1698:). The process must occur slowly enough that after some small change in a thermodynamic parameter, the physical processes in the system have enough time for the other parameters to self-adjust to match the new, changed parameter value. For example, if a container of water has sat in a room long enough to match the steady temperature of the surrounding air, for a small change in the air temperature to be reversible, the whole system of air, water, and container must wait long enough for the container and air to settle into a new, matching temperature before the next small change can occur. While processes in
1967:
38:
1608:
2048:
thermodynamically "slow" might sometimes seem "fast" in human terms: In the example of the container and room air, if the container is just a porcelain coffee cup, heat can flow fairly quickly between the small object and the larger room. In a different version of the same process where the container is a 40 gallon metal tank of water, one might intuitively expect rematching of temperatures (
2092:
Although standard practice is to ignore as much detail as possible, an ignored process might in fact be the slowest process in the system, and hence set the standard for what "slow" is for a quasistatic change. Physicists and engineers tend to be defensively vague about how long one must wait, and in
1760:
performed by or on the system would be maximized. The incomplete conversion of heat to work in a cyclic process, however, applies to both reversible and irreversible cycles. The dependence of work on the path of the thermodynamic process is also unrelated to reversibility, since expansion work, which
2078:
could speed up its equilibration even more, compared to an almost-sealed tank with only an open, narrow spigot. If the spigot is closed so the tank is sealed, how "springy" its walls are for adapting to consequent pressure change affects the speed of equilibration. Further issues involve whether the
2098:
A experimenter wanting to proceed as quickly as possible can determine the settling time empirically, by placing accurate thermometers throughout the whole system: Equilibration is complete once every one of the thermometers in the system resumes reading the same value as all the others, and the
2047:
The absolute standard for "fast" and "slow" thermodynamic change is the maximum amount of time required for a temperature change (and the consequential changes in pressure, etc.) to travel across each of the parts of the whole system. However, depending on the system or the process considered,
1736:
whose change depends only on the initial and final states of the system, not on how the process occurred. Therefore, the entropy and internal-energy change in a real process can be calculated quite easily by analyzing a reversible process connecting the real initial and final system states. In
2229:
2069:
consider can become either tedious or overwhelming: The metal skin of the tank will conduct heat more quickly than the porcelain, so that speeds up equilibration, but the much larger mass of water – whose surface is actually
1765:
as the area beneath the equilibrium curve, is different for different reversible expansion processes (e.g. adiabatic, then isothermal; vs. isothermal, then adiabatic) connecting the same initial and final states.
2079:
room air is stagnant or has forced air circulation (a fan); if the tank nearly fills the room, the smaller amount of heat in the air relative to the heat in the tank may speed up the temperatures settling out;
1931:
1717:
Additionally, the system must be in (quasistatic) equilibrium with the surroundings at all time, and there must be no dissipative effects, such as friction, for a process to be considered reversible.
2019:. However, this phrase is no longer in conventional use. The principle stated that some systems could be reversed and operated in a complementary manner. It was developed during Tesla's research in
1327:
1689:
in pressure and temperature equilibrium with its surroundings. This prevents unbalanced forces and acceleration of moving system boundaries, which in turn avoids friction and other dissipation.
1862:
1819:
1952:
demonstrates that the state of the surroundings may change in a reversible process as the system returns to its initial state. Reversible processes define the boundaries of how
1162:
1107:
1052:
859:
812:
727:
680:
592:
545:
763:
631:
997:
1982:. Reversible processes are always quasistatic, but the converse is not always true. For example, an infinitesimal compression of a gas in a cylinder where there is
1994:
process. Although the system has been driven from its equilibrium state by only an infinitesimal amount, energy has been irreversibly lost to waste heat, due to
496:
835:
788:
703:
656:
568:
521:
1778:, finite changes are made; therefore the system is not at equilibrium throughout the process. In a cyclic process, the difference between the reversible work
1732:, which usually define the maximum efficiency attainable in corresponding real processes. Other applications exploit that entropy and internal energy are
2027:, the disks revolved and machinery fastened to the shaft was operated by the engine. If the turbine's operation was reversed, the disks acted as a
1637:
2056:) of the coffee cup to only require a few minutes, which is fast by comparison to the hours one could expect for a 40 gallon tank of water.
