Reticular formation

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different transmitters and release them in vast areas of the brain and in the entire neocortex (for review, see Jones 2003; Lin et al. 2011). They included glutamatergic, cholinergic, noradrenergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, histaminergic, and orexinergic systems (for review, see Lin et al. 2011). ... The ARAS represented diffuse, nonspecific pathways that, working through the midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei, could change activity of the entire neocortex, and thus, this system was suggested initially as a general arousal system to natural stimuli and the critical system underlying wakefulness (Moruzzi and Magoun 1949; Lindsley et al. 1949; Starzl et al. 1951, see stippled area in Fig. 1). ... It was found in a recent study in the rat that the state of wakefulness is mostly maintained by the ascending glutamatergic projection from the parabrachial nucleus and precoeruleus regions to the basal forebrain and then relayed to the cerebral cortex (Fuller et al. 2011). ... Anatomical studies have shown two main pathways involved in arousal and originating from the areas with cholinergic cell groups, one through the thalamus and the other, traveling ventrally through the hypothalamus and preoptic area, and reciprocally connected with the limbic system (Nauta and Kuypers 1958; Siegel 2004). ... As counted in the cholinergic connections to the thalamic reticular nucleus ...

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and vestibulocochlear nerve – monomodal pathways). These pathways reach the thalamus directly or indirectly via the medial column of reticular formation nuclei (magnocellular nuclei and reticular nuclei of pontine tegmentum). The reticular activating system begins in the dorsal part of the posterior midbrain and anterior pons, continues into the diencephalon, and then divides into two parts reaching the thalamus and hypothalamus, which then project into the cerebral cortex (Fig. 1). The thalamic projection is dominated by cholinergic neurons originating from the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus of pons and midbrain (PPT) and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus of pons and midbrain (LDT) nuclei . The hypothalamic projection involves noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC) and serotoninergic neurons of the dorsal and median raphe nuclei (DR), which pass through the lateral hypothalamus and reach axons of the histaminergic tubero-mamillary nucleus (TMN), together forming a pathway extending into the forebrain, cortex and hippocampus. Cortical arousal also takes advantage of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra (SN), ventral tegmenti area (VTA) and the periaqueductal grey area (PAG). Fewer cholinergic neurons of the pons and midbrain send projections to the forebrain along the ventral pathway, bypassing the thalamus .

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projections that stimulate the cortex directly and indirectly via the thalamus, hypothalamus and BF. These aminergic and catecholaminergic populations have numerous interconnections and parallel projections which likely impart functional redundancy and resilience to the system. ... More recently, the medullary parafacial zone (PZ) adjacent to the facial nerve was identified as a sleep-promoting center on the basis of anatomical, electrophysiological and chemo- and optogenetic studies. GABAergic PZ neurons inhibit glutamatergic parabrachial (PB) neurons that project to the BF, thereby promoting NREM sleep at the expense of wakefulness and REM sleep. ... The Hcrt neurons project widely throughout the brain and spinal cord including major projections to wake-promoting cell groups such as the HA cells of the TM, the 5-HT cells of the dorsal Raphe nuclei (DRN), the noradrenergic cells of the LC, and cholinergic cells in the LDT, PPT, and BF. ... Hcrt directly excites cellular systems involved in waking and arousal including the LC, DRN, TM, LDT, cholinergic BF, and both dopamine (DA) and non-DA neurons in the VTA.

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well; the dopaminergic neurons originate in ventral tegmental area (VTA); and the histaminergic pathway originates from neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the posterior hypothalamus. As discussed in Chapter 6, these neurons project widely throughout the brain from restricted collections of cell bodies. Norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and histamine have complex modulatory functions and, in general, promote wakefulness. The PT in the brain stem is also an important component of the ARAS. Activity of PT cholinergic neurons (REM-on cells) promotes REM sleep. During waking, REM-on cells are inhibited by a subset of ARAS norepinephrine and serotonin neurons called REM-off cells.

1096: 1436:. Cats with mesencephalic interruptions to the ARAS entered into a deep sleep and displayed corresponding brain waves. In alternative fashion, cats with similarly placed interruptions to ascending auditory and somatic pathways exhibited normal sleeping and wakefulness, and could be awakened with physical stimuli. Because these external stimuli would be blocked on their way to the cortex by the interruptions, this indicated that the ascending transmission must travel through the newly discovered ARAS. 323: 3691: 926:(VLPO) of the hypothalamus inhibits the neural circuits responsible for the awake state, and VLPO activation contributes to the sleep onset. During sleep, neurons in the ARAS will have a much lower firing rate; conversely, they will have a higher activity level during the waking state. In order that the brain may sleep, there must be a reduction in ascending afferent activity reaching the cortex by suppression of the ARAS. Dysfunction of the 1156: 1303:. Responding to a startling or painful stimulus, the arms flex and the legs extend. The cause is the red nucleus, via the rubrospinal tract, counteracting the extensor motorneuron's excitation from the lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts. Because the rubrospinal tract only extends to the cervical spinal cord, it mostly acts on the arms by exciting the flexor muscles and inhibiting the extensors, rather than the legs. 1452:. Excitation of the ARAS did not depend on further signal propagation through the cerebellar circuits, as the same results were obtained following decerebellation and decortication. The researchers proposed that a column of cells surrounding the midbrain reticular formation received input from all the ascending tracts of the brain stem and relayed these afferents to the cortex and therefore regulated wakefulness. 1080:

reticulospinal tracts are one of four major cortical pathways to the spinal cord for musculoskeletal activity. The reticulospinal tracts work with the other three pathways to give a coordinated control of movement, including delicate manipulations. The four pathways can be grouped into two main system pathways – a medial system and a lateral system. The medial system includes the reticulospinal tract and the

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found that nearly all cholinergic neurons in this region, as well as many glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons, are most active during wake and REM sleep , although some of the latter neurons were maximally active during either wake or REM, but not both. ... provide heavy innervation to the lateral hypothalamus, central nucleus of the amygdala, and BF

59: 40: 621:, namely dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine. The glutamate-releasing neurons in the ARAS were identified much more recently relative to the monoaminergic and cholinergic nuclei; the glutamatergic component of the ARAS includes one nucleus in the hypothalamus and various brainstem nuclei. The 2235:

Retrograde tracers from the BF have consistently identified one brainstem site of input that is not part of the classical monoaminergic ascending arousal system: glutamatergic neurons in the parabrachial and pedunculopontine nucleus ... Juxtacellular recordings from pedunculopontine neurons have

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motor tracts that descend from the reticular formation in two tracts to act on the motor neurons supplying the trunk and proximal limb flexors and extensors. The reticulospinal tracts are involved mainly in locomotion and postural control, although they do have other functions as well. The descending

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are functionally related in the reticular formation using a number of neurotransmitter arousal systems. The overall functions of the reticular formation are modulatory and premotor, involving somatic motor control, cardiovascular control, pain modulation, sleep and consciousness, and habituation. The

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The RAS is a complex structure consisting of several different circuits including the four monoaminergic pathways ... The norepinephrine pathway originates from the locus ceruleus (LC) and related brainstem nuclei; the serotonergic neurons originate from the raphe nuclei within the brainstem as

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The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is responsible for a sustained wakefulness state. It receives information from sensory receptors of various modalities, transmitted through spinoreticular pathways and cranial nerves (trigeminal nerve – polymodal pathways, olfactory nerve, optic nerve

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The regulation of sleep and wakefulness involves many regions and cellular subtypes in the brain. Indeed, the ascending arousal system promotes wakefulness through a network composed of the monaminergic neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC), histaminergic neurons in the tuberomammilary nucleus (TMN),

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Orexin neurons are located in the lateral hypothalamus. They are organized in a widely projecting manner, much like the monoamines (Chapter 6), and innervate all of the components of the ARAS. They excite the REM-off monoaminergic neurons during wakefulness and the PT cholinergic neurons during REM

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form a ridge in the middle of the reticular formation, and, directly to its periphery, there is a division called the medial reticular formation. The medial RF is large and has long ascending and descending fibers, and is surrounded by the lateral reticular formation. The lateral RF is close to the

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via the reticulospinal tracts. Due to its extent along the brainstem it may be divided into different areas such as the midbrain reticular formation, the central mesencephalic reticular formation, the pontine reticular formation, the paramedian pontine reticular formation, the dorsolateral pontine

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describes the reticular formation as being organized in a similar manner to the intermediate gray matter of the spinal cord. This chaotic, loose, and intricate form of organization is what has turned off many researchers from looking farther into this particular area of the brain. The cells lack

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This ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is comprised of cholinergic laterodorsal and pedunculopontine tegmentum (LDT/PPT), noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC), serotonergic (5-HT) Raphe nuclei and dopaminergic ventral tegmental area (VTA), substantia nigra (SN) and periaqueductal gray

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Understanding of arousing and wakefulness-maintaining functions of the ARAS has been further complicated by neurochemical discoveries of numerous groups of neurons with the ascending pathways originating within the brainstem reticular core, including pontomesencephalic nuclei, which synthesize

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in the underlying brain region. Each neuron generates a small electrical field that changes over time. In the sleep state, the neurons activate at approximately the same time, and the EEG wave, representing the summation of the neurons' electrical fields, tend to be in phase and has higher

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Basic and clinical observations suggest that the caudal hypothalamus comprises a key node of the ascending arousal system, but the cell types underlying this are not fully understood. Here we report that glutamate-releasing neurons of the supramammillary region (SuMvglut2) produce sustained

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first investigated the neural components regulating the brain's sleep-wake mechanisms in 1949. Physiologists had proposed that some structure deep within the brain controlled mental wakefulness and alertness. It had been thought that wakefulness depended only on the direct reception of

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boundaries, but do have clear functional organization and distinct cell types. The term "reticular formation" is seldom used anymore except to speak in generalities. Modern scientists usually refer to the individual nuclei that compose the reticular formation.

