:
2096:
366:
3242:
2915:
2056:
1872:
1624:
1600:
999:
Mombaerts, P; Wang, F; Dulac, C; Chao, S. K.; Nemes, A; Mendelsohn, M; Edmondson, J; Axel, R (1996).
397:
335:
202:
1395:
3887:
3857:
2884:
2179:
1285:
307:
3043:
2024:
1852:
287:
110:
2291:
1680:
1117:
1066:
911:"Columbia University's Axel patents: Technology transfer and implications for the Bayh-Dole Act"
4059:
3689:
3674:
3188:
2958:
2175:
2036:
1817:
1741:
1048:
960:"A novel multigene family may encode odorant receptors: A molecular basis for odor recognition"
465:
401:
283:
1789:
1186:
3782:
3344:
2219:
2195:
1952:
1896:
1809:
1765:
1729:
1616:
1580:
259:
2008:
1801:
1463:
4054:
3757:
3644:
3584:
3560:
3458:
3410:
2319:
2303:
2247:
2108:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1221:
774:
763:"DNA-mediated transfer of the adenine phosphoribosyltransferase locus into mammalian cells"
684:
3110:
526:
8:
4033:
4018:
4008:
3972:
3962:
3832:
3822:
3428:
3416:
3332:
2972:
2622:
2459:
2451:
2443:
2403:
2343:
2307:
2267:
2156:
2020:
1773:
1526:
1423:
1367:
1160:
417:
303:
299:
243:
197:
159:
69:
2687:
1411:
1256:
1179:
1138:
778:
688:
3590:
3572:
3554:
3512:
3278:
3028:
2771:
2767:
2510:
2399:
2279:
2239:
2223:
2140:
2124:
2052:
1813:
1797:
1668:
1636:
1596:
1030:
935:
910:
888:
845:
743:
657:
612:
362:
1017:
1000:
797:
762:
3912:
3867:
3812:
3682:
3608:
3422:
3272:
3266:
2939:
2892:
2816:
2805:
2654:
2650:
2606:
2530:
2431:
2387:
2367:
2351:
2339:
2211:
2136:
1992:
1940:
1749:
1688:
1652:
1534:
1439:
1273:
1022:
981:
976:
959:
940:
926:
880:
876:
837:
833:
802:
735:
731:
700:
649:
645:
600:
590:
494:
432:
at
Columbia University's College of Physicians and Surgeons, and Investigator of the
389:
331:
177:
97:
2827:
2295:
2263:
2004:
892:
849:
747:
661:
472:
3902:
3882:
3847:
3802:
3518:
3494:
3482:
3398:
3254:
3200:
3182:
2928:
2763:
2751:
2743:
2727:
2626:
2439:
2411:
2355:
2231:
2048:
1920:
1892:
1781:
1608:
1572:
1546:
1351:
1034:
1012:
971:
930:
922:
872:
829:
792:
782:
727:
692:
641:
251:
192:
2715:
2475:
30:
3937:
3907:
3837:
3827:
3792:
3632:
3548:
3542:
3488:
3476:
3446:
3218:
3022:
2947:
2790:
2782:
2739:
2735:
2699:
2671:
2630:
2598:
2546:
2423:
2327:
2287:
2187:
2152:
2148:
2116:
1968:
1932:
1737:
1588:
1431:
182:
2064:
1236:
1202:
4028:
4023:
3967:
3942:
3932:
3917:
3842:
3787:
3767:
3762:
3742:
3737:
3602:
3530:
3506:
3404:
3392:
3350:
3326:
3314:
3308:
3284:
2683:
2610:
2590:
2566:
2542:
2526:
2487:
2483:
2415:
2391:
2255:
2251:
2207:
2191:
2104:
2088:
2072:
2068:
1844:
1696:
1644:
1522:
1455:
767:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
405:
347:
327:
291:
116:
761:
Wigler, M; Pellicer, A; Silverstein, S; Axel, R; Urlaub, G; Chasin, L (1979).
4048:
3988:
3897:
3817:
3807:
3777:
3732:
3709:
3596:
3452:
3440:
3368:
3356:
3338:
3212:
3003:
2978:
2898:
2843:
2831:
2679:
2646:
2558:
2463:
2363:
2132:
2120:
2084:
2032:
2012:
1984:
1960:
1944:
1912:
1880:
1757:
1447:
1391:
604:
351:
275:
255:
172:
696:
4013:
3892:
3877:
3872:
3772:
3727:
3578:
3524:
3500:
3464:
3386:
3296:
3260:
3194:
2801:
2755:
2703:
2594:
2570:
2534:
2379:
2235:
2203:
2080:
1996:
1980:
1964:
1928:
1916:
1904:
1660:
1648:
1628:
1507:
1499:
1415:
944:
787:
421:
339:
187:
149:
1330:
1174:
1133:
1026:
985:
884:
704:
584:
3957:
3852:
3752:
3638:
3170:
2966:
2875:
2667:
2582:
2578:
2491:
2467:
2375:
2040:
1836:
1753:
1383:
1375:
1359:
841:
806:
739:
653:
4003:
3998:
3947:
3922:
3797:
3626:
3320:
2904:
2518:
1777:
1725:
1672:
425:
295:
373:, they estimated that there were approximately one thousand different
3927:
3656:
3290:
2719:
2271:
429:
393:
2514:
385:
279:
220:
359:
3704:
381:
378:
343:
318:
1092:"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"
862:
464:
in 1983. In 2005, Axel received the Golden Plate Award of the
760:
631:
83:
73:
819:
586:
Life on the Edge : The Coming of Age of
Quantum Biology
3140:
374:
238:(born July 2, 1946) is an American molecular biologist and
493:
Axel is married to fellow scientist and olfaction pioneer
396:. In their later work, Buck and Axel have shown that each
4080:
Members of the United States
National Academy of Sciences
441:
437:
370:
358:
In their landmark paper published in 1991, Buck and Axel
674:
998:
4130:
Fellows of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
908:
717:
582:
471:Axel was awarded the Double Helix Medal in 2007.
