Kidney stone disease

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I, Boufous S, Bucello C, Burch M, Burney P, Carapetis J, Chen H, Chou D, Chugh SS, Coffeng LE, Colan SD, Colquhoun S, Colson KE, Condon J, Connor MD, Cooper LT, Corriere M, Cortinovis M, de Vaccaro KC, Couser W, Cowie BC, Criqui MH, Cross M, Dabhadkar KC, Dahodwala N, De Leo D, Degenhardt L, Delossantos A, Denenberg J, Des Jarlais DC, Dharmaratne SD, Dorsey ER, Driscoll T, Duber H, Ebel B, Erwin PJ, Espindola P, Ezzati M, Feigin V, Flaxman AD, Forouzanfar MH, Fowkes FG, Franklin R, Fransen M, Freeman MK, Gabriel SE, Gakidou E, Gaspari F, Gillum RF, Gonzalez-Medina D, Halasa YA, Haring D, Harrison JE, Havmoeller R, Hay RJ, Hoen B, Hotez PJ, Hoy D, Jacobsen KH, James SL, Jasrasaria R, Jayaraman S, Johns N, Karthikeyan G, Kassebaum N, Keren A, Khoo JP, Knowlton LM, Kobusingye O, Koranteng A, Krishnamurthi R, Lipnick M, Lipshultz SE, Ohno SL, Mabweijano J, MacIntyre MF, Mallinger L, March L, Marks GB, Marks R, Matsumori A, Matzopoulos R, Mayosi BM, McAnulty JH, McDermott MM, McGrath J, Mensah GA, Merriman TR, Michaud C, Miller M, Miller TR, Mock C, Mocumbi AO, Mokdad AA, Moran A, Mulholland K, Nair MN, Naldi L, Narayan KM, Nasseri K, Norman P, O'Donnell M, Omer SB, Ortblad K, Osborne R, Ozgediz D, Pahari B, Pandian JD, Rivero AP, Padilla RP, Perez-Ruiz F, Perico N, Phillips D, Pierce K, Pope CA, Porrini E, Pourmalek F, Raju M, Ranganathan D, Rehm JT, Rein DB, Remuzzi G, Rivara FP, Roberts T, De León FR, Rosenfeld LC, Rushton L, Sacco RL, Salomon JA, Sampson U, Sanman E, Schwebel DC, Segui-Gomez M, Shepard DS, Singh D, Singleton J, Sliwa K, Smith E, Steer A, Taylor JA, Thomas B, Tleyjeh IM, Towbin JA, Truelsen T, Undurraga EA, Venketasubramanian N, Vijayakumar L, Vos T, Wagner GR, Wang M, Wang W, Watt K, Weinstock MA, Weintraub R, Wilkinson JD, Woolf AD, Wulf S, Yeh PH, Yip P, Zabetian A, Zheng ZJ, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, AlMazroa MA, Memish ZA (December 2012).

2515:) caused by an obstructing stone. Ureteral stents vary in length from 24 to 30 cm (9.4 to 11.8 in) and most have a shape commonly referred to as a "double-J" or "double pigtail", because of the curl at both ends. They are designed to allow urine to flow past an obstruction in the ureter. They may be retained in the ureter for days to weeks as infections resolve and as stones are dissolved or fragmented by ESWL or by some other treatment. The stents dilate the ureters, which can facilitate instrumentation, and they also provide a clear landmark to aid in the visualization of the ureters and any associated stones on radiographic examinations. The presence of indwelling ureteral stents may cause minimal to moderate discomfort, frequency or urgency incontinence, and infection, which in general resolves on removal. Most ureteral stents can be removed cystoscopically during an office visit under 1151: 1166: 2539:

recent experience suggests ureteroscopic techniques offer distinct advantages in the treatment of upper ureteral stones. Specifically, the overall success rate is higher, fewer repeat interventions and postoperative visits are needed, and treatment costs are lower after ureteroscopic treatment when compared with ESWL. These advantages are especially apparent with stones greater than 10 mm (0.4 in) in diameter. However, because ureteroscopy of the upper ureter is much more challenging than ESWL, many urologists still prefer to use ESWL as a first-line treatment for stones of less than 10 mm, and ureteroscopy for those greater than 10 mm in diameter. Ureteroscopy is the preferred treatment in pregnant and morbidly obese people, as well as those with

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diameter), the rate of spontaneous passage decreases to less than 53%. Initial stone location also influences the likelihood of spontaneous stone passage. Rates increase from 48% for stones located in the proximal ureter to 79% for stones located at the vesicoureteric junction, regardless of stone size. Assuming no high-grade obstruction or associated infection is found in the urinary tract, and symptoms are relatively mild, various nonsurgical measures can be used to encourage the passage of a stone. Repeat stone formers benefit from more intense management, including proper fluid intake and use of certain medications, as well as careful monitoring.

2157:. These drugs inhibit the formation of calcium-containing stones by reducing urinary calcium excretion. Sodium restriction is necessary for clinical effect of thiazides, as sodium excess promotes calcium excretion. Thiazides work best for renal leak hypercalciuria (high urine calcium levels), a condition in which high urinary calcium levels are caused by a primary kidney defect. Thiazides are useful for treating absorptive hypercalciuria, a condition in which high urinary calcium is a result of excess absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. 1186: 716:

inhibition.) 2. Continued deposition at the renal papillae leads to the growth of the kidney stones. 3. Kidney stones grow and collect debris. In the case where the kidney stones block all routes to the renal papillae, this can cause extreme discomfort and pain. 4. The complete staghorn stone forms and retention occurs. Smaller solids that break off can become trapped in the urinary glands causing discomfort. 5. Displaced stones travel through the ureter. If they cannot be broken down, they must be physically removed by a surgeon.