1338:
2267:
1226:
2061:
Each different physical aspect of a system either increases or reduces the amount of time required for the whole system to re-establish its
460:
2191:
This is the hallmark of a reversible process: An infinitesimal change in the external conditions reverses the direction of the change.
1974:: The state on the left can be reached from the state on the right as well as vice versa without exchanging heat with the environment.
1316:
1349:
1867:
2315:
919:
1753:
1630:
1217:
886:
453:
331:
2280:
1401:
1375:
896:
350:
2381:
2065:
after a small disturbance, and hence changes the time required for a "quasistatic" change. The number of aspects one
302:
1998:, and cannot be recovered by simply moving the piston in the opposite direction by the infinitesimally same amount.
1959:
can be in thermodynamics and engineering: a reversible process is one where the machine has maximum efficiency (see
2400:
1706:
processes can be reversible or irreversible. Reversible processes are hypothetical or idealized but central to the
1675:
1454:
925:
324:
1623:
2074:
in proportion to its volume – will slow down the restoration of equilibrium. If the coffee cup has no lid, then
1554:
86:
20:
1449:
1944:
of the system and its surroundings is zero. (The entropy of the system alone is conserved only in reversible
1824:
1781:
1529:
1302:
279:
1703:
1940:
Simple reversible processes change the state of a system in such a way that the net change in the combined
1707:
914:
117:
107:
2174:
1762:
122:
112:
1667:
1720:
Reversible processes are useful in thermodynamics because they are so idealized that the equations for
1406:
1370:
148:
82:
1444:
2062:
2051:
1682:
1199:
947:
393:
206:
196:
1756:
thermodynamically reversible process is free of dissipative losses and therefore the magnitude of
2376:
2355:
1611:
1439:
1236:
1117:
1062:
1007:
939:
878:
414:
403:
69:
841:
794:
709:
662:
574:
527:
16:
Thermodynamic process whose direction can be reversed to return the system to its original state
1544:
1261:
345:
99:
74:
2251:
Zumdahl, Steven S. (2005). "§ 10.2 The isothermal expansion and compression of an ideal gas".
1464:
745:
610:
2023:
where the current's magnitude and direction varied cyclically. During a demonstration of the
1979:
1953:
1757:
1749:
1725:
1659:
1479:
1056:
369:
215:
64:
967:
2143:
1775:
1738:
1663:
1559:
1484:
1474:
274:
136:
8:
2075:
2020:
1693:
1504:
1266:
288:
254:
249:
162:
1499:
478:
2148:
2123:
2113:
1671:
1593:
1256:
1251:
1204:
820:
773:
688:
641:
553:
506:
436:
420:
307:
259:
244:
234:
43:
37:
2311:
2276:
2080:
1971:
1945:
1588:
1549:
1539:
1111:
909:
737:
239:
229:
171:
2346:
1966:
2015:
was used to describe (among other things) certain reversible processes invented by
1710:. Melting or freezing of ice in water is an example of a realistic process that is
1509:
1494:
1434:
1429:
1246:
1241:
891:
359:
224:
2153:
2138:
1699:
1459:
1307:
961:
602:
425:
186:
153:
2133:
1733:
1651:
1514:
1284:
384:
264:
201:
191:
59:
29:
2359:(low-res. text photo). January 1919. p. 615 – via teslasociety.com.
2394:
2024:
1721:
1583:
901:
470:
431:
143:
2128:
2118:
2016:
1960:
1956:
1949:
1729:
1534:
1519:
1469:
952:
2370:
1978:
In some cases, it may be important to distinguish between reversible and
1489:
297:
2093:
practice allow ample or excessive time for equilibrium to re-establish.
1578:
1524:
2275:(5th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 299.
1752:
can be carried out in one of two ways: reversibly or irreversibly. An
176:
2006:
1995:
1983:
1292:
1209:
1001:
409:
181:
1692:
To maintain equilibrium, reversible processes are extremely slow (
1941:
398:
1737:
addition, reversibility defines the thermodynamic condition for
2305:
2208:
Thermodynamics, Kinetic Theory, and
Statistical Thermodynamics
2301:
2299:
2099:
system is then ready for the next small temperature change.