448:investigator and early scientist award programs.
4046:
1187:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004"
2873:
904:
902:
554:"Richard Axel: One of the Nobility in Science"
477:Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS)
4140:Members of the American Philosophical Society
3690:
3126:
2859:
1316:
1129:
1127:
278:to Polish Jewish immigrants, Axel grew up in
589:(1st ed.). New York. pp. 144–145.
365:, showing that they belong to the family of
1116:. London: The Royal Society. Archived from
899:
583:McFadden, Johnjoe; Al-Khalili, Jim (2014).
269:
3697:
3683:
3133:
3119:
2866:
2852:
1323:
1309:
1178:
1137:
1124:
617:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
29:
4065:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1016:
975:
934:
796:
786:
957:
326:During the late 1970s, Axel, along with
317:
4115:Johns Hopkins School of Medicine alumni
3142:Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry
1072:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1067:"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A"
384:. This research opened the door to the
123:Gairdner Foundation International Award
4047:
1001:"Visualizing an olfactory sensory map"
551:
313:
3678:
3114:
2847:
1336:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1304:
1271:
1106:
909:Colaianni, A; Cook-Deegan, R (2009).
560:. Columbia University. Archived from
458:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
264:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
242:in the Department of Neuroscience at
129:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
4135:Foreign members of the Royal Society
1059:
451:
4125:Howard Hughes Medical Investigators
1237:"Secrets of smell land Nobel Prize"
330:Saul J. Silverstein and geneticist
13:
4105:Columbia College (New York) alumni
1207:Columbia University Medical Center
302:), received his B.A. in 1967 from
14:
4156:
4075:Richard-Lounsbery Award laureates
1149:
1114:"Professor Richard Axel ForMemRS"
4145:Scientists from New York (state)
927:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2009.00575.x
488:
4120:Columbia Medical School faculty
1274:"Columbia patents under attack"
1100:American Academy of Achievement
1084:
1041:
992:
951:
479:in 2014. His nomination reads:
473:CSHL Double Helix Medal Honoree
466:American Academy of Achievement
434:Howard Hughes Medical Institute
377:for olfactory receptors in the
248:Howard Hughes Medical Institute
856:
813:
754:
711:
668:
625:
576:
545:
519:
507:List of Jewish Nobel laureates
392:analysis of the mechanisms of
1:
4100:Stuyvesant High School alumni
1157:"Follow the scent of success"
1018:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81387-2
552:Eisner, Robin (Winter 2005).
512:
440:infection and immunoreceptor
1272:Agres, Ted (July 25, 2003).
977:10.1016/0092-8674(91)90418-X
877:10.1016/0092-8674(86)90590-8
834:10.1016/0092-8674(77)90333-6
732:10.1016/0092-8674(79)90093-x
646:10.1016/0092-8674(78)90308-2
462:National Academy of Sciences
334:, discovered a technique of
306:, and his M.D. in 1971 from
262:scientist in his group, the
16:American molecular biologist
7:
2428:Christiane NĂĽsslein-Volhard
958:Buck, L.; Axel, R. (1991).
500:
367:G protein coupled receptors
10:
4161:
4110:Columbia University alumni
4095:Jewish American scientists
1142:, accessed 11 October 2020
3981:
3720:
3148:
3038:
3013:
2988:
2957:
2938:
2914:
2883:
2501:
2166:
1827:
1625:Charles Scott Sherrington
1601:Frederick Gowland Hopkins
1563:
1342:
1203:"Welcome to the Axel Lab"
527:"Laureate - Richard Axel"
398:olfactory receptor neuron
215:
211:
203:Fan Wang (neuroscientist)
165:
155:
145:
138:
103:
93:
62:
40:
28:
21:
4085:American neuroscientists
4070:American Nobel laureates
2615:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
531:Lindau Nobel Mediatheque
308:Johns Hopkins University
270:Education and early life
246:and investigator at the
80:Johns Hopkins University
3748:Sushantha Bhattacharyya
697:10.1126/science.7414320
322:Richard Axel circa 2008
288:Bruce Bueno de Mesquita
111:Richard Lounsbery Award
3044:Nobel Prize recipients
2990:Physiology or Medicine
1396:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
1257:"Richard Axel Patents"
788:10.1073/pnas.76.3.1373
486:
323:
284:Stuyvesant High School
3345:Charles C. Richardson
1897:Dickinson W. Richards
1581:Julius Wagner-Jauregg
1279:subscription required
1120:on December 20, 2014.
481:
321:
286:in 1963, (along with
260:postdoctoral research
3609:Christopher J. Chang
3585:Paul J. Hergenrother
3561:Benjamin Cravatt III
3459:Jacqueline K. Barton
3411:Christopher T. Walsh
2320:Rita Levi-Montalcini
1681:Albert Szent-Györgyi
1222:"Richard Axel, M.D."