712: 1087:. Ultrasound imaging is useful for detecting stones in situations where X-rays or CT scans are discouraged, such as in children or pregnant women. Despite these advantages, renal ultrasonography in 2009 was not considered a substitute for noncontrast helical CT scan in the initial diagnostic evaluation of urolithiasis. The main reason for this is that, compared with CT, renal ultrasonography more often fails to detect small stones (especially ureteral stones) and other serious disorders that could be causing the symptoms. 2421: 2255:), may be effective. Alpha-blockers likely result in more people passing their stones, and they may pass their stones in a shorter time. People taking alpha-blockers may also use less pain medication and may not need to visit the hospital. Alpha-blockers appear to be more effective for larger stones (over 5 mm in size) than smaller stones. However, use of alpha-blockers may be associated with a slight increase in serious, unwanted effects from this medication. A combination of tamsulosin and a 1130: 2450: 3823: 1916: 1505: 1887: 1493: 1356: 1520: 1324: 2268: 53: 1392: 1424: 1456: 562: 2403:

treatment, alpha blockers may lead to faster clearing of stones, a reduced need for extra treatment and fewer unwanted effects. They may also clear kidney stones in more adults than the standard shock wave lithotripsy procedure. The unwanted effects associated with alpha blockers are hospital emergency visits and return to hospital for stone-related issues, but these effects were more common in adults who did not receive

2351:. Hematoma rates may be related to the type of lithotriptor used; hematoma rates of less than 1% and up to 13% have been reported for different lithotriptor machines. Recent studies show reduced acute tissue injury when the treatment protocol includes a brief pause following the initiation of treatment, and both improved stone breakage and a reduction in injury when ESWL is carried out at slow shock wave rate. 5784: 2739:. The increased risk of dehydration in hot climates, coupled with a diet 50% lower in calcium and 250% higher in oxalates compared to Western diets, accounts for the higher net risk in the Middle East. In the Middle East, uric acid stones are more common than calcium-containing stones. The number of deaths due to kidney stones is estimated at 19,000 per year being fairly consistent between 1990 and 2010. 5802: 3060:

bladder, but it is likely less successful than a scope through skin into the kidney. When going in with a scope through the kidney, a regular and a mini-sized scope likely have similar success rates of stone removal. Alpha-blockers, a type of medication, may increase the successful removal of kidney stones when compared with a placebo and without ibuprofen.

1011:(KUB film). KUB radiography, although useful in monitoring size of stone or passage of stone in stone formers, might not be useful in the acute setting due to low sensitivity. Some 60% of all renal stones are radiopaque. In general, calcium phosphate stones have the greatest density, followed by calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate stones. 3029:, meaning disorder. A distinction between nephrolithiasis and urolithiasis can be made because not all urinary stones (uroliths) form in the kidney; they can also form in the bladder. But the distinction is often clinically irrelevant (with similar disease process and treatment either way) and the words are thus often used loosely as synonyms. 769:(high urine uric-acid levels) and low urine pH; hyperuricosuria alone is not associated with uric-acid stone formation if the urine pH is alkaline. Supersaturation of the urine is a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for the development of any urinary calculus. Supersaturation is likely the underlying cause of uric acid and 2185:

uric acid levels). Dosage is adjusted to maintain a reduced urinary excretion of uric acid. Serum uric acid level at or below 6 mg/100 mL is often a therapeutic goal. Hyperuricemia is not necessary for the formation of uric acid stones; hyperuricosuria can occur in the presence of normal or

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Taking calcium citrate tablets during or after meals containing high oxalate foods may be useful if dietary calcium cannot be increased by other means as in those with lactose intolerance. The preferred calcium supplement for people at risk of stone formation is calcium citrate, as opposed to calcium

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since the 1970s. Generally, more men are affected than women. The prevalence and incidence of the disease rises worldwide and continues to be challenging for patients, physicians, and healthcare systems alike. In this context, epidemiological studies are striving to elucidate the worldwide changes in

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Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, Abraham J, Adair T, Aggarwal R, Ahn SY, Alvarado M, Anderson HR, Anderson LM, Andrews KG, Atkinson C, Baddour LM, Barker-Collo S, Bartels DH, Bell ML, Benjamin EJ, Bennett D, Bhalla K, Bikbov B, Bin Abdulhak A, Birbeck G, Blyth F, Bolliger

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Pelleted feeds may be conducive to formation of phosphate uroliths, because of increased urinary phosphorus excretion. This is attributable to lower saliva production where pelleted rations containing finely ground constituents are fed. With less blood phosphate partitioned into saliva, more tends

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and its associated diseases of obesity and diabetes as general risk factors for kidney stone disease are under research to determine if urinary excretion of calcium, oxalate and urate are higher than in people with normal weight or underweight, and if diet and physical activity have roles. Dietary,

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Treatment of kidney stones in children is similar to treatments for adults, including shock wave lithotripsy, medication, and treatment using scope through the bladder, kidney or skin. Of these treatments, research is uncertain if shock waves are more effective than medication or a scope through the

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in people who had undergone ESWL, compared with age and gender-matched people who had undergone nonsurgical treatment. Whether or not acute trauma progresses to long-term effects probably depends on multiple factors that include the shock wave dose (i.e., the number of shock waves delivered, rate of