2028:
374:
2333:
Physics for
Scientists and Engineers (with Modern Physics)
1681:
Throughout an entire reversible process, the system is in
2296:
2205:
1926:{\displaystyle \;I=W_{\mathsf {rev}}-W_{\mathsf {act}}~.}
1678:
of the surroundings, such as pressure or temperature.
2201:
2199:
1870:
1827:
1784:
1120:
1065:
1010:
970:
844:
823:
797:
776:
748:
712:
691:
665:
644:
613:
577:
556:
530:
509:
481:
2363:
2230:"Spontaneous reversible and irreversible processes"
2380:. Tesla Engine Builders Association. 15 Oct 1911.
2250:
2196:
2166:
2041:
1925:
1864:for a process as shown in the following equation:
1856:
1813:
1156:
1101:
1046:
991:
853:
829:
806:
782:
757:
721:
697:
674:
650:
625:
586:
562:
539:
515:
490:
2339:
2392:
2266:Çengel, Yunus; Boles, Michael (1 January 2006).
2330:
1631:
2324:
2306:Atkins, P.; Jones, L.; Laverman, L. (2016).
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2265:
2244:
1871:
1638:
1624:
36:
2227:
2214:
2206:Sears, F.W. & Salinger, G.L. (1986).
2179:PHYS20352 Thermal and Statistical Physics
1986:between the piston and the cylinder is a
1850:
1831:
1807:
1788:
1728:are simple. This enables the analysis of
2384:from the original on September 28, 2011.
2172:
2001:
1965:
1935:
2269:Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach
1857:{\displaystyle (\,W_{\mathsf {act}}\,)}
1814:{\displaystyle (\,W_{\mathsf {rev}}\,)}
2393:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1801:
1798:
1795:
19:For other forms of reversibility, see
13:
2173:McGovern, Judith (17 March 2020).
1769:
1685:, both physical and chemical, and
845:
798:
713:
666:
578:
531:
351:Intensive and extensive properties
14:
2412:
2371:"Tesla's new monarch of machines"
2255:(5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin.
1674:by infinitesimal changes in some
1607:
1606:
926:Table of thermodynamic equations
2210:(3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
1402:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
2335:(3rd ed.). Prentice-Hall.
2259:
1948:processes.) Nevertheless, the
1851:
1828:
1808:
1785:
1136:
1124:
1081:
1069:
1026:
1014:
986:
974:
21:reversibility (disambiguation)
1:
2160:
1303:Mechanical equivalent of heat
2234:Thermodynamics and Chemistry
2034:
1708:second law of thermodynamics
915:Onsager reciprocal relations
7:
2106:
1744:
1407:Entropy as energy dispersal
1218:"Perpetual motion" machines
1157:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1102:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1047:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
10:
2417:
2181:. University of Manchester
2083:rates depend even on what
1726:expansion/compression work
854:{\displaystyle \partial T}
807:{\displaystyle \partial V}
722:{\displaystyle \partial p}
675:{\displaystyle \partial V}
587:{\displaystyle \partial T}
540:{\displaystyle \partial S}
18:
2310:(7th ed.). Freeman.
2063:thermodynamic equilibrium
1683:thermodynamic equilibrium
1670:, whose direction can be
1328:An Inquiry Concerning the
2349:[no title cited]
2087:the tank is; and so on.
1341:Heterogeneous Substances
758:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
626:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
2401:Thermodynamic processes
2377:New York Herald Tribune
2356:Electrical Experimenter
2331:Giancoli, D.C. (2000).
1763:pressure–volume diagram
1761:can be visualized on a
1750:Thermodynamic processes
2175:"Reversible processes"
1975:
1927:
1858:
1815:
1702:are never reversible,
1158:
1103:
1048:
993:
992:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
855:
831:
808:
784:
759:
723:
699:
676:
652:
627:
588:
564:
541:
517:
492:
471:Specific heat capacity
75:Quantum thermodynamics
2002:Engineering archaisms
1980:quasistatic processes
1969:
1936:Boundaries and states
1928:
1859:
1816:
1339:On the Equilibrium of
1159:
1104:
1057:Helmholtz free energy
1049:
994:
856:
832:
809:
785:
760:
724:
700:
677:
653:
628:
589:
565:
542:
518:
493:
2144:Reversible computing
2021:alternating currents
1868:
1825:
1821:and the actual work
1782:
1776:irreversible process
1739:chemical equilibrium
1352:Motive Power of Fire
1118:
1063:
1008:
968:
920:Bridgman's equations
897:Fundamental relation
842:
821:
795:
774:
746:
710:
689:
663:
642:
611:
575:
554:
528:
507:
479:
2308:Chemical Principles
2253:Chemical Principles
2238:chem.libretexts.org
2076:evaporative cooling
1330:Source ... Friction
1262:Loschmidt's paradox
454:Material properties
332:Conjugate variables
2228:DeVoe, H. (2020).