1028:: Regardless of birth weight or weeks of gestation, premature birth induces persistent deleterious effects on pre-attentional (arousal and sleep-wake abnormalities), attentional (reaction time and sensory gating), and cortical mechanisms throughout development. 1532:

amplitude, and hence it is "synchronized." In the waking state, they do not activate at the same time because of irregular or out-of-phase inputs, the EEG wave, representing the algebraic sum, will have a smaller amplitude, and hence "dysynchronized."

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As direct electrical stimulation of the brain could simulate electrocortical relays, Magoun used this principle to demonstrate, on two separate areas of the brainstem of a cat, how to produce wakefulness from sleep. He first stimulated the ascending

1292:. Responding to a startling or painful stimulus, both arms and legs extend and turn internally. The cause is the tonic activity of lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts stimulating extensor motoneurons without the inhibitions from 1130:(medullary) is responsible for inhibiting excitatory axial extensor muscles of movement. It is also responsible for automatic breathing. The fibers of this tract arise from the medullary reticular formation, mostly from the 1364:" means "netlike structure", which is what the reticular formation resembles at first glance. It has been described as being either too complex to study or an undifferentiated part of the brain with no organization at all. 1439:

Finally, Magoun recorded potentials within the medial portion of the brain stem and discovered that auditory stimuli directly fired portions of the reticular activating system. Furthermore, single-shock stimulation of the

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electrical coupling would increase synchronization of fast rhythms that could lead to increased arousal and REM sleep drive. Specifically, disruption of the ARAS has been implicated in the following disorders:

1134:, and descend the length of the spinal cord in the anterior part of the lateral white column (funiculus). The tract terminates in lamina VII mostly with some fibers terminating in lamina IX of the spinal cord. 972:, as there appears to be a general decline in reactivity of the ARAS with advancing years. Changes in electrical coupling have been suggested to account for some changes in ARAS activity: if coupling were 582:. The ARAS is a collection of different nuclei – more than 20 on each side in the upper brainstem, the pons, medulla, and posterior hypothalamus. The neurotransmitters that these neurons release include 996:

are associated with narcolepsy. There is a significant down-regulation of PPN output and a loss of orexin peptides, promoting the excessive daytime sleepiness that is characteristic of this disorder.

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Purves, Dale; Augustine, George J; Fitzpatrick, David; Hall, William C; Lamantia, Anthony Samuel; Mooney, Richard D; Platt, Michael L; White, Leonard E, eds. (2018b). "Chapter 28 – Cortical State".

1012:: REM sleep disturbances are common in Parkinson's. It is mainly a dopaminergic disease, but cholinergic nuclei are depleted as well. Degeneration in the ARAS begins early in the disease process. 2605:

Jang SH, Kwon HG (October 2015). "The direct pathway from the brainstem reticular formation to the cerebral cortex in the ascending reticular activating system: A diffusion tensor imaging study".

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Robinson, D. (1999). "The technical, neurological and psychological significance of 'alpha', 'delta' and 'theta' waves confounded in EEG evoked potentials: a study of peak latencies".

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The ARAS consists of evolutionarily ancient areas of the brain, which are crucial to the animal's survival and protected during adverse periods, such as during inhibitory periods of

366:, the ascending reticular activating system and descending reticulospinal tracts, which mediate distinct cognitive and physiological processes. It has been functionally cleaved both 1417:." The latter was of particular interest, as this series of relays did not correspond to any known anatomical pathways for the wakefulness signal transduction and was coined the 961:

Direct electrical stimulation of the ARAS produces pain responses in cats and elicits verbal reports of pain in humans. Ascending reticular activation in cats can produce

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modulatory functions are primarily found in the rostral sector of the reticular formation and the premotor functions are localized in the neurons in more caudal regions.

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because of complete loss of activity in the motorneurons, as there is no longer any tonic activity arising from the lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts.

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Pearson, Keir G; Gordon, James E (2013). "Chapter 41 / Posture". In Kandel, Eric R; Schwartz, James H; Jessell, Thomas M; Siegelbaum, Steven A; Hudspeth, AJ (eds.).

891:(EEG) desynchronization ensues. There are distinct differences in the brain's electrical activity during periods of wakefulness and sleep: Low voltage fast burst 1871:"Reticular Formation Connections Underlying Horizontal Gaze: The Central Mesencephalic Reticular Formation (cMRF) as a Conduit for the Collicular Saccade Signal" 1058:, deficits (demonstrated by a diminished amount of habituation to repeated auditory stimuli). It is hypothesized that these physiological changes may intensify 184: 2065:"The ascending mesolimbic cholinergic system – a specific division of the reticular activating system involved in the initiation of negative emotional states" 1772: 454:

cousin, which is particularly pronounced in the rostral medulla and caudal pons. Out from this area spring the cranial nerves, including the very important

899:(which are electrophysiologically similar); high voltage slow waves are found during non-REM sleep. Generally speaking, when thalamic relay neurons are in 1949: 1038:

exposure to cigarette smoke is known to produce lasting arousal, attentional and cognitive deficits in humans. This exposure can induce up-regulation of

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Evans, B.M. (2003). "Sleep, consciousness and the spontaneous and evoked electrical activity of the brain. Is there a cortical integrating mechanism?".

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Kinomura S, Larsson J, Gulyás B, Roland PE (January 1996). "Activation by attention of the human reticular formation and thalamic intralaminar nuclei".

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The reticulospinal tracts provide a pathway by which the hypothalamus can control sympathetic thoracolumbar outflow and parasympathetic sacral outflow.

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Reiner, P. B. (1995). "Are mesopontine cholinergic neurons either necessary or sufficient components of the ascending reticular activating system?".

299:, which plays an important role in mood regulation. The gigantocellular nuclei are involved in motor coordination. The parvocellular nuclei regulate 4575: 2935: 2812:

Mohan Kumar V, Mallick BN, Chhina GS, Singh B (October 1984). "Influence of ascending reticular activating system on preoptic neuronal activity".

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Two major descending systems carrying signals from the brainstem and cerebellum to the spinal cord can trigger automatic postural response for

5381: 4958: 2319:"Direct and indirect excitation of laterodorsal tegmental neurons by Hypocretin/Orexin peptides: implications for wakefulness and narcolepsy" 160: 156: 152: 5433: 5336: 5773: 5743: 4801: 4635: 4610: 3911: 17: 4615: 965:, which can result from prolonged pain. These results suggest some relationship between ARAS circuits and physiological pain pathways. 907:

mode it is desynchronized. Stimulation of the ARAS produces EEG desynchronization by suppressing slow cortical waves (0.3–1 Hz),

3954: 362:, descending non-cholinergic projections, and descending reticulospinal projections. The reticular formation also contains two major 1725:

Iwańczuk W, Guźniczak P (2015). "Neurophysiological foundations of sleep, arousal, awareness and consciousness phenomena. Part 1".

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Mass lesions in the ARAS nuclei can cause a loss of consciousness. Bilateral damage to the ARAS nuclei may lead to coma or death.

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Ruth RE, Rosenfeld JP (October 1977). "Tonic reticular activating system: relationship to aversive brain stimulation effects".

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There are several potential factors that may adversely influence the development of the ascending reticular activating system:

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The subsystems of the reticular formation are the ascending reticular activating system, and the descending reticular system.

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Michael-Titus, Adina T; Revest, Patricia; Shortland, Peter, eds. (2010b). "Chapter 9 – Descending Pathways and Cerebellum".

4223: 1566:. Electrically coupled cells fire synchronously because generated currents in one cell rapidly spread to the other cells. 1401:

and auditory paths; second, a series of "ascending relays from the reticular formation of the lower brain stem through the

1177: 848:. The ascending reticular activating system which sends neuromodulatory projections to the cortex - mainly connects to the 3565:

Michael-Titus, Adina T; Revest, Patricia; Shortland, Peter, eds. (2010a). "Chapter 6 – Cranial Nerves and the Brainstem".

5239: 4208: 3479:(5th ed.). United States: McGraw-Hill. The Brain Stem and Cerebellum Integrate Sensory Signals for Posture, p. 954. 1054:. These major disturbances of the intrinsic membrane properties of PPN neurons result in increased levels of arousal and 1031: 629:

innervate every component of the ascending reticular activating system and coordinate activity within the entire system.

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in cats. This study has led to the idea that the caudal portion inhibits the rostral portion of the reticular formation.

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Neurons of the ARAS basically act as an on/off switch to the cerebral cortex and hence play a crucial role in regulating

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Pedersen NP, Ferrari L, Venner A, Wang JL, Abbott SG, Vujovic N, Arrigoni E, Saper CB, Fuller PM (November 2017).

946:. There is increased regional blood flow (presumably indicating an increased measure of neuronal activity) in the 873:. The ascending system is seen to contribute to wakefulness as characterised by cortical and behavioural arousal. 5030: 4950: 4672: 4580: 3822: 3812: 2064: 977: 973: 6377: 5975: 5514: 5418: 5234: 4900: 4862: 4749: 4515: 4510: 4500: 4495: 1181: 1116: 999: 993: 923: 922:

The physiological change from a state of deep sleep to wakefulness is reversible and mediated by the ARAS. The

762: 664: 292: 1945: 1111:(pontine) is responsible for exciting anti-gravity, extensor muscles. The fibers of this tract arise from the 67:

at about the middle of the olive. (Formatio reticularis grisea and formatio reticularis alba labeled at left.)