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to cause fragmentation of a stone over a period of around 30–60 minutes. Following its introduction in the United States in February 1984, ESWL was rapidly and widely accepted as a treatment alternative for renal and ureteral stones. It is currently used in the treatment of uncomplicated stones

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Otherwise a noncontrast helical CT scan with 5 millimeters (0.2 in) sections is the diagnostic method to use to detect kidney stones and confirm the diagnosis of kidney stone disease. Near all stones are detectable on CT scans with the exception of those composed of certain drug residues in the

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Vos T, Allen C, Arora M, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Brown A, Carter A, Casey DC, Charlson FJ, Chen AZ, Coggeshall M, Cornaby L, Dandona L, Dicker DJ, Dilegge T, Erskine HE, Ferrari AJ, Fitzmaurice C, Fleming T, Forouzanfar MH, Fullman N, Gething PW, Goldberg EM, Graetz N, Haagsma JA, Hay SI, Johnson CO,

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Oxalate uroliths can occur in ruminants, although such problems from oxalate ingestion may be relatively uncommon. Ruminant urolithiasis associated with oxalate ingestion has been reported. However, no renal tubular damage or visible deposition of calcium oxalate crystals in kidneys was found in

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after resolution of urolithiasis. Research is currently uncertain if placing a temporary stent during ureteroscopy leads to different outcomes than not placing a stent in terms of number of hospital visits for post operative problems, short or long term pain, need for narcotic pain medication, risk

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from animal protein acidifies the urine, which promotes the formation of kidney stones. Low urinary-citrate excretion is also commonly found in those with a high dietary intake of animal protein, whereas vegetarians tend to have higher levels of citrate excretion. Low urinary citrate, too, promotes

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The hallmark of a stone that obstructs the ureter or renal pelvis is excruciating, intermittent pain that radiates from the flank to the groin or to the inner thigh. This is due to the transfer of referred pain signals from the lower thoracic splanchnic nerves to the lumbar splanchnic nerves as the

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Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, Casey DC, Charlson FJ, Chen AZ, Coates MM, Coggeshall M, Dandona L, Dicker DJ, Erskine HE, Ferrari AJ, Fitzmaurice C, Foreman K, Forouzanfar MH, Fraser MS, Fullman N, Gething PW, Goldberg EM, Graetz N, Haagsma JA, Hay SI, Huynh C, Johnson

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Most stones under 5 mm (0.2 in) pass spontaneously. Prompt surgery may, nonetheless, be required in persons with only one working kidney, bilateral obstructing stones, a urinary tract infection and thus, it is presumed, an infected kidney, or intractable pain. Beginning in the mid-1980s,

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are sometimes prescribed after shock wave lithotripsy to help the pieces of the stone leave the person's body. By relaxing muscles and helping to keep blood vessels open, alpha blockers may relax the ureter muscles to allow the kidney stone fragments to pass. When compared to usual care or placebo

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Unlike supplemental calcium, high intakes of dietary calcium do not appear to cause kidney stones and may actually protect against their development. This is perhaps related to the role of calcium in binding ingested oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract. As the amount of calcium intake decreases,

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Smith-Bindman R, Aubin C, Bailitz J, Bengiamin RN, Camargo CA, Corbo J, Dean AJ, Goldstein RB, Griffey RT, Jay GD, Kang TL, Kriesel DR, Ma OJ, Mallin M, Manson W, Melnikow J, Miglioretti DL, Miller SK, Mills LD, Miner JR, Moghadassi M, Noble VE, Press GM, Stoller ML, Valencia VE, Wang J, Wang RC,

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Ureteroscopic techniques are generally more effective than ESWL for treating stones located in the lower ureter, with success rates of 93–100% using Ho:YAG laser lithotripsy. Although ESWL has been traditionally preferred by many practitioners for treating stones located in the upper ureter, more

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Some of the oxalate in urine is produced by the body. Calcium and oxalate in the diet play a part but are not the only factors that affect the formation of calcium oxalate stones. Dietary oxalate is found in many vegetables, fruits, and nuts. Calcium from bone may also play a role in kidney stone

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outlining their conclusions in 2009. They concluded the risk-benefit ratio remains favorable for many people. The advantages of ESWL include its noninvasive nature, the fact that it is technically easy to treat most upper urinary tract calculi, and that, at least acutely, it is a well-tolerated,

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For a stone greater than 10 millimetres (0.39 in), ESWL may not help break the stone in one treatment; instead, two or three treatments may be needed. Some 80-85% of simple renal calculi can be effectively treated with ESWL. A number of factors can influence its efficacy, including chemical

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began to replace open surgery as the modalities of choice for the surgical management of urolithiasis. More recently, flexible ureteroscopy has been adapted to facilitate retrograde nephrostomy creation for percutaneous nephrolithotomy. This approach is still under investigation, though early

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Stone size influences the rate of spontaneous stone passage. For example, up to 98% of small stones (less than 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter) may pass spontaneously through urination within four weeks of the onset of symptoms, but for larger stones (5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in) in

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or in patients who have undergone resection of the small bowel or small-bowel bypass procedures. Oxaluria is also increased in patients who consume increased amounts of oxalate (found in vegetables and nuts). Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare autosomal recessive condition that usually presents in

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Hypocitraturia or low urinary-citrate excretion (variably defined as less than 320 mg/day) can be a contributing cause of kidney stones in up to 2/3 of cases. The protective role of citrate is linked to several mechanisms; citrate reduces urinary supersaturation of calcium salts by forming

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Specific therapy should be tailored to the type of stones involved. Diet can have an effect on the development of kidney stones. Preventive strategies include some combination of dietary modifications and medications with the goal of reducing the excretory load of calculogenic compounds on the

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Small crystals formed in the kidney. The most common crystals are made of calcium oxalate and they are generally 4–5 mm. Staghorn kidney stones are considerably larger. 1. Calcium and oxalate come together to make the crystal nucleus. Supersaturation promotes their combination (as does

749:. Heterogeneous nucleation (where there is a solid surface present on which a crystal can grow) proceeds more rapidly than homogeneous nucleation (where a crystal must grow in a liquid medium with no such surface), because it requires less energy. Adhering to cells on the surface of a 619:

A 2004 study found that diets low in calcium are associated with a higher overall risk for kidney stone formation. For most individuals, other risk factors for kidney stones, such as high intakes of dietary oxalates and low fluid intake, play a greater role than calcium intake.