2124:Entropy production
2114:Time reversibility
1976:
1923:
1854:
1811:
1656:reversible process
1594:Order and disorder
1350:Reflections on the
1257:Heat death paradox
1154:
1099:
1044:
989:
851:
827:
804:
780:
755:
719:
695:
672:
648:
623:
584:
560:
537:
513:
491:{\displaystyle c=}
488:
461:Property databases
437:Reduced properties
421:Chemical potential
385:Functions of state
308:Thermal efficiency
44:Carnot heat engine
2317:978-1-4641-8395-9
2081:radiative cooling
1972:adiabatic process
1919:
1648:
1647:
1589:Self-organization
1414:
1413:
1112:Gibbs free energy
910:Maxwell relations
868:
867:
864:
863:
830:{\displaystyle V}
783:{\displaystyle 1}
738:Thermal expansion
732:
731:
698:{\displaystyle V}
651:{\displaystyle 1}
597:
596:
563:{\displaystyle N}
516:{\displaystyle T}
444:
443:
360:Process functions
346:Property diagrams
325:System properties
315:
314:
280:Endoreversibility
172:Equation of state
2408:
2386:
2385:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2350:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2303:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2274:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2225:
2212:
2211:
2203:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2186:
2170:
2100:
2045:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1700:isolated systems
1640:
1633:
1626:
1610:
1609:
1317:Key publications
1298:
1297:("living force")
1247:Brownian ratchet
1242:Entropy and life
1237:Entropy and time
1188:
1187:
1163:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1108:
1106:
1105:
1100:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1045:
998:
996:
995:
990:
892:Clausius theorem
887:Carnot's theorem
860:
858:
857:
852:
836:
834:
833:
828:
813:
811:
810:
805:
789:
787:
786:
781:
768:
767:
764:
762:
761:
756:
728:
726:
725:
720:
704:
702:
701:
696:
681:
679:
678:
673:
657:
655:
654:
649:
636:
635:
632:
630:
629:
624:
593:
591:
590:
585:
569:
567:
566:
561:
546:
544:
543:
538:
522:
520:
519:
514:
501:
500:
497:
495:
494:
489:
467:
466:
340:
339:
159:
158:
40:
26:
25:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2304:
2297:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2272:
2264:
2260:
2249:
2245:
2226:
2215:
2204:
2197:
2184:
2182:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2154:Stirling engine
2149:Maxwell's demon
2139:Quantum circuit
2109:
2104:
2103:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2012:Tesla principle
2004:
1938:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1770:Irreversibility
1747:
1734:state functions
1730:model processes
1644:
1599:
1598:
1574:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1424:
1416:
1415:
1394:
1380:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1329:
1296:
1289:
1271:
1252:Maxwell's demon
1214:
1185:
1184:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1004:
969:
966:
965:
964:
962:Internal energy
957:
942:
932:
931:
906:
881:
871:
870:
869:
843:
840:
839:
822:
819:
818:
796:
793:
792:
775:
772:
771:
747:
744:
743:
711:
708:
707:
690:
687:
686:
664:
661:
660:
643:
640:
639:
612:
609:
608:
603:Compressibility
576:
573:
572:
555:
552:
551:
529:
526:
525:
508:
505:
504:
480:
477:
476:
456:
446:
445:
426:Particle number
379:
338:
327:
317:
316:
275:Irreversibility
187:State of matter
154:Isolated system
139:
129:
128:
127:
102:
92:
91:
87:Non-equilibrium
79:
54:
46:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2414:
2404:
2403:
2388:
2387:
2362:
2338:
2323:
2316:
2295:
2282:978-0070606593
2281:
2258:
2243:
2240:. Bookshelves.