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Vincent, S. R. (2000). "The ascending reticular activating system - from aminergic neurons to nitric oxide".

179: 6338: 6312: 6275: 6241: 6236: 6141: 6108: 6072: 6022: 5887: 5644: 5502: 5098: 4910: 4888: 4687: 4640: 4436: 4128: 4009: 3987: 2857:"Case Report: Dysfunction of the Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus Area Induces Hypersomnia in Patients" 1818:(2008). "Modulation of cortical activation and behavioral arousal by cholinergic and orexinergic systems". 1429: 1425: 1039: 947: 1535: 306:

The reticular formation is essential for governing some of the basic functions of higher organisms. It is

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Integrates information from the motor systems to coordinate automatic movements of locomotion and posture

3695: 2919: 1569: 976:, there would be a corresponding decrease in higher-frequency synchronization (gamma band). Conversely, 399:

in the cat brain. In contrast, lesioning of the more caudal portion of the reticular formation produces

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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 12: Sleep and Arousal". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 12: Sleep and Arousal". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

1230: 1047: 819: 618: 355: 395:. This was based upon the observation that the lesioning of the rostral reticular formation induces a 6265: 6183: 6017: 5526: 5493: 5269: 5048: 5043: 5016: 4982: 4963: 4893: 4682: 4677: 4431: 4426: 4408: 4336: 4180: 4095: 3850: 3718: 3067: 3061: 1424:

Next, the significance of this newly identified relay system was evaluated by placing lesions in the

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The reticulospinal tracts are the medial reticulospinal tract, and the lateral reticulospinal tract.

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The main function of the ARAS is to modify and potentiate thalamic and cortical function such that

734: 518:. The ARAS is in the midbrain reticular formation. It is mostly composed of various nuclei in the 447:

and the midbrain, the medial RF becomes less prominent, and the lateral RF becomes more prominent.

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Wang, Zan; Zhong, Yu-Heng; Jiang, Shan; Qu, Wei-Min; Huang, Zhi-Li; Chen, Chang-Rui (2022-03-14).

6163: 6150: 6122: 6055: 6030: 5937: 5905: 5861: 5631: 5402: 5088: 4977: 4857: 4835: 4105: 1170: 1131: 950:(MRF) and thalamic intralaminar nuclei during tasks requiring increased alertness and attention. 800: 5475: 6084: 6051: 6042: 5921: 5917: 5909: 5845: 5650: 5277: 5184: 4786: 4716: 4709: 4699: 1495: 1461: 1398: 1381: 1370: 1250: 1009: 659: 503: 420: 335: 213: 167: 147: 2547:

This corresponds to the centro-median and centralis lateralis nuclei of the intralaminar group

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The ascending reticular activating system is an important enabling factor for the state of

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Saladin, KS (2018a). "Chapter 13 – The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Somatic Reflexes".

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Svorad D (January 1957). "Reticular activating system of brain stem and animal hypnosis".

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Magoun HW (February 1952). "An ascending reticular activating system in the brain stem".

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in the core of the brainstem. It is not anatomically well defined, because it includes

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Spinal cord tracts - reticulospinal tract labeled in red, near-center at left in figure

904: 892: 359: 3306:"Smoking during pregnancy: postnatal effects on arousal and attentional brain systems" 3225: 3030: 2770: 6316: 6245: 6188: 6174: 6012: 5929: 5853: 5801: 5747: 5722: 5522: 5485: 5447: 5349: 4989: 4852: 4806: 4770: 4441: 4326: 4321: 4268: 4158: 4148: 4090: 4065: 4021: 3974: 3883: 3668: 3649: 3623: 3597: 3574: 3537: 3480: 3457: 3439: 3396: 3371: 3343: 3286: 3229: 3194: 3142: 3071: 3034: 2991: 2987: 2925: 2896: 2878: 2829: 2825: 2774: 2688: 2622: 2584: 2530: 2484: 2431: 2371: 2348: 2290: 2224: 2164: 2084: 2022: 1984: 1925: 1902: 1843: 1780: 1742: 1680: 1655: 1627: 1528: 1315: 1307: 1293: 1277: 1254: 1246: 1089: 849: 758: 614: 424: 221: 64: 3241: 3046: 3003: 2841: 2786: 2700: 2634: 2542: 2096: 2058: 2056: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 1855: 942:

The ARAS also helps mediate transitions from relaxed wakefulness to periods of high

295:(lateral zone). The raphe nuclei are the place of synthesis of the neurotransmitter 5636: 5612: 5586: 5406: 5354: 5164: 5073: 5034: 4972: 4847: 4485: 4368: 4304: 4244: 4073: 3758: 3529: 3447: 3429: 3333: 3325: 3276: 3268: 3221: 3184: 3176: 3165:"Neurophysiology of sleep and wakefulness: basic science and clinical implications" 3132: 3124: 3026: 2983: 2915: 2886: 2868: 2821: 2766: 2738: 2726: 2680: 2614: 2576: 2522: 2474: 2466: 2421: 2411: 2338: 2330: 2280: 2272: 2214: 2206: 2154: 2146: 2076: 1892: 1882: 1835: 1815: 1734: 1551: 1414: 1377: 1289: 1138:

The ascending sensory tract conveying information in the opposite direction is the

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In the lateral column – parvocellular nuclei (because of smaller size of the cells)

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In the medial column – gigantocellular nuclei (because of larger size of the cells)

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The reticular formation is functionally divided into the ascending pathways to the

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The medial reticular formation and lateral reticular formation are two columns of

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Systems of The Body: The Nervous System – Basic Science and Clinical Conditions

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Systems of The Body: The Nervous System – Basic Science and Clinical Conditions

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Ascending reticular activating system. Reticular formation labeled near center.

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Hall RW, Huitt TW, Thapa R, Williams DK, Anand KJ, Garcia-Rill E (June 2008).

2873: 2150: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2080: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1361: 431:. The nuclei can be differentiated by function, cell type, and projections of 6366: 6080: 5817: 5489: 4735: 4625: 4620: 3906: 3832: 3827: 3778: 3667:(8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. The Reticular Formation, pp. 518–519. 3443: 3434: 3304:

Garcia-Rill E, Buchanan R, McKeon K, Skinner RD, Wallace T (September 2007).

2882: 2241: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 1887: 1598: 1555: 1441: 1339: 1120: 1025: 1003: 870: 777: 745: 726: 675: 610: 599: 547: 539: 531: 371: 307: 276: 172: 44: 2663:

Steriade, M. (1996). "Arousal: Revisiting the reticular activating system".

1839: 6167: 6126: 5953: 5897: 5877: 5837: 5251: 5155: 4879: 4816: 4694: 4587: 4462: 3930: 3768: 3541: 3461: 3347: 3290: 3233: 3198: 3146: 3038: 2900: 2778: 2730: 2626: 2588: 2488: 2435: 2352: 2294: 2228: 2168: 2107: 2088: 1997: 1906: 1847: 1746: 1445: 1410: 1349: 1335: 1323: 1319: 853: 790: 651: 579: 567: 527: 523: 463: 407: 322: 284: 85: 2833: 2692: 2534: 2453:

Fuller PM, Fuller P, Sherman D, Pedersen NP, Saper CB, Lu J (April 2011).

2179: 1738: 1498:, and organizing the efferent activities of lower visceral motor and some 6155: 5717: 5304: 5300: 5137: 4927: 4654: 4276: 4236: 3873: 3795: 3734: 2995: 2416: 2359: 1507: 1406: 1365: 1285: 1273: 1051: 543: 511: 455: 396: 268: 256: 3690: 2253:"Supramammillary glutamate neurons are a key node of the arousal system" 411:

motor nuclei of the cranial nerves, and mostly mediates their function.

6342: 6324: 6298: 6290: 6253: 6219: 6026: 5997: 985: 931: 916: 908: 347: 300: 122: 5299: 4727: 3370:(4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 631–632. 2470: 2455:"Reassessment of the structural basis of the ascending arousal system" 1334:

The term "reticular formation" was coined in the late 19th century by

1092:

belong to the lateral system which provides fine control of movement.

470:, which serve to mediate their characteristic reflexes and functions. 197: 1520: 1503: 1311: 962: 943: 702: 603: 595: 591: 535: 343: 339: 296: 217: 81: 2921:

Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations

1356:

that the name is an etymological vestige from the fallen era of the

1155: 494:

The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), also known as the

6159: 6118: 5979: 5941: 5901: 5865: 5841: 5582: 5518: 5414: 3773: 2368:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

2019:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

1595:"Fig. 701: Henry Gray (1825–1861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918" 1449: 1433: 1220:

Facilitates and inhibits voluntary movement; influences muscle tone

1035: 900: 811: 583: 575: 563: 519: 459: 440: 428: 400: 392: 377:

Traditionally the reticular nuclei are divided into three columns:

367: 225: 134: 3663:

Saladin, KS (2018b). "Chapter 14 – The Brain and Cranial Nerves".

1983:(4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 1095. 228:. The neurons of the reticular formation make up a complex set of 3111:

Garcia-Rill E, Heister DS, Ye M, Charlesworth A, Hayar A (2007).

1258: 272: 3303: 3110: 2383:

sleep. They are inhibited by the VLPO neurons during NREM sleep.

2441:

glutamatergic neurons in the parabrachial nucleus (PB) ...