460:and a member of the
414:University Professor
282:. He graduated from
240:university professor
4034:Jean-Marie Tarascon
4019:Philippe Sansonetti
3963:Demetri Terzopoulos
3567:Dewey G. McCafferty
3495:Stuart L. Schreiber
3429:Harold M. Weintraub
3333:Phillips W. Robbins
2973:Hugh David Politzer
2712:William C. Campbell
2623:Elizabeth Blackburn
2460:Robert F. Furchgott
2452:Stanley B. Prusiner
2444:Rolf M. Zinkernagel
2344:George H. Hitchings
2308:Joseph L. Goldstein
2268:Bengt I. Samuelsson
2097:Earl Sutherland Jr.
1161:The Science Network
1096:www.achievement.org
779:1979PNAS...76.1373W
689:1980Sci...209.1414P
418:Columbia University
369:. By analyzing rat
363:olfactory receptors
314:Research and career
304:Columbia University
300:Alexander Rosenberg
244:Columbia University
198:Bianca Jones Marlin
160:Columbia University
70:Columbia University
3591:Scott K. Silverman
3573:Linda Hsieh-Wilson
3555:Andreas Matouschek
3513:Gregory L. Verdine
3477:George L. McLendon
3279:Harold A. Scheraga
3189:Earl A. Evans, Jr.
3029:Edward C. Prescott
2772:William Kaelin Jr.
2768:Peter J. Ratcliffe
2511:Leland H. Hartwell
2400:Richard J. Roberts
2280:Barbara McClintock
2224:Godfrey Hounsfield
2125:Nikolaas Tinbergen
2057:Marshall Nirenberg
2025:Charles B. Huggins
1814:Tadeusz Reichstein
1802:AntĂłnio Egas Moniz
1597:Christiaan Eijkman
1177:on Nobelprize.org
1136:on Nobelprize.org
475:and was elected a
324:
250:. His work on the
4090:Jewish biologists
4042:
4041:
3913:Karalyn Patterson
3868:Vladimir Markovic
3813:Geoffrey Grimmett
3672:
3671:
3645:Bradley Pentelute
3615:Matthew D. Disney
3423:Roger D. Kornberg
3405:Charles R. Cantor
3381:James E. Dahlberg
3351:Mario R. Capecchi
3327:Gerald M. Edelman
3315:William P. Jencks
3273:Robert A. Alberty
3267:William F. Neuman
3195:Herbert E. Carter
3108:
3107:
3015:Economic Sciences
2893:Aaron Ciechanover
2841:
2840:
2806:Ardem Patapoutian
2655:Ralph M. Steinman
2651:Jules A. Hoffmann
2639:Robert G. Edwards
2607:Harald zur Hausen
2531:H. Robert Horvitz
2432:Eric F. Wieschaus
2368:E. Donnall Thomas
2352:J. Michael Bishop
2340:Gertrude B. Elion
2212:Hamilton O. Smith
2137:Christian de Duve
1873:Frederick Robbins
1750:Alexander Fleming
1689:Corneille Heymans
1535:Frederick Banting
1440:Allvar Gullstrand
1243:. October 4, 2004
1053:www.nasonline.org
915:Milbank Quarterly
683:(4463): 1414–22.
596:978-0-307-98681-8
533:. 23 October 2018
495:Cornelia Bargmann
452:Awards and honors
332:Michael H. Wigler
233:
232:
178:David J. Anderson
140:Scientific career
98:Cornelia Bargmann
57:New York City, US
4152:
4009:Stephen Harrison
3863:Andrew Mackenzie
3848:Timothy Leighton
3803:Timothy Eglinton
3699:
3692:
3685:
3676:
3675:
3519:Alanna Schepartz
3483:Peter G. Schultz
3453:James E. Rothman
3441:David V. Goeddel
3417:Phillip A. Sharp
3399:Robert G. Roeder
3369:Bruce M. Alberts
3339:Gordon G. Hammes
3255:Nathan O. Kaplan
3243:John M. Buchanan
3225:Dilworth Woodley
3201:Joseph S. Fruton
3183:David Rittenberg
3159:Harold S. Alcott
3153:William M. Allen
3135:
3128:
3121:
3112:
3111:
3046:
2929:Elfriede Jelinek
2868:
2861:
2854:
2845:
2844:
2834:
2819:
2808:
2793:
2787:Michael Houghton
2774:
2764:Gregg L. Semenza
2758:
2752:James P. Allison
2746:
2744:Michael W. Young
2730:
2728:Yoshinori Ohsumi
2722:
2706:
2690:
2688:Thomas C. SĂĽdhof
2674:
2662:
2641:
2633:
2627:Carol W. Greider
2617:
2601:
2585:
2573:
2561:
2549:
2537:
2521:
2494:
2478:
2470:
2454:
2446:
2440:Peter C. Doherty
2434:
2418:
2412:Alfred G. Gilman
2406:
2394:
2382:
2370:
2358:
2356:Harold E. Varmus
2346:
2330:
2322:
2310:
2298:
2282:
2274:
2258:
2242:
2232:Baruj Benacerraf
2226:
2214:
2198:
2182:
2159:
2143:
2127:
2111:
2099:
2091:
2075:
2059:
2049:Robert W. Holley
2043:
2027:
2015:
1999:
1987:
1971:
1955:
1953:Georg von Békésy
1947:
1935:
1923:
1921:Joshua Lederberg
1907:
1899:
1893:Werner Forssmann
1883:
1875:
1859:
1847:
1839:
1820:
1804:
1792:
1784:
1782:Bernardo Houssay
1768:
1760:
1744:
1732:
1720:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1699:
1691:
1683:
1675:
1663:
1655:
1639:
1631:
1619:
1611:
1609:Karl Landsteiner
1603:
1591:
1583:
1575:
1573:Johannes Fibiger
1556:
1555:
1549:
1547:Willem Einthoven
1541:
1529:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1502:
1494:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1466:
1458:
1450:
1442:
1434:
1426:
1418:
1412:Élie Metchnikoff
1406:
1404:Alphonse Laveran
1398:
1386:
1378:
1370:
1362:
1354:
1325:
1318:
1311:
1302:
1301:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1282:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1182:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1143:
1141:
1131:
1122:
1121:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1071:
1063:
1057:
1056:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1020:
996:
990:
989:
979:
955:
949:
948:
938:
906:
897:
896:
860:
854:
853:
817:
811:
810:
800:
790:
758:
752:
751:
715:
709:
708:
672:
666:
665:
629:
623:
622:
616:
608:
580:
574:
573:
571:
569:
549:
543:
542:
540:
538:
523:
336:cotransformation
252:olfactory system
229:
226:
224:
222:
193:Richard Scheller
166:Notable students
54:
50:
48:
33:
19:
18:
4160:
4159:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4149:
4045:
4044:
4043:
4038:
3977:
3938:Bill Rutherford
3908:Julian Parkhill
3838:Peter Keightley
3716:
3703:
3673:
3668:
3663:Jordan L. Meier
3651:Neal K. Devaraj
3633:Elizabeth Nolan
3549:Kevan M. Shokat
3543:Jennifer Doudna
3489:William DeGrado
3447:Gerald M. Rubin
3363:David F. Wilson
3303:Frederick Crane
3249:David M. Bonner
3231:Irving M. Klotz
3219:Sidney Colowick
3144:
3139:
3109:
3104:
3042:
3034:
3031:(United States)
3023:Finn E. Kydland
3009:
3006:(United States)
3000:(United States)
2984:
2981:(United States)
2975:(United States)
2969:(United States)
2953:
2948:Wangari Maathai
2934:
2910:
2907:(United States)
2879:
2872:
2842:
2837:
2822:
2811:
2796:
2791:Charles M. Rice
2783:Harvey J. Alter
2777:
2761:
2749:
2740:Michael Rosbash
2736:Jeffrey C. Hall
2733:
2725:
2709:
2700:May-Britt Moser
2693:
2677:
2672:Shinya Yamanaka
2665:
2644:
2636:
2631:Jack W. Szostak
2620:
2604:
2599:Oliver Smithies
2588:
2576:
2564:
2552:
2547:Peter Mansfield
2540:
2535:John E. Sulston
2524:
2508:
2497:
2481:
2473:
2457:
2449:
2437:
2424:Edward B. Lewis
2421:
2409:
2397:
2385:
2373:
2361:
2349:
2333:
2328:Susumu Tonegawa
2325:
2313:
2301:
2285:
2277:
2261:
2245:
2229:
2217:
2201:
2188:Roger Guillemin
2185:
2180:Daniel Gajdusek
2176:Baruch Blumberg
2173:
2162:
2153:Renato Dulbecco
2149:David Baltimore
2146:
2130:
2117:Karl von Frisch
2114:
2102:
2094:
2078:
2062:
2046:
2037:Haldan Hartline
2030:
2018:
2002:
1990:
1974:
1969:Maurice Wilkins
1958:
1950:
1938:
1933:Arthur Kornberg
1926:
1910:
1902:
1886:
1878:
1862:
1850:
1842:
1834:
1823:
1807:
1795:
1787:
1771:
1763:
1747:
1738:Joseph Erlanger
1735:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1694:
1686:
1678:
1666:
1658:
1642:
1634:
1622:
1614:
1606:
1594:
1589:Charles Nicolle
1586:
1578:
1570:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1544:
1532:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1505:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1461:
1453:
1445:
1437:
1432:Albrecht Kossel
1429:
1421:
1409:
1401:
1389:
1381:
1373:
1365:
1357:
1349:
1338:
1329:
1291:
1289:
1276:
1262:
1260:
1255:
1246:
1244:
1235:
1226:
1224:
1220:
1211:
1209:
1201:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1165:
1163:
1155:
1152:
1147:
1146:
1132:
1125:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1047:
1046:
1042:
997:
993:
956:
952:
907:
900:
861:
857:
818:
814:
759:
755:
716:
712:
673:
669:
630:
626:
610:
609:
597:
581:
577:
567:
565:
564:on June 1, 2015
550:
546:
536:
534:
525:
524:
520:
515:
503:
491:
454:
420:, Professor of
316:
272:
219:
207:
183:Catherine Dulac
134:
89:
58:
55:
52:
46:
44:
36:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4158:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4036:
4031:
4029:Clifford Tabin
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3985:
3983:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3968:Rajesh Thakker
3965:
3960:
3955:
3953:Nicholas Stern
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3933:Patrik Rorsman
3930:
3925:
3920:
3918:Sheena Radford
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3843:Mike Lazaridis
3840:
3835:
3833:Martin Johnson
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3788:Marian Dawkins
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3768:David Charlton
3765:
3763:Tom Bridgeland
3760:
3758:Dorothy Bishop
3755:
3750:
3745:
3743:Michael Benton
3740:
3738:David Beerling
3735:
3730:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3717:
3702:
3701:
3694:
3687:
3679:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3660:
3654:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3603:Nathanael Gray
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3576:
3570:
3564:
3558:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3534:
3531:Chaitan Khosla
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3507:Jeremy M. Berg
3504:
3498:
3492:
3486:
3480:
3474:
3471:Michael M. Cox
3468:
3462:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3420:
3414:
3408:
3402:
3396:
3393:Joan A. Steitz
3390:
3384:
3378:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3354:
3348:
3342:
3336:
3330:
3324:
3318:
3312:
3309:Jerard Hurwitz
3306:
3300:
3294:
3288:
3285:Lester J. Reed
3282:
3276:
3270:
3264:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3207:Max A. Lauffer