2213:
2195:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2134:Time evolution
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2090:
2060:
2059:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2003:
2000:
1992:not reversible
1937:
1934:
1922:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1853:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1771:
1768:
1746:
1743:
1662:, involving a
1652:thermodynamics
1646:
1645:
1643:
1642:
1635:
1628:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1601:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1371:Thermodynamics
1367:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1347:
1345:
1336:
1334:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1288:
1287:
1285:Caloric theory
1281:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1109:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1054:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
999:
988:
985:
982:
979:
976:
973:
958:
956:
955:
950:
944:
943:
938:
937:
934:
933:
930:
929:
922:
917:
912:
905:
904:
899:
894:
889:
883:
882:
877:
876:
873:
872:
866:
865:
862:
861:
850:
847:
837:
826:
815:
814:
803:
800:
790:
779:
765:
754:
751:
741:
734:
733:
730:
729:
718:
715:
705:
694:
683:
682:
671:
668:
658:
647:
633:
622:
619:
616:
606:
599:
598:
595:
594:
583:
580:
570:
559:
548:
547:
536:
533:
523:
512:
498:
487:
484:
474:
465:
464:
463:
457:
452:
451:
448:
447:
442:
441:
440:
439:
434:
429:
418:
407:
388:
387:
381:
380:
378:
377:
372:
366:
363:
362:
356:
355:
354:
353:
348:
329:
328:
323:
322:
319:
318:
313:
312:
311:
310:
305:
300:
292:
291:
285:
284:
283:
282:
277:
272:
267:
265:Free expansion
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
219:
218:
212:
211:
210:
209:
204:
202:Control volume
199:
194:
192:Phase (matter)
189:
184:
179:
174:
166:
165:
157:
156:
151:
146:
140:
135:
134:
131:
130:
126:
125:
120:
115:
110:
104:
103:
98:
97:
94:
93:
90:
89:
78:
77:
72:
67:
62:
56:
55:
52:
51:
48:
47:
42:The classical
41:
33:
32:
30:Thermodynamics
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2413:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2383:
2379:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2342:
2334:
2327:
2319:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2300:
2284:
2278:
2271:
2270:
2262:
2254:
2247:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2192:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2165:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2052:equilibration
2044:
2040:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:Tesla turbine
2022:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2008:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1920:
1900:
1896:
1879:
1875:
1872:
1833:
1790:
1777:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1742:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1715:
1714:reversible.
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1696:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1629:
1627:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1613:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1584:Self-assembly
1582:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1555:van der Waals
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1480:von Helmholtz
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1420:
1419:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1397:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1171:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1121:
1113:
1110:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1058:
1055:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1011:
1003:
1000:
983:
980:
977:
971:
963:
960:
959:
954:
951:
949:
946:
945:
941:
936:
935:
928:
927:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
907:
903:
902:Ideal gas law
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
884:
880:
875:
874:
848:
838:
824:
817:
816:
801:
791:
777:
770:
769:
766:
752:
749:
742:
739:
736:
735:
716:
706:
692:
685:
684:
669:
659:
645:
638:
637:
634:
620:
617:
614:
607:
604:
601:
600:
581:
571:
557:
550:
549:
534:
524:
510:
503:
502:
499:
485:
482:
475:
472:
469:
468:
462:
459:
458:
455:
450:
449:
438:
435:
433:
432:Vapor quality
430:
428:
427:
422:
419:
417:
416:
411:
408:
405:
401:
400:
395:
392:
391:
390:
389:
386:
383:
382:
376:
373:
371:
368:
367:
365:
364:
361:
358:
357:
352:
349:
347:
344:
343:
342:
341:
337:
333:
326:
321:
320:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
295:
294:
293:
290:
287:
286:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
270:Reversibility
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
222:
221:
220:
217:
214:
213:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
169:
168:
167:
164:
161:
160:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
144:Closed system
142:
141:
138:
133:
132:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
105:
101:
96:
95:
88:
84:
81:
80:
76:
73:
71:
68:
66:
63:
61:
58:
57:
50:
49:
45:
39:
35:
34:
31:
28:
27:
22:
2374:
2365:
2354:
2341:
2332:
2326:
2307:
2286:. Retrieved
2268:
2261:
2252:
2246:
2237:
2233:
2207:
2190:
2183:. Retrieved
2178:
2168:
2129:Toffoli gate
2119:Carnot cycle
2084:
2071:
2066:
2049:
2043:
2017:Nikola Tesla
2011:
2010:
2007:Historically
2005:
1991:
1987:
1977:
1961:Carnot cycle
1957:heat engines
1950:Carnot cycle
1939:
1773:
1748:
1719:
1716:
1711:
1694:
1691:
1686:
1680:
1668:surroundings
1655:
1649:
1445:Carathéodory
1376:Heat engines
1348:
1337:
1326:
1308:Motive power
1293:
953:Free entropy
924:
424:
423: /
413:
412: /
404:introduction
397:
396: /
335:
298:Heat engines
269:
85: /
2009:, the term
1988:quasistatic
1970:Reversible
1695:quasistatic
1267:Synergetics
948:Free energy
394:Temperature
255:Quasistatic
250:Isenthalpic
207:Instruments
197:Equilibrium
149:Open system
83:Equilibrium
65:Statistical
2288:8 November
2185:2 November
2161:References
1676:properties
1579:Nucleation
1423:Scientists
1227:Philosophy
940:Potentials
303:Heat pumps
260:Polytropic
245:Isentropic
235:Isothermal
2035:Footnotes
1954:efficient
1946:adiabatic
1897:−
1560:Waterston
1510:von Mayer
1465:de Donder
1455:Clapeyron
1435:Boltzmann
1430:Bernoulli
1391:Education
1362:Timelines
1146:−
1091:−
879:Equations
846:∂
799:∂
750:α
714:∂
667:∂
621:−
615:β
579:∂
532:∂
240:Adiabatic
230:Isochoric
216:Processes
177:Ideal gas
60:Classical
2395:Category
2382:Archived
2107:See also
1996:friction
1984:friction
1745:Overview
1704:cyclical
1672:reversed
1666:and its
1612:Category
1550:Thompson
1460:Clausius
1440:Bridgman
1294:Vis viva
1276:Theories
1210:Gas laws
1002:Enthalpy
410:Pressure
225:Isobaric
182:Real gas
70:Chemical
53:Branches
2072:smaller
1942:entropy
1660:process
1535:Smeaton
1530:Rankine
1520:Onsager
1505:Maxwell
1500:Massieu
1205:Entropy
1200:General
1191:History
1181:Culture
1178:History
402: (
399:Entropy
336:italics
137:Systems
2314:
2279:
1990:, but
1918:
1774:In an
1712:nearly
1687:nearly
1664:system
1525:Planck
1515:Nernst
1490:Kelvin
1450:Carnot
740:
605:
473:
415:Volume
330:Note:
289:Cycles
118:Second
108:Zeroth
2273:(PDF)
2085:color
2067:might
1754:ideal
1658:is a
1573:Other
1540:Stahl
1495:Lewis
1485:Joule
1475:Gibbs
1470:Duhem
163:State
123:Third
113:First
2375:The
2312:ISBN
2290:2022
2277:ISBN
2187:2020
2029:pump
1963:).
1758:work
1724:and
1722:heat
1654:, a
1545:Tait
375:Heat
370:Work
100:Laws
1741:.
1650:In
1388:Art
334:in
2397::
2373:.
2353:.
2298:^
2236:.
2232:.
2216:^
2198:^
2189:.
2177:.
2031:.
2351:"
2347:"
2320:.
2292:.
2054:"
2050:"
1921:.
1912:t
1909:c
1906:a
1901:W
1891:v
1888:e
1885:r
1880:W
1876:=
1873:I
1852:)
1845:t
1842:c
1839:a
1834:W
1829:(
1809:)
1802:v
1799:e
1796:r
1791:W
1786:(
1639:e
1632:t
1625:v
1152:S
1149:T
1143:H
1140:=
1137:)
1134:p
1131:,
1128:T
1125:(
1122:G
1097:S
1094:T
1088:U
1085:=
1082:)
1079:V
1076:,
1073:T
1070:(
1067:A
1042:V
1039:p
1036:+
1033:U
1030:=
1027:)
1024:p
1021:,
1018:S
1015:(
1012:H
987:)
984:V
981:,
978:S
975:(
972:U
849:T
825:V
802:V
778:1
753:=
717:p
693:V
670:V
646:1
618:=
582:T
558:N
535:S
511:T
486:=
483:c
406:)
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