2393: 2391: 1272:

Physical or vascular damage to the brainstem disconnecting the

1262: 969: 622: 450:

Existing on the sides of the medial reticular formation is its

406:

Sagittal division reveals more morphological distinctions. The

233: 3703: 2233:

Parabrachial and pedunculopontine glutamatergic arousal system

1626:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 373. 1490:

as in integrating feedback sensory signals with commands from

423:

with ill-defined boundaries that send projections through the

3113:"Electrical coupling: novel mechanism for sleep-wake control" 2811: 1654:(5. ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. pp. 390–395. 1524: 507: 237: 98: 2388: 2370:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 295. 2021:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 295. 1306:

Damage to the medulla below the vestibular nuclei may cause

895:(EEG desynchronization) are associated with wakefulness and 633:

Key components of the ascending reticular activating system

264:

reticular formation, and the medullary reticular formation.

51:, at its upper part. (Formatio reticularis labeled at left.) 5466: 4759: 2504: 2452: 2300:

behavioral and EEG arousal when chemogenetically activated.

444: 327: 48: 3500: 3498: 3496: 2958:

The Human Brain: An Introduction to its Functional Anatomy

2446: 486: 391:

The original functional differentiation was a division of

58: 39: 2250: 1869:

Wang, N; Perkins, E; Zhou, L; Warren, S; May, PJ (2017).

1779:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 141–153. 414: 1006:

signaling has been implicated in the development of PSP.

481: 334:

The human reticular formation is composed of almost 100

3493: 1299:

Brainstem damage above the red nucleus level may cause

283:

The reticular formation is divided into three columns:

3665:

Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function

3646:

Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function

3254: 1257:

and reticulospinal tracts from the pons and medulla.

5782: 4143: 4100: 3507:, Box 9.5 Decorticate and decrebrate regidity, p. 172 3390: 3066:(13th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. pp. 1868: 330:

showing the pontine reticular formation labeled as #9

3587: 3564: 3504: 1924:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 410. 1322:. There are no reflexes resembling early stages of 953: 876: 3158: 3156: 2365: 2016: 1066: 3589: 3566: 3418:"Reticulospinal Systems for Tuning Motor Commands" 2802:, The Neural Circuits Governing Sleep, pp. 655–656 2316: 1624:The central nervous system: structure and function 968:Some pathologies of the ARAS may be attributed to 903:mode the EEG is synchronized and when they are in 510:of vertebrates that is responsible for regulating 3416:Brownstone, Robert M.; Chopek, Jeremy W. (2018). 1724: 6364: 3415: 3395:. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier. p. 192. 3153: 2854: 1570:Gap junction § Areas of electrical coupling 1527:measures the activity of a very large number of 2658: 2656: 2650:, Box 28A – Electroencephalography, pp. 647–649 2132: 1444:also activated the medial reticular formation, 1284:, which has the neurological sign of increased 574:via distinct pathways that project through the 3211: 1046:(PPN), resulting in increased tonic activity, 354:, reticulothalamic projection fibers, diffuse 5285: 4743: 4252: 3719: 3617: 3474: 2973: 2969: 2967: 2799: 2716: 2647: 2397: 2317:Burlet S, Tyler CJ, Leonard CS (April 2002). 3297: 3248: 3162: 3016: 2662: 2653: 1554:from one cell into an adjacent cell through 852:. There seems to be low connectivity to the 693:Other related noradrenergic brainstem nuclei 562:connecting the dorsal part of the posterior 2805: 2756: 2500: 2498: 2404:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2192: 2135:"The Neurobiology of Sleep and Wakefulness" 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1184:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1016: 609:The thalamic pathway consists primarily of 5292: 5278: 4750: 4736: 4266: 4259: 4245: 3726: 3712: 3104: 2964: 2918:. In Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW (eds.). 2913: 2062: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1820:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1052:hyperpolarization-activated cation current 641:Corresponding nuclei that mediate arousal 4511:Descending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus 3955:Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway 3515: 3513: 3451: 3433: 3391:FitzGerald MT, Gruener G, Mtui E (2012). 3361: 3359: 3357: 3337: 3280: 3188: 3136: 2907: 2890: 2872: 2712: 2710: 2478: 2425: 2415: 2342: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2284: 2218: 2158: 2133:Schwartz MD, Kilduff TS (December 2015). 1896: 1886: 1770: 1204:Learn how and when to remove this message 439:nerves. Moving caudally from the rostral 326:A cross section of the lower part of the 6179:Flocculonodular lobe/vestibulocerebellum 4496:Ascending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus 3662: 3643: 3534:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1952.02320140013002 3059: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2604: 2495: 2400:"Dietary Zinc Acts as a Sleep Modulator" 2139:The Psychiatric Clinics of North America 1913: 1757: 1645: 1643: 1617: 1615: 1536:Electroencephalography § Mechanisms 1237: 1094: 930:nucleus of the hypothalamus can lead to 689:Dorsolateral pontine reticular formation 485: 321: 6138:Intermediate hemisphere/spinocerebellum 4757: 3648:(8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 3596:(2nd ed.). Churchill Livingstone. 3573:(2nd ed.). Churchill Livingstone. 3205: 2600: 2598: 1963: 1919: 1862: 1810: 1808: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1084:, and provides control of posture. The 496:extrathalamic control modulatory system 415:Medial and lateral reticular formation 381:In the median column – the raphe nuclei 350:, among other regions. It includes the 338:and contains many projections into the 14: 6365: 6308:Ventral/anterior spinocerebellar tract 6237:Dorsal/posterior spinocerebellar tract 4779: 3519: 3510: 3393:Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience 3365: 3354: 2707: 2558: 2552: 2305: 1978: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1649: 1621: 255:), and the descending pathways to the 5273: 4731: 4240: 3707: 3163:Schwartz JR, Roth T (December 2008). 2949: 2745: 2398:Cherasse Y, Urade Y (November 2017). 1814: 1674: 1640: 1612: 1419:ascending reticular activating system 482:Ascending reticular activating system 249:ascending reticular activating system 220:that spans from the lower end of the 3622:(6th ed.). Sinauer Associates. 2916:"Chapter 57: Level of Consciousness" 2595: 2459:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1805: 1773:"Chapter 9: The Reticular Formation" 1668: 1182:adding citations to reliable sources 1149: 3552: 2195:"Wake-sleep circuitry: an overview" 1693: 1261:of these tracts result in profound 473: 458:. The lateral RF is known for its 24: 6105:Lateral hemisphere/pontocerebellum 5628:Posterior limb of internal capsule 5444:Posterior limb of internal capsule 3528:(2): 145–154, discussion 167–171. 2335:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-07-02862.2002 1469:Medial pontine reticular formation 1360:in the neural sciences. The term " 795:pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus 767:pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus 754:Basal forebrain cholinergic nuclei 236:located in different parts of the 25: 6389: 5399:Posterior external arcuate fibers 3683: 2960:(5th ed.). pp. 262–290. 2955: 2193:Saper CB, Fuller PM (June 2017). 2069:Journal of Molecular Neuroscience 1354:The Reticular Formation Revisited 954:Clinical significance of the ARAS 915:(11–14 Hz) and by promoting 877:Regulating sleep-wake transitions 3818:Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando 3689: 3214:Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 1592: 1154: 1113:caudal pontine reticular nucleus 1067:Descending reticulospinal system 864: 558:The ARAS is composed of several 289:gigantocellular reticular nuclei 192:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy 57: 38: 3733: 3468: 3409: 3384: 3060:Lawrence, Eleanor, ed. (2005). 3053: 3010: 2938:from the original on 2009-01-29 2848: 2793: 2641: 2199:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 1952:from the original on 2016-04-23 1938: 1793:from the original on 4 May 2018 1541: 1513: 4901:Medial longitudinal fasciculus 4863:Medial longitudinal fasciculus 4516:Medial longitudinal fasciculus 4501:Medial longitudinal fasciculus 1946:"The Brain From Top To Bottom" 1597:. Bartleby.com. Archived from 1586: 1481: 1117:oral pontine reticular nucleus 1000:Progressive supranuclear palsy 924:ventrolateral preoptic nucleus 919:(20–40 Hz) oscillations. 665:Substantia nigra pars compacta 553: 293:parvocellular reticular nuclei 13: 1: 6334:Rostral spinocerebellar tract 4916:Lateral vestibulospinal tract 4374:Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve 3694:The dictionary definition of 3638:Anatomy and Physiology (2018) 3226:10.1016/S0891-0618(99)00048-4 3031:10.1016/S1388-2457(99)00078-4 2771:10.1016/s0987-7053(03)00002-9 1579: 1432:portions of the front of the 1145: 994:laterodorsal tegmental nuclei 502:(RAS), is a set of connected 443:, at the site of the rostral 5099:Lateral parabrachial nucleus 4911:Medial vestibulospinal tract 4889:Inferior cerebellar peduncle 4641:Inferior cerebellar peduncle 4437:Rostral ventromedial medulla 3912:Central gelatinous substance 3477:Principles of Neural Science 3422:Frontiers in Neural Circuits 3273:10.1016/j.clinph.2007.12.021 2988:10.1016/0014-4886(77)90043-7 2826:10.1016/0014-4886(84)90065-7 2685:10.1126/science.272.5259.225 2619:10.1016/j.neulet.2015.09.004 2581:10.1126/science.125.3239.156 2527:10.1126/science.271.5248.512 1920:Saladin, Kenneth S. (2011). 1677:Volume of Anatomy Volume III 1474: 1223:Mediates autonomic functions 1128:lateral reticulospinal tract 1002:(PSP) : Dysfunction of 948:midbrain reticular formation 937: 934:for up to 20 hours per day. 317: 7: 6280:Anterior lobe of cerebellum 5094:Medial parabrachial nucleus 4868:Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers 4379:Inferior salivatory nucleus 3505:Michael-Titus et al (2010b) 3330:10.1016/j.neuro.2007.01.007 2956:Nolte, J (ed.). "chpt 11". 2063:Brudzynski SM (July 2014). 1727:Anaesthesiol Intensive Ther 1455: 1109:medial reticulospinal tract 859: 619:monoamine neurotransmitters 500:reticular activating system 356:thalamocortical projections 261:descending reticular system 212:is a set of interconnected 18:Reticular activating system 10: 6394: 6232:Posterior thoracic nucleus 5946:Thalamocortical radiations 5870:Thalamocortical radiations 4432:Arcuate nucleus of medulla 3856:Posterior thoracic nucleus 3559:Systems of The Body (2010) 3522:AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry 3181:10.2174/157015908787386050 2924:. Butterworth Publishers. 2277:10.1038/s41467-017-01004-6 2211:10.1016/j.conb.2017.03.021 1567: 1533: 1459: 1329: 1231:lateral geniculate nucleus 1121:lamina VII and lamina VIII 1048:resting membrane potential 880: 820:Thalamic reticular nucleus 6289: 6266:Accessory cuneate nucleus 6208: 6197: 6184:Vestibulocerebellar tract 6093: 6018:Vestibulocerebellar tract 6005: 5996: 5961: 5885: 5825: 5816: 5792: 5762: 5732: 5706: 5668: 5659: 5611: 5604: 5553: 5527:Posterior parietal cortex 5494:Anterior white commissure 5474: 5460: 5432: 5380: 5335: 5326: 5319: 5215: 5195: 5154: 5136: 5123: 5061: 5049:Inferior salivary nucleus 5044:Superior salivary nucleus 5005: 4939: 4926: 4894:Vestibulocerebellar tract 4878: 4815: 4766: 4653: 4603: 4563: 4556: 4526: 4470: 4461: 4427:Ventral respiratory group 4417: 4409:Accessory cuneate nucleus 4391: 4352: 4293: 4284: 4275: 4193: 4181:Anterior white commissure 4173: 4116: 4064: 4057: 4030: 3973: 3945: 3938: 3929: 3899: 3864: 3851:Intermediolateral nucleus 3841: 3803: 3794: 3741: 2874:10.3389/fnins.2022.830474 2861:Frontiers in Neuroscience 2759:Neurophysiologie Clinique 2151:10.1016/j.psc.2015.07.002 2081:10.1007/s12031-013-0179-1 1875:Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 1560:cells in the heart muscle 1389:(sensory) stimuli at the 1229:Influences blood flow to 1060:attentional dysregulation 913:spindle wave oscillations 810: 776: 744: 725: 701: 674: 650: 643: 640: 637: 190: 178: 166: 146: 133: 121: 109: 97: 92: 77: 72: 56: 37: 32: 27:Spinal trigeminal nucleus 6063:Inferior olivary nucleus 5950:Supplementary motor area 5874:Supplementary motor area 5684:Genu of internal capsule 5536:Spinomesencephalic tract 5106:Superior olivary nucleus 5069:Pedunculopontine nucleus 5021:Trigeminal motor nucleus 4841:Ventral trigeminal tract 4792:Superior medullary velum 4593:Inferior olivary nucleus 4315:Dorsal respiratory group 3435:10.3389/fncir.2018.00030 3368:Fundamental neuroscience 3129:10.1093/sleep/30.11.1405 3019:Clinical Neurophysiology 2719:Seminars in Neuroscience 1981:Fundamental neuroscience 1888:10.3389/fnana.2017.00036 1044:pedunculopontine nucleus 1040:α4β2 nicotinic receptors 1032:Smoking during pregnancy 1017:Developmental influences 759:Pontine tegmental nuclei 735:Tuberomammillary nucleus 224:to the upper end of the 63:Traverse section of the 6151:Cerebellothalamic tract 5632:Decussation of pyramids 5403:Internal arcuate fibers 5089:Subparabrachial nucleus 4858:Central tegmental tract 4836:Dorsal trigeminal tract 4611:Posterior median sulcus 4576:Anterior median fissure 4219:Posterior median sulcus 4204:Anterior median fissure 1840:10.1196/annals.1417.026 1675:Singh, Vishram (2014). 