3204:
3198:
3192:
3186:
3180:
3174:
3168:
3162:
3156:
3149:
3146:
3145:
3138:
3137:
3130:
3123:
3115:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3026:
3019:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3007:
3001:
2994:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2976:
2970:
2963:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2951:
2944:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2925:
2923:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2871:
2870:
2863:
2856:
2848:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2828:Katalin KarikĂł
2820:
2809:
2794:
2775:
2759:
2747:
2731:
2723:
2707:
2691:
2684:Randy Schekman
2675:
2663:
2642:
2634:
2618:
2611:Luc Montagnier
2602:
2591:Mario Capecchi
2586:
2574:
2567:Barry Marshall
2562:
2550:
2543:Paul Lauterbur
2538:
2527:Sydney Brenner
2522:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2488:Paul Greengard
2484:Arvid Carlsson
2479:
2471:
2455:
2447:
2435:
2419:
2416:Martin Rodbell
2407:
2395:
2392:Edwin G. Krebs
2388:Edmond Fischer
2383:
2371:
2359:
2347:
2336:James W. Black
2331:
2323:
2311:
2299:
2296:CĂ©sar Milstein
2292:Georges Köhler
2283:
2275:
2264:Sune Bergström
2259:
2256:Torsten Wiesel
2252:David H. Hubel
2243:
2227:
2215:
2208:Daniel Nathans
2199:
2192:Andrew Schally
2183:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2144:
2128:
2112:
2105:Gerald Edelman
2100:
2092:
2089:Julius Axelrod
2076:
2073:Salvador Luria
2069:Alfred Hershey
2060:
2044:
2028:
2016:
2005:François Jacob
2000:
1988:
1972:
1956:
1948:
1936:
1924:
1908:
1900:
1889:André Cournand
1884:
1876:
1860:
1848:
1845:Selman Waksman
1840:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1810:Edward Kendall
1805:
1793:
1785:
1769:
1766:Hermann Muller
1761:
1745:
1742:Herbert Gasser
1733:
1721:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1697:Gerhard Domagk
1692:
1684:
1676:
1664:
1656:
1653:William Murphy
1645:George Whipple
1640:
1632:
1620:
1612:
1604:
1592:
1584:
1576:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1550:
1542:
1530:
1523:Archibald Hill
1518:
1511:
1503:
1495:
1488:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1459:
1456:Charles Richet
1451:
1443:
1435:
1427:
1419:
1407:
1399:
1387:
1379:
1371:
1363:
1355:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1328:
1327:
1320:
1313:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1269:
1259:. PatentGenius
1253:
1233:
1218:
1199:
1198:- pressrelease
1183:
1172:
1151:
1150:External links
1148:
1145:
1144:
1123:
1105:
1083:
1058:
1049:"Richard Axel"
1040:
991:
970:(1): 175–187.
950:
921:(3): 683–715.
898:
855:
812:
753:
710:
667:
624:
595:
575:
544:
517:
516:
514:
511:
510:
509:
502:
499:
490:
487:
453:
450:
424:and Molecular
406:olfactory bulb
348:pharmaceutical
328:microbiologist
315:
312:
292:Allan Lichtman
271:
268:
231:
230:
217:
213:
212:
209:
208:
206:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
169:
167:
163:
162:
157:
153:
152:
147:
143:
142:
136:
135:
133:
132:
126:
120:
117:Perl-UNC Prize
114:
107:
105:
101:
100:
95:
91:
90:
88:
87:
77:
66:
64:
60:
59:
56:
42:
38:
37:
34:
26:
25:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4157:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4060:Living people
4058:
4056:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3989:Richard Alley
3987:
3986:
3984:
3980:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3903:Miles Padgett
3901:
3899:
3898:Colin Nichols
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3883:Gareth Morris
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3858:Michael Lynch
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3823:Richard Hills
3821:
3819:
3818:Martin Hairer
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3808:Amanda Fisher
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3778:Steven Cowley
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3733:Paul Attfield
3731:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3710:Royal Society
3707:
3700:
3695:
3693:
3688:
3686:
3681:
3680:
3677:
3664:
3661:
3658:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3619:
3616:
3613:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3597:Alice Y. Ting
3595:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3574:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3550:
3547:
3544:
3541:
3538:
3537:Xiaodong Wang
3535:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3496:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3475:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3379:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3364:
3361:
3358:
3357:Lubert Stryer
3355:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3237:William Shive