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the amount of oxalate available for absorption into the bloodstream increases; this oxalate is then excreted in greater amounts into the urine by the kidneys. In the urine, oxalate is a very strong promoter of calcium oxalate precipitation—about 15 times stronger than calcium.

3090:, is potentially beneficial for mitigating calcium oxalate stones because of its ability to metabolize oxalate as its sole carbon source, but 2018 research suggests that it is instead part of a network of oxalate degrading bacteria. Additionally, one study found that oral 1997:

increasing citrate, or alkali intake, including from lemon and lime juice. Citric acid in its natural form, such as from citrus fruits, "prevents small stones from becoming 'problem stones' by coating them and preventing other material from attaching and building onto the

1903:, parts of the kidney that pass urine into the ureter (the tube connecting the kidneys to the urinary bladder). The condition is called ureterolithiasis when a calculus is located in the ureter. Stones may also form or pass into the bladder, a condition referred to as 2117:

of uric acid stones. Increasing the urine pH to a value higher than 7.0 may increase the risk of calcium phosphate stone formation, though this concept is controversial since citrate does inhibit calcium phosphate crystallization. Testing the urine periodically with

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Maintenance of dilute urine by means of vigorous fluid therapy is beneficial in all forms of kidney stones, so increasing urine volume is a key principle for the prevention of kidney stones. Fluid intake should be sufficient to maintain a urine output of at least 2

2110:(a combination of citric acid monohydrate and sodium citrate dihydrate). Aside from alkalinization of the urine, these supplements have the added advantage of increasing the urinary citrate level, which helps to reduce the aggregation of calcium oxalate stones. 639:

may increase the risk of kidney stone formation by a similar mechanism, though further epidemiologic studies are warranted to determine whether fluoride in drinking water is associated with an increased incidence of kidney stones. High dietary intake of

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In those who have had renal calculi, drinking fluids is a way to prevent them. Drinking fluids such that more than two liters of urine are produced per day is recommended. If fluid intake alone is not effective to prevent renal calculi, the medications

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at the site of shock administration, and damage to blood vessels of the kidney. In fact, the vast majority of people who are treated with a typical dose of shock waves using currently accepted treatment settings are likely to experience some degree of

789:, it does not necessarily promote the formation of a kidney stone because the particle may not reach the sufficient size needed for renal attachment. On the other hand, Randall's plaques, which were first identified by Alexander Randall in 1937, are 2395:

treatment for the vast majority of people. However, they recommended slowing the shock wave firing rate from 120 pulses per minute to 60 pulses per minute to reduce the risk of renal injury and increase the degree of stone fragmentation.

2758:. Urinary tract calculi disorders are more common in men than in women. Men most commonly experience their first episode between 30 and 40 years of age, whereas for women, the age at first presentation is somewhat later. The age of onset shows a 2746:

of kidney stones is roughly 0.5%. In the United States, the frequency in the population of urolithiasis has increased from 3.2% to 5.2% from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. In the United States, about 9% of the population has had a kidney stone.

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Calcium oxalate crystals can come in two varieties. Calcium oxalate monohydrate can appear as 'dumbbells' or as long ovals that resemble the individual posts in a picket fence. Calcium oxalate dihydrate have a tetragonal “envelope” appearance.

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On the contrary, a 2014 study suggested that ultrasonography should be used as the initial diagnostic imaging test, with further imaging studies be performed at the discretion of the physician on the basis of clinical judgment, and using

3106:, uroliths more commonly cause problems in males than in females; the sigmoid flexure of the ruminant male urinary tract is more likely to obstruct passage. Early-castrated males are at greater risk, because of lesser urethral diameter. 699:

supplements with an increased rate of kidney stones is inconclusive. The excess dietary intake of vitamin C might increase the risk of calcium-oxalate stone formation. The link between vitamin D intake and kidney stones is also tenuous.

7249: 1105: 1150: 1083:, suggesting that the stone is blocking the outflow of urine. Radiolucent stones, which do not appear on KUB, may show up on ultrasound imaging studies. Other advantages of renal ultrasonography include its low cost and absence of 922:-rich protein). The biochemical mechanisms of action of these substances have not yet been thoroughly elucidated. However, when these substances fall below their normal proportions, stones can form from an aggregation of crystals. 1894:

Urolithiasis refers to stones originating anywhere in the urinary system, including the kidneys and bladder. Nephrolithiasis refers to the presence of such stones in the kidneys. Calyceal calculi are aggregations in either the

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Differing generalizations regarding effects of pH on formation of silicate uroliths may be found. In this connection, it may be noted that under some circumstances, calcium carbonate accompanies silica in siliceous uroliths.