1550:is the passive flow of 1226:Modulates pain impulses 1132:gigantocellular nucleus 801:supramammillary nucleus 360:cholinergic projections 6085:Deep cerebellar nuclei 6052:Deep cerebellar nuclei 6043:Pontocerebellar fibers 5918:Subthalamic fasciculus 5910:Subthalamic fasciculus 5651:Neuromuscular junction 5185:Pontocerebellar fibers 4787:Cerebellopontine angle 4717:Perihypoglossal nuclei 2731:10.1006/smns.1995.0038 1948:. Thebrain.mcgill.ca. 1496:deep cerebellar nuclei 1462:anatomical terminology 1358:aggregate field theory 1251:vestibulospinal tracts 1100: 660:Ventral tegmental area 516:sleep-wake transitions 491: 331: 6378:Neuroscience of sleep 6271:Cuneocerebellar tract 6114:Dentatothalamic tract 6068:Olivocerebellar tract 5965:nigrostriatal pathway 5926:Lenticular fasciculus 5850:Lenticular fasciculus 5753:Vestibulospinal tract 5175:Corticopontine fibers 4906:Vestibulospinal tract 4616:Posterolateral sulcus 4537:Olivocerebellar tract 4447:Pre-Bötzinger complex 4224:Posterolateral sulcus 3805:Posterior grey column 2257:Nature Communications 1771:Augustine JR (2016). 1739:10.5603/AIT.2015.0015 1650:Purves, Dale (2011). 1568:Further information: 1534:Further information: 1500:somatic motor neurons 1238:Clinical significance 1098: 1082:vestibulospinal tract 1073:reticulospinal tracts 883:Neuroscience of sleep 881:Further information: 799:Hypothalamic nuclei: 489: 325: 5783:Reticulospinal tract 5694:Facial motor nucleus 5680:Primary motor cortex 5624:Primary motor cortex 5570:Spinoreticular tract 5411:Trigeminal lemniscus 5350:Meissner's corpuscle 5026:Facial motor nucleus 4831:Trigeminal lemniscus 4581:Anterolateral sulcus 4209:Anterolateral sulcus 4040:Spinoreticular tract 3866:Anterior grey column 3749:Cervical enlargement 2800:Purves et al (2018b) 2648:Purves et al (2018b) 2417:10.3390/ijms18112334 1622:Brodal, Per (2010). 1562:or the neurons with 1301:decorticate rigidity 1282:decerebrate rigidity 1267:postural instability 1178:improve this section 1140:spinoreticular tract 988:: Lesions along the 889:electroencephalogram 829:centromedian nucleus 825:Intralaminar nucleus 787:parabrachial nucleus 716:Median raphe nucleus 711:Dorsal raphe nucleus 627:lateral hypothalamus 104:formatio reticularis 6146:Reticular formation 5934:Thalamic fasciculus 5914:Subthalamic nucleus 5858:Thalamic fasciculus 5778:Reticular formation 5774:Vestibulocerebellum 5744:Vestibulocerebellum 5689:Corticobulbar tract 5637:Corticospinal tract 5575:Reticular formation 5565:Group C nerve fiber 5541:Superior colliculus 5506:Spinothalamic tract 5393:sensory decussation 5225:Reticular formation 5170:Corticobulbar tract 5165:Corticospinal tract 5084:Parabrachial nuclei 4663:Reticular formation 4631:Hypoglossal trigone 4542:Rubro-olivary tract 4491:Juxtarestiform body 4481:Sensory decussation 4364:Hypoglossal nucleus 4045:Spino-olivary tract 3843:Lateral grey column 3697:reticular formation 3612:Neuroscience (2018) 3322:2007NeuTx..28..915G 3169:Curr Neuropharmacol 3063:electrical coupling 2914:Tindall SC (1990). 2677:1996Sci...272..225S 2573:1957Sci...125..156S 2519:1996Sci...271..512K 2269:2017NatCo...8.1405P 1832:2008NYASA1129...26J 1564:electrical synapses 1548:Electrical coupling 1492:upper motor neurons 1352:states in his book 1276:(midbrain) and the 1123:of the spinal cord. 1086:corticospinal tract 1010:Parkinson's disease 911:(1–4 Hz), and 634: 291:(medial zone), and 210:reticular formation 33:Reticular formation 6329:Golgi tendon organ 6303:Golgi tendon organ 6134:Interposed nucleus 5364:Cuneate fasciculus 5360:Gracile fasciculus 5346:Pacinian corpuscle 5216:Other grey: Raphe/ 5158:: Motor/descending 5079:Pneumotaxic center 5062:Grey: Other nuclei 4533:Descending tracts 3891:Gamma motor neuron 3879:Alpha motor neuron 3784:Terminal ventricle 3754:Lumbar enlargement 1777:Human Neuroanatomy 1460:This article uses 1403:midbrain tegmentum 1338:, coinciding with 1101: 785:Brainstem nuclei: 632: 492: 393:caudal and rostral 332: 273:behavioral arousal 6360: 6359: 6356: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6317:Cerebellar vermis 6246:Cerebellar vermis 6189:Vestibular nuclei 6175:Fastigial nucleus 6013:Vestibular nuclei 5992: 5991: 5988: 5987: 5930:Ansa lenticularis 5854:Ansa lenticularis 5812: 5811: 5805:→ muscles of neck 5802:Tectospinal tract 5748:Vestibular nuclei 5723:Rubrospinal tract 5600: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5523:Postcentral gyrus 5486:Free nerve ending 5456: 5455: 5448:Postcentral gyrus 5267: 5266: 5211: 5210: 5119: 5118: 5057: 5056: 4990:Vestibular nuclei 4853:Lateral lemniscus 4807:Facial colliculus 4725: 4724: 4649: 4648: 4552: 4551: 4457: 4456: 4442:Botzinger complex 4387: 4386: 4327:Vestibular nuclei 4322:Gustatory nucleus 4234: 4233: 4194:External features 4189: 4188: 4169: 4168: 4106:Hypothalamospinal 4053: 4052: 3925: 3924: 3366:Squire L (2013). 3261:Clin Neurophysiol 3123:(11): 1405–1414. 2671:(5259): 225–226. 2513:(5248): 512–515. 2471:10.1002/cne.22559 1979:Squire L (2013). 1529:pyramidal neurons 1488:premotor function 1316:respiratory drive 1308:flaccid paralysis 1294:rubrospinal tract 1280:(pons) may cause 1278:vestibular nuclei 1255:vestibular nuclei 1249:and orientation: 1214: 1213: 1206: 1090:rubrospinal tract 850:prefrontal cortex 838: 837: 646: 615:pontine tegmentum 364:neural subsystems 312:lower vertebrates 310:old and found in 222:medulla oblongata 206: 205: 201: 88:and other regions 65:medulla oblongata 16:(Redirected from 6385: 6206: 6205: 6003: 6002: 5969: 5892: 5832: 5823: 5822: 5767: 5737: 5711: 5673: 5666: 5665: 5609: 5608: 5587:Cingulate cortex 5511:Spinal lemniscus 5472: 5471: 5407:Medial lemniscus 5355:Posterior column 5333: 5332: 5324: 5323: 5294: 5287: 5280: 5271: 5270: 5134: 5133: 5074:Apneustic center 5035:Abducens nucleus 5010: 4973:Cochlear nucleus 4944: 4937: 4936: 4848:Medial lemniscus 4777: 4776: 4752: 4745: 4738: 4729: 4728: 4561: 4560: 4486:Medial lemniscus 4468: 4467: 4369:Nucleus ambiguus 4357: 4305:Solitary nucleus 4298: 4291: 4290: 4282: 4281: 4261: 4254: 4247: 4238: 4237: 4062: 4061: 3943: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3823:Nucleus proprius 3813:Marginal nucleus 3801: 3800: 3759:Conus medullaris 3742:General features 3728: 3721: 3714: 3705: 3704: 3693: 3678: 3659: 3633: 3607: 3595: 3584: 3572: 3553:Other references 3546: 3545: 3517: 3508: 3502: 3491: 3490: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3455: 3437: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3363: 3352: 3351: 3341: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3284: 3267:(6): 1281–1291. 3252: 3246: 3245: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3192: 3160: 3151: 3150: 3140: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3095: 3091: 3089: 3081: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3025:(8): 1427–1434. 3014: 3008: 3007: 2971: 2962: 2961: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2943: 2911: 2905: 2904: 2894: 2876: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2809: 2803: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2754: 2743: 2742: 2714: 2705: 2704: 2660: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2638: 2602: 2593: 2592: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2502: 2493: 2492: 2482: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2429: 2419: 2395: 2386: 2385: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2346: 2329:(7): 2862–2872. 2314: 2303: 2302: 2288: 2248: 2239: 2238: 2222: 2190: 2177: 2176: 2162: 2130: 2105: 2104: 2060: 2037: 2036: 2014: 1995: 1994: 1976: 1961: 1960: 1958: 1957: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1900: 1890: 1866: 1860: 1859: 1812: 1803: 1802: 1800: 1798: 1768: 1755: 1754: 1722: 1691: 1690: 1672: 1666: 1665: 1647: 1638: 1637: 1619: 1610: 1609: 1607: 1606: 1590: 1573: 1552:electric current 1545: 1539: 1517: 1511: 1485: 1415:internal capsule 1290:stretch reflexes 1288:and hyperactive 1233:of the thalamus. 1209: 1202: 1198: 1195: 1189: 1158: 1150: 1042:on cells of the 990:pedunculopontine 827:, including the 644: 635: 631: 526:and a number of 474:Major subsystems 352:reticular nuclei 308:phylogenetically 198:edit on Wikidata 195: 61: 42: 30: 29: 21: 6393: 6392: 6388: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6383: 6382: 6363: 6362: 6361: 6348: 6285: 6258:muscle spindles 6224:muscle spindles 6211: 6201:Spinocerebellar 6199: 6193: 6101:Dentate nucleus 6089: 5984: 5962: 5957: 5886: 5881: 5826: 5808: 5797:Midbrain tectum 5788: 5763: 5758: 5733: 5728: 5707: 5702: 5669: 5655: 5592: 5549: 5545:Midbrain tectum 5465: 5452: 5428: 5395:/arcuate fibers 5376: 5372:Cuneate nucleus 5368:Gracile nucleus 5315: 5298: 5268: 5263: 5217: 5207: 5191: 5150: 5125: 5115: 5111:Locus coeruleus 5053: 5006: 5001: 4940: 4922: 4874: 4811: 4802:Medial eminence 4797:Sulcus limitans 4768: 4762: 4758:Anatomy of the 4756: 4726: 4721: 4668:Gigantocellular 4645: 4636:Medial eminence 4599: 4548: 4522: 4453: 4413: 4404:Cuneate nucleus 4399:Gracile nucleus 4383: 4353: 4348: 4294: 4271: 4267:Anatomy of the 4265: 4235: 4230: 4185: 4165: 4139:Vestibulospinal 4135:Extrapyramidal 4112: 4049: 4026: 3983:Spinocerebellar 3969: 3921: 3917:Gray commissure 3895: 3860: 3837: 3833:Rexed lamina VI 3790: 3764:Filum terminale 3737: 3732: 3686: 3681: 3675: 3656: 3630: 3604: 3581: 3555: 3550: 3549: 3518: 3511: 3503: 3494: 3487: 3473: 3469: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3389: 3385: 3378: 3364: 3355: 3310:Neurotoxicology 3302: 3298: 3253: 3249: 3210: 3206: 3161: 3154: 3109: 3105: 3093: 3092: 3083: 3082: 3078: 3058: 3054: 3015: 3011: 2972: 2965: 2954: 2950: 2941: 2939: 2932: 2912: 2908: 2853: 2849: 2810: 2806: 2798: 2794: 2755: 2746: 2715: 2708: 2661: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2603: 2596: 2557: 2553: 2503: 2496: 2451: 2447: 2396: 2389: 2378: 2364: 2360: 2315: 2306: 2249: 2242: 2234: 2191: 2180: 2131: 2108: 2061: 2040: 2029: 2015: 1998: 1991: 1977: 1964: 1955: 1953: 1944: 1943: 1939: 1932: 1918: 1914: 1867: 1863: 1813: 1806: 1796: 1794: 1787: 1769: 1758: 1723: 1694: 1687: 1679:. p. 372. 1673: 1669: 1662: 1648: 1641: 1634: 1620: 1613: 1604: 1602: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1518: 1514: 1486: 1482: 1477: 1465: 1458: 1391:cerebral cortex 1345:neuron doctrine 1332: 1240: 1210: 1199: 1193: 1190: 1175: 1159: 1148: 1119:and project to 1069: 1019: 956: 940: 928:paraventricular 885: 879: 867: 862: 856:of the cortex. 