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3213:John D. Ferry
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3165:Abraham White
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3131:
3129:
3124:
3122:
3117:
3116:
3113:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3040:
3037:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3004:Linda B. Buck
3002:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2979:Frank Wilczek
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2899:Avram Hershko
2897:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2869:
2864:
2862:
2857:
2855:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2833:
2832:Drew Weissman
2829:
2825:
2821:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2757:
2753:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2729:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2716:Satoshi ĹŚmura
2713:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2692:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2680:James Rothman
2676:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2647:Bruce Beutler
2643:
2640:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2560:
2559:Linda B. Buck
2556:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2477:
2476:GĂĽnter Blobel
2472:
2469:
2465:
2464:Louis Ignarro
2461:
2456:
2453:
2448:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2405:
2404:Phillip Sharp
2401:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2364:Joseph Murray
2360:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2329:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2316:Stanley Cohen
2312:
2309:
2305:
2304:Michael Brown
2300:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2281:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2220:Allan Cormack
2216:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2197:
2196:Rosalyn Yalow
2193:
2189:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2142:
2141:George Palade
2138:
2134:
2133:Albert Claude
2129:
2126:
2122:
2121:Konrad Lorenz
2118:
2113:
2110:
2109:Rodney Porter
2106:
2101:
2098:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2085:Ulf von Euler
2082:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2033:Ragnar Granit
2029:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2014:
2013:Jacques Monod
2010:
2006:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1986:
1985:Andrew Huxley
1982:
1978:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1961:Francis Crick
1957:
1954:
1949:
1946:
1945:Peter Medawar
1942:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1913:George Beadle
1909:
1906:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1882:
1881:Hugo Theorell
1877:
1874:
1870:
1869:Thomas Weller
1866:
1861:
1858:
1857:Fritz Lipmann
1854:
1849:
1846:
1841:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1759:
1758:Howard Florey
1755:
1751:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1698:
1693:
1690:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1638:
1637:Thomas Morgan
1633:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1613:
1610:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1574:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1551:
1548:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1528:
1527:Otto Meyerhof
1524:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1501:
1496:
1489:
1482:
1475:
1468:
1465:
1464:Róbert Bárány
1460:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1448:Alexis Carrel
1444:
1441:
1436:
1433:
1428:
1425:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1405:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1392:Camillo Golgi
1388:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1314:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1288:
1287:
1286:The Scientist
1280:
1275:
1270:
1258:
1254:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1223:
1219:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1176:
1173:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1119:
1115:
1109:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1087:
1068:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1044:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1011:(4): 675–86.
1010:
1006:
1002:
995:
987:
983:
978:
973:
969:
965:
961:
954:
946:
942:
937:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
905:
903:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
871:(3): 333–48.
870:
866:
859:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
828:(1): 223–32.
827:
823:
816:
808:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
780:
776:
773:(3): 1373–6.
772:
768:
764:
757:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
726:(4): 777–85.
725:
721:
714:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
671:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
640:(1): 133–41.
639:
635:
628:
620:
614:
606:
602:
598:
592:
588:
587:
579:
563:
559:
555:
548:
532:
528:
522:
518:
508:
505:
504:
498:
496:
489:Personal life
485:
480:
478:
474:
469:
467:
463:
459:
449:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
409:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
361:
356:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
320:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
276:New York City
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
228:
218:
214:
210:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
170:
168:
164:
161:
158:
154:
151:
148:
144:
141:
137:
130:
127:
124:
121:
118:
115:
112:
109:
108:
106:
102:
99:
96:
92:
85:
81:
78:
75:
71:
68:
67:
65:
61:
53:(age 78)
43:
39:
32:
27:
20:
4014:Vincent Poor
3994:Richard Axel
3993:
3893:Jenny Nelson
3888:Jim Naismith
3878:Paul Midgley
3873:Irwin McLean
3783:Sally Davies
3773:Peter Colman
3728:Steven Armes
3579:Anna K. Mapp
3525:John Kuriyan
3501:Peter S. Kim
3465:Peter Walter
3435:Richard Axel
3434:
3387:Mark Ptashne
3297:James Watson
3261:Harvey Itano
3177:Eric G. Ball
3074:
2998:Richard Axel
2997:
2817:Svante Pääbo
2802:David Julius
2756:Tasuku Honjo
2704:Edvard Moser
2696:John O'Keefe
2659:posthumously
2658:
2595:Martin Evans
2571:Robin Warren
2555:Richard Axel
2554:
2502:2001–present
2380:Bert Sakmann
2248:Roger Sperry
2240:George Snell
2236:Jean Dausset
2204:Werner Arber
2157:Howard Temin
2081:Bernard Katz
2065:Max DelbrĂĽck
2021:Francis Rous
1997:Feodor Lynen
1993:Konrad Bloch
1981:Alan Hodgkin
1965:James Watson
1941:Frank Burnet
1929:Severo Ochoa
1917:Edward Tatum
1905:Daniel Bovet
1818:Philip Hench
1730:Edward Doisy
1661:Hans Spemann
1649:George Minot
1629:Edgar Adrian
1617:Otto Warburg
1539:John Macleod
1508:August Krogh
1500:Jules Bordet
1416:Paul Ehrlich
1368:Niels Finsen
1352:Emil Behring
1290:. Retrieved
1284:
1261:. Retrieved
1245:. Retrieved
1240:
1210:. Retrieved
1190:. Retrieved
1175:Richard Axel
1164:. Retrieved
1134:Richard Axel
1118:the original
1108:
1095:
1086:
1074:. Retrieved
1061:
1052:
1043:
1008:
1004:
994:
967:
963:
953:
918:
914:
868:
864:
858:
825:
821:
815:
770:
766:
756:
723:
719:
713:
680:
676:
670:
637:
633:
627:
585:
578:
566:. Retrieved
562:the original
557:
547:
535:. Retrieved
530:
521:
492:
482:
470:
455:
446:
422:Biochemistry
410:
357:
340:transfection
325:
273:
254:won him and
236:Richard Axel
235:
234:
188:David Julius
156:Institutions
150:Neuroscience
139:
51:July 2, 1946
35:Axel in 2014
23:Richard Axel
4055:1946 births
4024:Joan Steitz
3958:Nick Talbot
3943:Colin Smith
3853:Simon Lilly
3828:Tim Holland
3753:Ewan Birney
3639:Howard Hang
3375:C. Fred Fox
3171:George Wald
2967:David Gross
2876:Nobel Prize
2668:John Gurdon
2583:Craig Mello
2579:Andrew Fire
2492:Eric Kandel
2468:Ferid Murad
2376:Erwin Neher
2288:Niels Jerne
2053:Har Khorana
2041:George Wald
2009:André Lwoff
1977:John Eccles
1865:John Enders
1837:Max Theiler
1798:Walter Hess
1790:Paul MĂĽller
1754:Ernst Chain
1424:Emil Kocher
1384:Robert Koch
1376:Ivan Pavlov
1360:Ronald Ross
568:October 31,
537:October 25,
258:, a former
4049:Categories
4004:Steven Chu
3999:Chunli Bai
3973:Tony Watts
3948:Alan Soper
3923:Randy Read
3798:Liam Dolan
3627:Minkui Luo
3321:Bruce Ames
2916:Literature
2905:Irwin Rose
2519:Paul Nurse
1853:Hans Krebs
1778:Gerty Cori
1726:Henrik Dam
1673:Otto Loewi
1669:Henry Dale
1225:Retrieved
513:References
426:Biophysics
402:glomerulus
296:Ron Silver
256:Linda Buck
173:Linda Buck
47:1946-07-02
3928:David Ron
3793:John Dick
3657:Yimon Aye
3291:Paul Berg
2931:(Austria)
2885:Chemistry
2878:laureates
2720:Tu Youyou
2272:John Vane
2167:1976–2000
1828:1951–1975
1774:Carl Cori
1564:1926–1950
1343:1901–1925
1332:Laureates
1076:April 28,
613:cite book
605:914329162
430:Pathology
394:olfaction
390:molecular
379:mammalian
266:in 2004.
225:.columbia
63:Education
3712:elected
3025:(Norway)
2901:(Israel)
2895:(Israel)
2515:Tim Hunt
1292:June 24,
1263:June 24,
1247:June 24,
1241:BBC News
1227:June 24,
1212:June 24,
1192:June 24,
1166:June 24,
945:19751286
893:20377918
850:46090608
748:25495031
662:20851317
501:See also
280:Brooklyn
274:Born in
223:.axellab
3982:Foreign
3721:Fellows
3714:in 2014
3708:of the
3706:Fellows
3621:Yi Tang
2959:Physics
2950:(Kenya)
1334:of the
1035:7999466
1027:8929536
986:1840504
936:2750841
885:3094962
775:Bibcode
705:7414320
685:Bibcode
677:Science
558:P&S
428:and of
404:of the
386:genetic
352:biotech
344:patents
216:Website
3665:(2021)
3659:(2020)
3653:(2019)
3647:(2018)
3641:(2017)
3635:(2016)
3629:(2015)
3623:(2014)
3617:(2013)
3611:(2012)
3605:(2011)
3599:(2010)
3593:(2009)
3587:(2008)