4407:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, United States Public Health Service, United States Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from 933:

inhibits the formation of calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stones; in addition, magnesium and citrate operate synergistically to inhibit kidney stones. The efficacy of magnesium in subduing stone formation and growth is

2077:. Chemolysis is usually achieved through the use of oral medications, although in some cases, intravenous agents or even instillation of certain irrigating agents directly onto the stone can be performed, using antegrade 756:

Supersaturation of the urine with respect to a calculogenic compound is pH-dependent. For example, at a pH of 7.0, the solubility of uric acid in urine is 158 mg/100 mL. Reducing the pH to 5.0 decreases the

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in women, with episodes peaking at 35 and 55 years. Recurrence rates are estimated at 50% over a 10-year and 75% over 20-year period, with some people experiencing ten or more episodes over the course of a lifetime.

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from low fluid intake is a factor in stone formation. Individuals living in warm climates are at higher risk due to increased fluid loss. Obesity, immobility, and sedentary lifestyles are other leading risk factors.

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Pathan SA, Mitra B, Cameron PA (April 2018). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Comparing the Efficacy of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs, Opioids, and Paracetamol in the Treatment of Acute Renal Colic".

753:, a seed crystal can grow and aggregate into an organized mass. Depending on the chemical composition of the crystal, the stone-forming process may proceed more rapidly when the urine pH is unusually high or low. 7562:

Preminger GM, Tiselius HG, Assimos DG, Alken P, Buck C, Gallucci M, Knoll T, Lingeman JE, Nakada SY, Pearle MS, Sarica K, Türk C, Wolf JS (December 2007). "2007 guideline for the management of ureteral calculi".

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Stones less than 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter pass spontaneously in up to 98% of cases, while those measuring 5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in) in diameter pass spontaneously in less than 53% of cases.

9412: 9393: 1165: 394:. Between 1% and 15% of people globally are affected by renal calculi at some point in their lives. In 2015, 22.1 million cases occurred, resulting in about 16,100 deaths. They have become more common in the 6848:

Fink HA, Wilt TJ, Eidman KE, Garimella PS, MacDonald R, Rutks IR, Brasure M, Kane RL, Monga M (July 2012). "Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults: Comparative Effectiveness of Preventive Medical Strategies".

2025:. Reducing oxalate absorption decreases kidney stone risk in susceptible people. Because of this, some doctors recommend increasing dairy intake so that its calcium content will serve as an oxalate binder 2089:

is a medication that alkalinizes the urine. In addition to acetazolamide or as an alternative, certain dietary supplements are available that produce a similar alkalinization of the urine. These include

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Chmiel JA, Stuivenberg GA, Alathel A, Gorla J, Grohe B, Razvi H, Burton JP, Bjazevic J (December 2021). "High-Throughput in vitro Gel-Based Plate Assay to Screen for Calcium Oxalate Stone Inhibitors".

3419:"Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015" 6225:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from 6086:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from 4373:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from 4265:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services. Archived from 2354:

In addition to the aforementioned potential for acute kidney injury, animal studies suggest these acute injuries may progress to scar formation, resulting in loss of functional renal volume. Recent

1866:. Urolithiasis has also been noted to occur in the setting of therapeutic drug use, with crystals of drug forming within the renal tract in some people currently being treated with agents such as 3366:"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015" 553:

A person with recurrent kidney stones may be screened for such disorders. This is typically done with a 24-hour urine collection. The urine is analyzed for features that promote stone formation.

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paper can help to ensure the urine pH remains in this optimal range. Using this approach, stone dissolution rate can be expected to be around 10 mm (0.4 in) of stone radius per month.

3255: 2499:(a small tube extending from the bladder, up the ureter and into the kidney) to provide immediate relief of an obstructed kidney. Stent placement can be useful for saving a kidney at risk for 1532:

By far, the most common type of kidney stones worldwide contains calcium. For example, calcium-containing stones represent about 80% of all cases in the United States; these typically contain

9020:"The effects of feeding pelleted diets made from either coarsely or finely ground hay on phosphorus balance and on the partition of phosphorus excretion between urine and faeces in the sheep" 2335:. ESWL-induced acute kidney injury is dose-dependent (increases with the total number of shock waves administered and with the power setting of the lithotriptor) and can be severe, including 2750:

The total cost for treating urolithiasis was US$ 2 billion in 2003. About 65–80% of those with kidney stones are men; most stones in women are due to either metabolic defects (such as

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Wynberg JB, Borin JF, Vicena JZ, Hannosh V, Salmon SA (October 2012). "Flexible ureteroscopy-directed retrograde nephrostomy for percutaneous nephrolithotomy: description of a technique".

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located in the kidney and upper ureter, provided the aggregate stone burden (stone size and number) is less than 20 mm (0.8 in) and the anatomy of the involved kidney is normal.

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delivery, power setting, acoustic characteristics of the particular lithotriptor, and frequency of retreatment), as well as certain intrinsic predisposing pathophysiologic risk factors.

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Saducismus triumphatus, or, Full and plain evidence concerning witches and apparitions : in two parts, the first treating of their possibility, the second of their real existence

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Low Ca:P intake ratio is conducive to phosphatic (e.g. struvite) urolith formation. Incidence among wether lambs can be minimized by maintaining a dietary Ca:P intake ratio of 2:1.

2053:. However, no randomized, controlled trial of oxalate restriction has been performed to test the hypothesis that oxalate restriction reduces stone formation. Some evidence indicates 5573: 1129: 9339: 6298: 3926: 5497: 9184:

Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium, Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (2011). Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del HB (eds.).

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Bushman DH, Emerick RJ, Embry LB (December 1965). "Experimentally induced ovine phosphatic urolithiasis: relationships involving dietary calcium, phosphorus and magnesium".