842:animal hypnosis 684:Locus coeruleus 625:neurons of the 613:neurons in the 572:cerebral cortex 560:neural circuits 556: 484: 476: 417: 320: 230:neural networks 202: 159: 155: 68: 52: 47:section of the 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6391: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6358: 6357: 6354: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6346: 6321: 6320: 6295: 6293: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6283: 6250: 6249: 6216: 6214: 6212:proprioception 6203: 6198:Bidirectional: 6195: 6194: 6192: 6191: 6171: 6170: 6130: 6129: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6090: 6088: 6087: 6059: 6058: 6038:Pontine nuclei 6034: 6033: 6009: 6007: 6000: 5994: 5993: 5990: 5989: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5982: 5972: 5970: 5959: 5958: 5895: 5893: 5883: 5882: 5835: 5833: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5806: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5787: 5786: 5770: 5768: 5760: 5759: 5757: 5756: 5740: 5738: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5726: 5714: 5712: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5700: 5698:Facial muscles 5676: 5674: 5663: 5661:Extrapyramidal 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5617: 5615: 5606: 5602: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5590: 5560: 5558: 5551: 5550: 5531: 5530: 5481: 5479: 5469: 5458: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5450: 5439: 5437: 5430: 5429: 5427: 5426: 5387: 5385: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5342: 5340: 5330: 5321: 5317: 5316: 5297: 5296: 5289: 5282: 5274: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5261: 5260: 5259: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5221: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5205: 5203:Basilar sulcus 5199: 5197: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5189: 5188: 5187: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5159: 5152: 5151: 5149: 5148: 5146:Pontine nuclei 5142: 5140: 5131: 5121: 5120: 5117: 5116: 5114: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5065: 5063: 5059: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5051: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5023: 5013: 5011: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4987: 4986: 4985: 4980: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4967: 4966: 4961: 4947: 4945: 4934: 4932:Cranial nuclei 4924: 4923: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4898: 4897: 4896: 4885: 4883: 4876: 4875: 4873: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4844: 4843: 4838: 4828: 4826:Trapezoid body 4822: 4820: 4813: 4812: 4810: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4783: 4781: 4774: 4764: 4763: 4755: 4754: 4747: 4740: 4732: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4659: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4578: 4567: 4565: 4558: 4554: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4544: 4539: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4523: 4521: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4513: 4505: 4504: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4474: 4472: 4465: 4459: 4458: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4421: 4419: 4415: 4414: 4412: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4395: 4393: 4389: 4388: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4360: 4358: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4324: 4319: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4301: 4299: 4288: 4286:Cranial nuclei 4279: 4273: 4272: 4264: 4263: 4256: 4249: 4241: 4232: 4231: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4226: 4221: 4213: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4190: 4187: 4186: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4170: 4167: 4166: 4164: 4163: 4162: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4144:Reticulospinal 4141: 4133: 4132: 4131: 4125:Corticospinal 4122: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4110: 4109: 4108: 4103: 4101:Reticulospinal 4098: 4093: 4086:Extrapyramidal 4083: 4082: 4081: 4070: 4068: 4059: 4055: 4054: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4047: 4042: 4036: 4034: 4028: 4027: 4025: 4024: 4019: 4017:Posterolateral 4014: 4013: 4012: 4007: 3997: 3996: 3995: 3990: 3979: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3951: 3949: 3940: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3903: 3901: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3887: 3886: 3884:Onuf's nucleus 3876: 3870: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3847: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3835: 3830: 3828:Rexed lamina V 3825: 3820: 3815: 3809: 3807: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3789: 3788: 3787: 3786: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3738: 3731: 3730: 3723: 3716: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3685: 3684:External links 3682: 3680: 3679: 3674:978-1259277726 3673: 3660: 3655:978-1259277726 3654: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3634: 3629:978-1605353807 3628: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3608: 3603:978-0702033735 3602: 3585: 3580:978-0702033735 3579: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3509: 3492: 3486:978-0071390118 3485: 3467: 3408: 3402:978-0702037382 3401: 3383: 3377:978-0123858702 3376: 3353: 3316:(5): 915–923. 3296: 3247: 3220:(1–2): 23–30. 3204: 3175:(4): 367–378. 3152: 3103: 3077:978-0131273849 3076: 3052: 3009: 2963: 2948: 2931:978-0409900774 2930: 2906: 2847: 2804: 2792: 2744: 2725:(5): 355–359. 2706: 2652: 2640: 2607:Neurosci. Lett 2594: 2551: 2494: 2465:(5): 933–956. 2445: 2387: 2377:978-0071481274 2376: 2358: 2304: 2240: 2178: 2145:(4): 615–644. 2106: 2075:(3): 436–445. 2038: 2028:978-0071481274 2027: 1996: 1990:978-0123858702 1989: 1962: 1937: 1930: 1912: 1861: 1804: 1786:978-1119073994 1785: 1756: 1733:(2): 162–167. 1692: 1685: 1667: 1661:978-0878936953 1660: 1639: 1632: 1611: 1584: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1558:, such as the 1540: 1512: 1479: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1471: 1457: 1454: 1331: 1328: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1234: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1212: 1211: 1162: 1160: 1153: 1147: 1144: 1136: 1135: 1124: 1077:extrapyramidal 1068: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1062:later in life. 1056:sensory gating 1029: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1007: 997: 974:down-regulated 955: 952: 939: 936: 878: 875: 866: 863: 861: 858: 846:Totstellreflex 844:also known as 836: 835: 833: 832: 831: 822: 815: 808: 807: 805: 804: 803: 797: 781: 774: 773: 771: 770: 769: 756: 749: 742: 741: 739: 738: 737: 730: 723: 722: 720: 719: 718: 713: 706: 699: 698: 696: 695: 694: 691: 686: 679: 672: 671: 669: 668: 667: 662: 655: 648: 647: 642: 639: 588:norepinephrine 555: 552: 550:brain nuclei. 498:or simply the 483: 480: 475: 472: 468:cranial nerves 416: 413: 389: 388: 385: 382: 319: 316: 204: 203: 194: 188: 187: 182: 176: 175: 170: 164: 163: 150: 144: 143: 138: 131: 130: 125: 119: 118: 113: 107: 106: 101: 95: 94: 90: 89: 79: 75: 74: 70: 69: 62: 54: 53: 43: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6390: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6370: 6368: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6335: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6309: 6304: 6300: 6297: 6296: 6294: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6272: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6252: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6196: 6190: 6186: 6185: 6180: 6176: 6173: 6172: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6152: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6132: 6131: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6115: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6096: 6092: 6086: 6082: 6081:Purkinje cell 6078: 6074: 6070: 6069: 6064: 6061: 6060: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6036: 6035: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6019: 6014: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5995: 5981: 5977: 5976:Pars compacta 5974: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5960: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5894: 5891: 5890: 5884: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5834: 5831: 5830: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5818:Basal ganglia 5815: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5779: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5761: 5755: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5731: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5690: 5685: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5658: 5652: 5648: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5571: 5566: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5537: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5507: 5504: 5500: 5495: 5491: 5490:A delta fiber 5487: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5463: 5462:Anterolateral 5459: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5431: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5394: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5379: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5325: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5309:neural tracts 5306: 5302: 5295: 5290: 5288: 5283: 5281: 5276: 5275: 5272: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5253: 5250: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5214: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5194: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5153: 5147: 5144: 5143: 5141: 5139: 5135: 5132: 5129: 5122: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5060: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5018: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5004: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4988: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4971: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4899: 4895: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4877: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4814: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4765: 4761: 4753: 4748: 4746: 4741: 4739: 4734: 4733: 4730: 4718: 4715: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4697: 4696: 4693: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4673:Parvocellular 4671: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4652: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4626:Vagal trigone 4624: 4622: 4621:Area postrema 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4594: 4591: 4590: 4589: 4586: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4572: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4555: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4525: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4508: 4506: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4478: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4460: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4424: 4423: 4422: 4420: 4416: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4390: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4351: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4329: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4262: 4257: 4255: 4250: 4248: 4243: 4242: 4239: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4136: 4134: 4130: 4127: 4126: 4124: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4115: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4088: 