3581:(2007)
3575:(2006)
3569:(2005)
3563:(2004)
3557:(2003)
3551:(2002)
3545:(2001)
3539:(2000)
3533:(1999)
3527:(1998)
3521:(1997)
3515:(1996)
3509:(1995)
3503:(1994)
3497:(1993)
3491:(1992)
3485:(1991)
3479:(1990)
3473:(1989)
3467:(1988)
3461:(1987)
3455:(1986)
3449:(1985)
3443:(1984)
3437:(1983)
3431:(1982)
3425:(1981)
3419:(1980)
3413:(1979)
3407:(1978)
3401:(1977)
3395:(1976)
3389:(1975)
3383:(1974)
3377:(1973)
3371:(1972)
3365:(1971)
3359:(1970)
3353:(1969)
3347:(1968)
3341:(1967)
3335:(1966)
3329:(1965)
3323:(1964)
3317:(1963)
3311:(1962)
3305:(1961)
3299:(1960)
3293:(1959)
3287:(1958)
3281:(1957)
3275:(1956)
3269:(1955)
3263:(1954)
3257:(1953)
3251:(1952)
3245:(1951)
3239:(1950)
3233:(1949)
3227:(1948)
3221:(1947)
3215:(1946)
3209:(1945)
3203:(1944)
3197:(1943)
3191:(1942)
3185:(1941)
3179:(1940)
3173:(1939)
3167:(1938)
3161:(1937)
3155:(1935)
2762:2019:
2750:2018:
2734:2017:
2726:2016:
2710:2015:
2694:2014:
2678:2013:
2666:2012:
2645:2011:
2637:2010:
2621:2009:
2605:2008:
2589:2007:
2577:2006:
2565:2005:
2553:2004:
2541:2003:
2525:2002:
2509:2001:
2482:2000:
2474:1999:
2458:1998:
2450:1997:
2438:1996:
2422:1995:
2410:1994:
2398:1993:
2386:1992:
2374:1991:
2362:1990:
2350:1989:
2334:1988:
2326:1987:
2314:1986:
2302:1985:
2286:1984:
2278:1983:
2262:1982:
2246:1981:
2230:1980:
2218:1979:
2202:1978:
2186:1977:
2174:1976:
2147:1975:
2131:1974:
2115:1973:
2103:1972:
2095:1971:
2079:1970:
2063:1969:
2047:1968:
2031:1967:
2019:1966:
2003:1965:
1991:1964:
1975:1963:
1959:1962:
1951:1961:
1939:1960:
1927:1959:
1911:1958:
1903:1957:
1887:1956:
1879:1955:
1863:1954:
1851:1953:
1843:1952:
1835:1951:
1808:1950:
1796:1949:
1788:1948:
1772:1947:
1764:1946:
1748:1945:
1736:1944:
1724:1943:
1695:1939:
1687:1938:
1679:1937:
1667:1936:
1659:1935:
1643:1934:
1635:1933:
1623:1932:
1615:1931:
1607:1930:
1595:1929:
1587:1928:
1579:1927:
1571:1926:
1545:1924:
1533:1923:
1521:1922:
1506:1920:
1498:1919:
1462:1914:
1454:1913:
1446:1912:
1438:1911:
1430:1910:
1422:1909:
1410:1908:
1402:1907:
1390:1906:
1382:1905:
1374:1904:
1366:1903:
1358:1902:
1350:1901:
1033:
1025:
984:
943:
933:
891:
883:
848:
842:194704
840:
807:286319
805:
798:383253
795:
746:
740:222468
738:
703:
660:
654:208776
652:
603:
593:
382:genome
360:cloned
298:, and
146:Fields
131:(2004)
125:(2003)
119:(2002)
113:(1989)
104:Awards
94:Spouse
3075:2004
2940:Peace
2874:2004
1070:(PDF)
1031:S2CID
889:S2CID
846:S2CID
744:S2CID
658:S2CID
375:genes
3100:2009
3095:2008
3090:2007
3085:2006
3080:2005
3070:2003
3065:2002
3060:2001
3055:2000
3050:1999
2920:2004
2824:2023
2813:2022
2798:2021
2779:2020
1718:1942
1711:1941
1704:1940
1554:1925
1515:1921
1492:1918
1485:1917
1478:1916
1471:1915
1294:2009
1265:2009
1249:2009
1229:2009
1214:2009
1194:2009
1168:2009
1078:2011
1023:PMID
1005:Cell
982:PMID
964:Cell
941:PMID
881:PMID
865:Cell
838:PMID
822:Cell
803:PMID
736:PMID
720:Cell
701:PMID
650:PMID
634:Cell
619:link
601:OCLC
591:ISBN
570:2007
539:2019
388:and
350:and
338:via
227:.edu
41:Born
1013:doi
972:doi
931:PMC
923:doi
873:doi
830:doi
793:PMC
783:doi
728:doi
693:doi
681:209
642:doi
442:CD4
438:HIV
416:at
371:DNA
221:www
4051::
2830:/
2826::
2815::
2804:/
2800::
2789:/
2785:/
2781::
2770:/
2766:/
2754:/
2742:/
2738:/
2718:/
2714:/
2702:/
2698:/
2686:/
2682:/
2670:/
2653:/
2649:/
2629:/
2625:/
2613:/
2609:/
2597:/
2593:/
2581:/
2569:/
2557:/
2545:/
2533:/
2529:/
2517:/
2513:/
2490:/
2486:/
2466:/
2462:/
2442:/
2430:/
2426:/
2414:/
2402:/
2390:/
2378:/
2366:/
2354:/
2342:/
2338:/
2318:/
2306:/
2294:/
2290:/
2270:/
2266:/
2254:/
2250:/
2238:/
2234:/
2222:/
2210:/
2206:/
2194:/
2190:/
2178:/
2155:/
2151:/
2139:/
2135:/
2123:/
2119:/
2107:/
2087:/
2083:/
2071:/
2067:/
2055:/
2051:/
2039:/
2035:/
2023:/
2011:/
2007:/
1995:/
1983:/
1979:/
1967:/
1963:/
1943:/
1931:/
1919:/
1915:/
1895:/
1891:/
1871:/
1867:/
1855:/
1816:/
1812:/
1800:/
1780:/
1776:/
1756:/
1752:/
1740:/
1728:/
1671:/
1651:/
1647:/
1627:/
1599:/
1537:/
1525:/
1414:/
1394:/
1283:.
1239:.
1205:.
1159:.
1126:^
1098:.
1094:.
1051:.
1029:.
1021:.
1009:87
1007:.
1003:.
980:.
968:65
966:.
962:.
939:.
929:.
919:87
917:.
913:.
901:^
887:.
879:.
869:47
867:.
844:.
836:.
826:11
824:.
801:.
791:.
781:.
771:76
769:.
765:.
742:.
734:.
724:16
722:.
699:.
691:.
679:.
656:.
648:.
638:14
636:.
615:}}
611:{{
599:.
556:.
529:.
468:.
444:.
408:.
294:,
290:,
84:MD
74:BA
49:)
3698:e
3691:t
3684:v
3134:e
3127:t
3120:v
2922:)
2918:(
2867:e
2860:t
2853:v
2661:)
2657:(
1324:e
1317:t
1310:v
1296:.
1281:)
1277:(
1267:.
1251:.
1231:.
1216:.
1196:.
1170:.
1102:.
1080:.
1055:.
1037:.
1015::
988:.
974::
947:.
925::
895:.
875::
852:.
832::
809:.
785::
777::
750:.
730::
707:.
695::
687::
664:.
644::
621:)
607:.
572:.
541:.
86:)
82:(
76:)
72:(
45:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