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More definitive ureteroscopic techniques for stone extraction (rather than simply bypassing the obstruction) include basket extraction and ultrasound ureterolithotripsy.

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dropped from about 24% to 2.4%. However, other treatment techniques continued to produce a high level of mortality, especially among inexperienced urologists. In 1980,

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In people with a history of stones, those who are less than 50 years of age and are presenting with the symptoms of stones without any concerning signs do not require

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Excessive vitamin D supplementation may increase the risk of stone formation by increasing the intestinal absorption of calcium; correction of a deficiency does not.

7507: 2480:, is the treatment of choice for large or complicated stones (such as calyceal staghorn calculi) or stones that cannot be extracted using less invasive procedures. 632:

that influences the formation of kidney stones. For example, by increasing urinary calcium excretion, high dietary sodium may increase the risk of stone formation.

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deposits that form in the papillary interstitium and are thought to be the nidus required for stone development. In addition to Randall's plugs, which form in the

1500:(calcium oxalate dihydrate) emerging from the amorphous central part of the stone (the horizontal length of the picture represents 0.5 mm of the figured original) 670:. Eating animal protein creates an acid load that increases urinary excretion of calcium and uric acid and reduced citrate. Urinary excretion of excess sulfurous 2014:) per day. A high fluid intake may reduce the likelihood of kidney stone recurrence or may increase the time between stone development without unwanted effects. 1264:) is useful. Chemical analysis of collected stones can establish their composition, which in turn can help to guide future preventive and therapeutic management. 3037:

Although kidney stones do not often occur in children, the incidence is increasing. These stones are in the kidney in two thirds of reported cases, and in the

7964:"Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010" 7639:

Evan AP, Willis LR (2007). "Ch. 41: Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy: Complications". In Smith AD, Badlani GH, Bagley DH, Clayman RV, Docimo SG (eds.).

6921: 4396: 3938: 3084:

has been explored as a contributing factor for stone disease, indicating that some bacteria may be different in people forming kidney stones. One bacterium,

6715:"Dietary and pharmacologic management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians" 3321:"Dietary and pharmacologic management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians" 9353: 9117:

Waltner-Toews, D. and D. H. Meadows. 1980. Case report: Urolithiasis in a herd of beef cattle associated with oxalate ingestion. Can. Vet. J. 21: 61-62

8921: 5816:

Smith RC, Levine J, Rosenfeld AT (September 1999). "Helical CT of urinary tract stones. Epidemiology, origin, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management".

4254: 2276: 7396:

Seitz C, Liatsikos E, Porpiglia F, Tiselius HG, Zwergel U (September 2009). "Medical therapy to facilitate the passage of stones: what is the evidence?".

3981: 3120:. For domestic ruminants, dietary cation: anion balance is sometimes adjusted to assure a slightly acidic urine pH, for prevention of calculus formation. 4183: 3942: 2787:

for example, gives a detailed description of Abraham Mechelburg's voiding of small stones through his penis' virga, attributing the issue to witchcraft.

6447: 2239:

The use of medications to speed the spontaneous passage of stones in the ureter is referred to as medical expulsive therapy. Several agents, including

7547:

Lingeman JE, Matlaga BR, Evan AP (2007). "Surgical Management of Urinary Lithiasis". In Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Novick AC, Partin AW, Peters CA (eds.).

5882: 3259: 2929:

introduced extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for breaking up stones via acoustical pulses, and this technique has since come into widespread use.

390:

Renal calculi have affected humans throughout history with a description of surgery to remove them dating from as early as 600 BC in ancient India by

2173:

is one of the few treatments that have been shown to reduce kidney stone recurrences. Allopurinol interferes with the production of uric acid in the

7659:

Oestreich MC, Vernooij RW, Sathianathen NJ, Hwang EC, Kuntz GM, Koziarz A, Scales CD, Dahm P, et al. (Cochrane Urology Group) (November 2020).

7052: 2315:

composition of the stone, presence of anomalous renal anatomy and the specific location of the stone within the kidney, presence of hydronephrosis,

1073:, where a similar contrast agent is injected directly into the distal ostium of the ureter (where the ureter terminates as it enters the bladder). 2033:

Aside from vigorous oral hydration and eating more dietary calcium, other prevention strategies include avoidance of higher doses of supplemental

9538: 9093: 6671:"Medical management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: a systematic review for an American College of Physicians Clinical Guideline" 6053: 1556:, are associated with the development of calcium oxalate stones. The formation of calcium phosphate stones is associated with conditions such as 8666:

Ticinesi A, Milani C, Guerra A, Allegri F, Lauretani F, Nouvenne A, Mancabelli L, Lugli GA, Turroni F, Duranti S, Mangifesta M (28 April 2018).

4366: 3056:

stones are less common. Calcium oxalate stones in children are associated with high amounts of calcium, oxalate, and magnesium in acidic urine.

1466:

Cystine, an amino acid (a dimer of cysteine, of the building blocks of protein), leaks through the kidneys and into the urine to form crystals.

5918: 3680:

Abufaraj M, Xu T, Cao C, Waldhoer T, Seitz C, D'andrea D, Siyam A, Tarawneh R, Fajkovic H, Schernhammer E, Yang L, Shariat SF (November 2021).