4087: 4084: 4080: 4077: 4076: 4075: 4074:Corticospinal 4072: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4001: 4000:Spinothalamic 3998: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3984: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3972: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3928: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3907:Rexed laminae 3905: 3904: 3902: 3898: 3892: 3889: 3885: 3882: 3881: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3793: 3785: 3782: 3781: 3780: 3779:Central canal 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3724: 3722: 3717: 3715: 3710: 3709: 3706: 3700:at Wiktionary 3699: 3698: 3692: 3688: 3687: 3676: 3670: 3666: 3661: 3657: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3641: 3637: 3636: 3631: 3625: 3621: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3610: 3605: 3599: 3594: 3593: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3571: 3570: 3563: 3562: 3558: 3557: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3516: 3514: 3506: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3488: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3412: 3404: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3379: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3159: 3157: 3148: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3107: 3099: 3087: 3079: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3064: 3056: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2970: 2968: 2959: 2952: 2937: 2933: 2927: 2923: 2922: 2917: 2910: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2851: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2808: 2801: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2713: 2711: 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Cajal 1337: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1243: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1215: 1208: 1205: 1197: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1173: 1172: 1168: 1163:This section 1161: 1157: 1152: 1151: 1143: 1141: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1097: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1078: 1074: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1026:Preterm birth 1024: 1023: 1022: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1004:nitrous oxide 1001: 998: 995: 991: 987: 984: 983: 982: 979: 975: 971: 966: 964: 959: 951: 949: 945: 935: 933: 929: 925: 920: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 884: 874: 872: 871:consciousness 865:Consciousness 857: 855: 851: 847: 843: 834: 830: 826: 823: 821: 818: 817: 816: 814: nuclei 813: 809: 806: 802: 798: 796: 792: 788: 784: 783: 782: 780: nuclei 779: 778:Glutamatergic 775: 772: 768: 764: 760: 757: 755: 752: 751: 750: 748: nuclei 747: 743: 740: 736: 733: 732: 731: 729: nuclei 728: 727:Histaminergic 724: 721: 717: 714: 712: 709: 708: 707: 705: nuclei 704: 700: 697: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 681: 680: 678: nuclei 677: 676:Noradrenergic 673: 670: 666: 663: 661: 658: 657: 656: 654: nuclei 653: 649: 638:Nucleus type 636: 630: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 607: 605: 601: 600:acetylcholine 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 551: 549: 548:glutamatergic 545: 541: 540:histaminergic 537: 533: 532:noradrenergic 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 488: 479: 471: 469: 465: 462:and areas of 461: 457: 453: 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 427:and into the 426: 422: 412: 409: 404: 402: 398: 394: 386: 383: 380: 379: 378: 375: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 329: 324: 315: 313: 309: 304: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 281: 278: 277:consciousness 274: 270: 265: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 241: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 199: 193: 189: 186: 183: 181: 177: 174: 171: 169: 165: 162: 158: 154: 151: 149: 145: 142: 139: 136: 132: 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Retrieved 1599:the original 1588: 1547: 1543: 1515: 1487: 1483: 1446:hypothalamus 1438: 1423: 1418: 1411:hypothalamus 1395: 1376: 1353: 1350:Allan Hobson 1343: 1336:Otto Deiters 1333: 1324:spinal shock 1320:quadriplegia 1305: 1298: 1271: 1244: 1241: 1200: 1194:October 2019 1191: 1176:Please help 1164: 1137: 1127: 1108: 1102: 1072: 1070: 1020: 978:up-regulated 967: 960: 957: 941: 921: 886: 868: 845: 839: 791:precoeruleus 763:laterodorsal 703:Serotonergic 652:Dopaminergic 608: 580:hypothalamus 568:ventral pons 557: 536:serotonergic 528:dopaminergic 524:hypothalamus 499: 495: 493: 477: 464:interneurons 449: 418: 408:raphe nuclei 405: 390: 376: 358:, ascending 333: 305: 285:raphe nuclei 282: 266: 260: 252: 248: 242: 209: 207: 161:A14.1.06.327 157:A14.1.05.403 153:A14.1.00.021 103: 86:hypothalamus 6210:Unconscious 6156:Red nucleus 5718:Red nucleus 5305:spinal cord 4955:Trigeminal 4277:Grey matter 4159:Olivospinal 4154:Raphespinal 4149:Tectospinal 4096:Raphespinal 4091:Rubrospinal 4022:Spinotectal 3874:Interneuron 3735:Spinal cord 3094:|work= 2976:Exp. Neurol 2814:Exp. Neurol 2765:(1): 1–10. 2613:: 200–203. 2323:J. Neurosci 2263:(1): 1405. 2205:: 186–192. 1797:4 September 1508:spinal cord 1407:subthalamus 1366:Eric Kandel 1286:muscle tone 1274:red nucleus 909:delta waves 893:brain waves 854:motor areas 746:Cholinergic 611:cholinergic 544:cholinergic 512:wakefulness 466:around the 456:vagus nerve 397:hypersomnia 269:wakefulness 257:spinal cord 93:Identifiers 6367:Categories 6343:Cerebellum 6325:upper limb 6299:lower limb 6291:Reflex arc 6254:upper limb 6220:lower limb 6077:Hemisphere 6027:Cerebellum 5998:Cerebellar 5876:) → 5° ( 5765:extension: 5735:extension: 5245:Paramedian 4688:Paramedian 2942:2008-07-04 1956:2016-04-28 1605:2019-09-12 1580:References 1371:ganglionic 1314:, loss of 992:(PPN) and 986:Narcolepsy 932:drowsiness 917:gamma band 368:sagittally 348:cerebellum 301:exhalation 287:(median), 141:nlx_143558 123:NeuroNames 6373:Brainstem 5952:) → 7° ( 5889:indirect: 5613:Pyramidal 5313:fasciculi 5240:Tegmental 5218:reticular 5008:efferent: 4959:Principal 4942:afferent: 4819:: Sensory 4771:tegmentum 4355:efferent: 4296:afferent: 3947:Posterior 3444:1662-5110 3096:ignored ( 3086:cite book 2883:1662-453X 1816:Jones, BE 1521:electrode 1519:An EEG's 1504:brainstem 1475:Footnotes 1362:reticulum 1312:hypotonia 1253:from the 1165:does not 963:mydriasis 944:attention 938:Attention 897:REM sleep 604:glutamate 596:histamine 592:serotonin 554:Structure 460:ganglions 372:coronally 344:brainstem 340:forebrain 318:Structure 297:serotonin 218:brainstem 82:Brainstem 6331:) → 2° ( 6305:) → 2° ( 6264:) → 2° ( 6230:) → 2° ( 6160:Thalamus 6119:Thalamus 6094:Efferent 6006:Afferent 5980:Striatum 5944:) → 6° ( 5942:Thalamus 5924:) → 5° ( 5916:) → 4° ( 5908:) → 3° ( 5904:) → 2° ( 5902:Striatum 5868:) → 4° ( 5866:Thalamus 5848:) → 3° ( 5844:) → 2° ( 5842:Striatum 5709:flexion: 5671:flexion: 5645:Anterior 5621:flexion: 5585:) → 3° ( 5583:Thalamus 5577:) → 2° ( 5525:) → 4° ( 5521:) → 3° ( 5519:Thalamus 5503:Anterior 5492:) → 2° ( 5478:/lateral 5415:Thalamus 5124:Ventral/ 4995:Superior 4983:Anterior 4882:: Motor 4710:Pallidus 4700:Obscurus 4477:Sensory 4342:Inferior 4200:Ventral 4129:Anterior 4118:Anterior 4032:Anterior 4010:anterior 3774:Meninges 3542:14893989 3462:29720934 3348:17368773 3291:18372212 3242:36236217 3234:10708916 3199:19587857 3147:18041475 3047:38882496 3039:10454278 3004:45019057 2936:Archived 2901:35360167 2842:28688574 2787:26159370 2779:12711127 2701:39331177 2635:37083435 2627:26363340 2589:13390978 2543:43015539 2489:21280045 2436:29113075 2353:11923451 2295:29123082 2229:28577468 2169:26600100 2097:14615039 2089:24272957 1950:Archived 1907:28487639 1856:16682827 1848:18591466 1791:Archived 1747:25940332 1456:See also 1450:thalamus 1434:midbrain 1421:(ARAS). 1387:afferent 1146:Function 1115:and the 1088:and the 1036:Prenatal 860:Function 812:Thalamic 584:dopamine 576:thalamus 566:and the 564:midbrain 520:thalamus 441:midbrain 437:afferent 433:efferent 429:midbrain 401:insomnia 259:in the 226:midbrain 135:NeuroLex 78:Location 6148:, or → 5829:direct: 5641:Lateral 5557:/medial 5499:Lateral 5320:Sensory 5196:Surface 4780:Surface 4767:Dorsal/ 4683:Lateral 4678:Ventral 4571:Pyramid 4557:Surface 4527:Ventral 4418:Ventral 4332:Lateral 4269:medulla 4215:Dorsal 4079:Lateral 4066:Lateral 4005:lateral 3993:ventral 3975:Lateral 3965:Cuneate 3960:Gracile 3939:Sensory 3453:5915564 3339:3320145 3318:Bibcode 3282:2670248 3190:2701283 3138:2082101 2892:8964012 2834:6479280 2739:5575547 2693:8602506 2673:Bibcode 2665:Science 2569:Bibcode 2561:Science 2535:8560267 2515:Bibcode 2507:Science 2480:3119596 2427:5713303 2344:6758338 2286:5680228 2265:Bibcode 2220:5531075 2160:4660253 1898:5403835 1828:Bibcode 1523:on the 1502:in the 1430:lateral 1413:to the 1399:somatic 1378:Moruzzi 1330:History 1259:Lesions 1247:balance 1186:removed 1171:sources 645:Sources 570:to the 506:in the 452:lateral 425:medulla 247:in the 234:neurons 216:in the 116:D012154 73:Details 45:Coronal 6327:→ 1° ( 6301:→ 1° ( 6256:→ 1° ( 6222:→ 1° ( 5257:Median 5230:Caudal 4978:Dorsal 4964:Spinal 4705:Magnus 4507:Motor 4471:Dorsal 4392:Dorsal 4337:Medial 3988:dorsal 3671: 3652: 3626: 3600: 3577: 3540: 3483: 3460: 3450: 3442: 3428:: 30. 3399: 3374: 3346: 3336: 3289: 3279: 3240: 3232: 3197: 3187: 3145: 3135: 3074: 3045: 3037: 3002: 2996:196879 2994: 2928: 2899: 2889: 2881: 2840: 2832: 2785: 2777: 2737: 2699: 2691: 2633: 2625: 2587: 2541: 2533: 2487: 2477: 2434: 2424: 2374: 2351: 2341: 2293: 2283: 2227: 2217: 2167: 2157: 2095: 2087: 2025: 1987: 1928: 1905: 1895: 1881:: 36. 1854: 1846: 1783: 1745: 1683: 1658: 1630: 1448:, and 1426:medial 1382:Magoun 1369:clear 1318:, and 1263:ataxia 1075:, are 1050:, and 970:ageing 793:, and 623:orexin 602:, and 546:, and 508:brains 504:nuclei 421:nuclei 346:, and 336:nuclei 245:cortex 214:nuclei 5605:Motor 5301:Brain 5156:White 4880:White 4817:White 4588:Olive 4564:Front 4310:tract 4058:Motor 3900:Other 3238:S2CID 3117:Sleep 3043:S2CID 3000:S2CID 2838:S2CID 2783:S2CID 2735:S2CID 2697:S2CID 2631:S2CID 2539:S2CID 2093:S2CID 1852:S2CID 1525:scalp 905:tonic 901:burst 238:brain 196:[ 185:77719 99:Latin 6166:) → 6125:) → 5896:1° ( 5836:1° ( 5563:1° ( 5555:Slow 5533:2° ( 5501:and 5484:1° ( 5476:Fast 5467:pain 5405:) → 5366:) → 5328:DCML 5311:and 5303:and 5235:Oral 5138:Grey 5128:base 4928:Grey 4760:pons 4655:Grey 4604:Back 4174:Both 3669:ISBN 3650:ISBN 3624:ISBN 3598:ISBN 3575:ISBN 3538:PMID 3481:ISBN 3458:PMID 3440:ISSN 3397:ISBN 3372:ISBN 3344:PMID 3287:PMID 3230:PMID 3195:PMID 3143:PMID 3098:help 3072:ISBN 3035:PMID 2992:PMID 2926:ISBN 2897:PMID 2879:ISSN 2830:PMID 2775:PMID 2689:PMID 2623:PMID 2585:PMID 2531:PMID 2485:PMID 2432:PMID 2372:ISBN 2349:PMID 2291:PMID 2225:PMID 2165:PMID 2085:PMID 2023:ISBN 1985:ISBN 1926:ISBN 1903:PMID 1844:PMID 1824:1129 1799:2017 1781:ISBN 1743:PMID 1681:ISBN 1656:ISBN 1628:ISBN 1506:and 1494:and 1428:and 1409:and 1380:and 1265:and 1169:any 1167:cite 1126:The 1107:The 1071:The 765:and 578:and 514:and 445:pons 370:and 328:pons 275:and 253:ARAS 208:The 173:5367 148:TA98 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