903: 2190:. Some practitioners advocate adding allopurinol only in people in whom hyperuricosuria and hyperuricemia persist, despite the use of a urine- 2918: 3682:"Prevalence and Trends in Kidney Stone Among Adults in the USA: Analyses of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007-2018 Data" 1835: 6218: 5555: 4712: 1950:. Other forms that can possibly grow to become staghorn stones are those composed of cystine, calcium oxalate monohydrate, and uric acid. 9285: 8050: 7854: 6162: 3417:

CO, Kassebaum NJ, Kinfu Y, Kulikoff XR, et al. (GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators) (October 2016).

8668:"Understanding the gut–kidney axis in nephrolithiasis: an analysis of the gut microbiota composition and functionality of stone formers" 8111: 6280: 3298: 3204: 7601:

Evan AP, McAteer JA (1996). "Ch. 28: Q-effects of Shock Wave Lithotripsy". In Coe FL, Favus MJ, Pak CY, Parks JH, Preminger GM (eds.).

6079: 5486: 4234: 3869: 3364:

Kassebaum NJ, Kawashima T, Kemmer L, et al. (GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators) (October 2016).

3138:

Various surgical interventions, e.g. amputation of the urethral process at its base near the glans penis in male ruminants, perineal

2426: 1402:

Diets rich in animal proteins and purines: substances found naturally in all food but especially in organ meats, fish, and shellfish.

1069:

present in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder may be better defined by the use of this contrast agent. Stones can also be detected by a

7193: 4857:

Goodwin JS, Tangum MR (November 1998). "Battling quackery: attitudes about micronutrient supplements in American academic medicine".

4258: 399:

the patterns and the burden of the disease and identify modifiable risk factors that contribute to the development of renal calculi.

4676: 4400: 427:, is often described as one of the strongest pain sensations known. Renal colic caused by kidney stones is commonly accompanied by 9361: 1253:

24 hour urine collection to measure total daily urinary volume, magnesium, sodium, uric acid, calcium, citrate, oxalate, and

473:

overlaps the ureter, and the exact location of the pain may be difficult to isolate due to the proximity of these two structures.

299:

may also be useful. Calculi are typically classified by their location: nephrolithiasis (in the kidney), ureterolithiasis (in the

8284: 915: 5852: 975:

is usually made on the basis of the location and severity of the pain, which is typically colicky in nature (comes and goes in

8403:"Body fatness, diabetes, physical activity and risk of kidney stones: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies" 2780:

The existence of kidney stones was first recorded thousands of years ago, with various explanations given; Joseph Glanville's

955:

is also used to increase urine citrate levels. It can be prescribed or found over-the-counter in pill, liquid or powder form.

9700: 9310: 9279: 9258: 9203: 8857: 8183: 8044: 7945: 7848: 7618: 7218:

Cicerello E, Merlo F, Maccatrozzo L (September 2010). "Urinary alkalization for the treatment of uric acid nephrolithiasis".

6485: 6292: 6186: 6156: 5930: 5796: 5610: 5567: 4706: 4063: 3975: 3859: 3292: 3198: 2291: 2272: 1768:

stone in the face of persistent urine acidity, in conjunction with the finding of uric acid crystals in fresh urine samples.

1434:

Prevention of struvite stones depends on staying infection-free. Diet has not been shown to affect struvite stone formation.

1031: 979:

waves). Pain in the back occurs when calculi produce an obstruction in the kidney. Physical examination may reveal fever and

376: 161: 9225: 8863: 8209: 6549: 6491: 4291:

Hoppe B, Langman CB (October 2003). "A United States survey on diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of primary hyperoxaluria".

9344: 7522: 7246:"Effect of addition of calcium hydroxide to foods rich in oxalic acid on calcium and oxalic acid metabolism | Request PDF" 4545: 3731:"Time trends in reported prevalence of kidney stones in the United States: 1976–199411.See Editorial by Goldfarb, p. 1951" 9531: 9431: 6669:

Fink HA, Wilt TJ, Eidman KE, Garimella PS, MacDonald R, Rutks IR, Brasure M, Kane RL, Ouellette J, Monga M (April 2013).

4459: 3934: 2220: 1112: 1008: 364: 6831: 6775: 1826:. Cystine stone formation can be treated with urine alkalinization and dietary protein restriction. People affected by 8352:

Barreto L, Jung JH, Abdelrahim A, Ahmed M, Dawkins GP, Kazmierski M, et al. (Cochrane Urology Group) (June 2018).

6374:

Rosenberg LE, Durant JL, Elsas LJ (June 1968). "Familial iminoglycinuria. An inborn error of renal tubular transport".

5661: 2358:

also indicate elderly people are at increased risk of developing new-onset hypertension following ESWL. In addition, a

1756:). They may also form in association with disorders of acid/base metabolism where the urine is excessively acidic (low 6929: 2227:

in those with normal kidney function. Medications by mouth are often effective for less severe discomfort. The use of

8075: 8922:"Effects of dietary ammonium chloride and variations in calcium to phosphorus ratio on silica urolithiasis in sheep" 7786:

Ordonez M, Hwang EC, Borofsky M, Bakker CJ, Gandhi S, Dahm P, et al. (Cochrane Urology Group) (February 2019).

3132:

yearling wether sheep fed diets containing soluble oxalate at 6.5 percent of dietary dry matter for about 100 days.

8544:"The gut microbiota profile of adults with kidney disease and kidney stones: a systematic review of the literature" 2843:

contained a description of lithotomy, and this work served as the basis for this procedure until the 18th century.

2303: 3041:

in the remaining cases. Older children are at greater risk independent of whether or not they are male or female.

1787:

and form oxalate stones. They also have a tendency to form urate stones. Urate stones are especially common after

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fluid intake, and lifestyle factors remain major topics for research on prevention of kidney stones, as of 2017.

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Diagnosis of kidney stones is made on the basis of information obtained from the history, physical examination,

9792: 9624: 9524: 7963: 3963: 3165: 2038: 1223: 561: 8450:

Trinchieri A, Croppi E, Montanari E (June 2017). "Obesity and urolithiasis: evidence of regional influences".

6513:

Carr MC, Prien EL, Babayan RK (December 1990). "Triamterene nephrolithiasis: renewed attention is warranted".

4144: 3915: 1728:

Struvite stones (triple-phosphate/magnesium ammonium phosphate) have a 'coffin lid' morphology by microscopy.

1570:

is increased in patients with certain gastrointestinal disorders including inflammatory bowel disease such as

596:

in the US found that postmenopausal women who consumed 1000 mg of supplemental calcium and 400

9629: 7928:

Lieske JC, Segura JW (2004). "Ch. 7: Evaluation and Medical Management of Kidney Stones". In Potts JM (ed.).

3930: 1958:

Preventative measures depend on the type of stones. In those with calcium stones, drinking plenty of fluids,

951:

is commonly prescribed in clinical practice to increase urinary citrate and to reduce stone formation rates.

520: 508:, and excessive consumption of fruit juices may increase the risk of kidney stone formation due to increased 17: 6436: 2691: 9127:

James LF, Butcher JE (December 1972). "Halogeton poisoning of sheep: effect of high level oxalate intake".

8039:(2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health. p. 235. 5890: 4692: 2775: 2472: 2259:

may be better than tamsulosin alone. These treatments also appear to be useful in addition to lithotripsy.

1725:-shaped) calculi requiring invasive surgery such as percutaneous nephrolithotomy for definitive treatment. 1592: 846:

stone formation. Additionally, non-urease producing bacteria can provide bacterial components that promote

593: 451: 384: 169: 8306:

Kirejczyk JK, Porowski T, Filonowicz R, Kazberuk A, Stefanowicz M, Wasilewska A, Debek W (February 2014).

7788:"Ureteral stent versus no ureteral stent for ureteroscopy in the management of renal and ureteral calculi" 7041: 6281:"Chapter 22: Pyelonephritis and Other Infections, Reflux Nephropathy, Hydronephrosis, and Nephrolithiasis" 7161:"Dietary factors and the risk of incident kidney stones in men: new insights after 14 years of follow-up" 5041:

Robertson WG, Peacock M, Nordin BE (July 1969). "Calcium crystalluria in recurrent renal-stone formers".

2073:) of the urine. Uric acid stones are among the few types amenable to dissolution therapy, referred to as 2298:

technique for the removal of kidney stones. Most ESWL is carried out when the stone is present near the

462:

and hydronephrosis can be observed following the obstruction of urine flow through one or both ureters.

9183: 4567: 4486: 2359: 1807: 1772: 9060: 6014: 5740:

Smith RC, Varanelli M (July 2000). "Diagnosis and management of acute ureterolithiasis: CT is truth".

2913:

New techniques in lithotomy began to emerge starting in 1520, but the operation remained risky. After

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decreases urinary calcium when combined with food rich in oxalic acid such as green leafy vegetables.

734: 9662: 4374: 1549: 1138: 891: 127: 9787: 9715: 9634: 9442: 3970:. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation. pp. 490–3. 3094:

use, which alters the gut microbiota, can increase the odds of a person developing a kidney stone.

2743: 2532: 2500: 2355: 1810:

have a propensity to accumulate crystal-forming substances in their urine. For example, those with

947:

soluble complexes with calcium ions and by inhibiting crystal growth and aggregation. Therapy with

505: 6409:

Coşkun T, Ozalp I, Tokatli A (1993). "Iminoglycinuria: a benign type of inherited aminoaciduria".

6287:. Vol. 2 (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 991–1082. 3638:"Effect of Tamsulosin on Stone Passage for Ureteral Stones: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis" 1798:

crystals, usually diamond-shaped. They may also look like squares or rods which are polarizable.

1682:. These infection stones are commonly observed in people who have factors that predispose them to 644:

appears to reduce the risk of stone formation because potassium promotes the urinary excretion of

248:. About half of people who have had a renal calculus are likely to have another within ten years. 236:, resulting in sharp and severe pain in the lower back that often radiates downward to the groin ( 9710: 9597: 9589: 4728:"Dietary Protein and Potassium, Diet-Dependent Net Acid Load, and Risk of Incident Kidney Stones" 2382:

established the Shock Wave Lithotripsy Task Force to provide an expert opinion on the safety and

2248: 2114: 1795: 1683: 1660: 1260:

collection of stones (by urinating through a StoneScreen kidney stone collection cup or a simple

609: 604:

per day for seven years had a 17% higher risk of developing kidney stones than subjects taking a

536: 435:, sweating, nausea, and vomiting. It typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes caused by 9504: 8979:"Silica Urolithiasis In Beef Cattle : 3. Chemical and Physical Composition of the Uroliths" 8308:"An association between kidney stone composition and urinary metabolic disturbances in children" 8233:"Temporal trends in incidence of kidney stones among children: a 25-year population based study" 7937: 7610: 5260:"Proteus mirabilis urease: genetic organization, regulation, and expression of structural genes" 765:

to less than 8 mg/100 mL. The formation of uric-acid stones requires a combination of

8780:

Tasian GE, Jemielita T, Goldfarb DS, Copelovitch L, Gerber JS, Wu Q, Denburg MR (1 June 2018).

8099: 6588:

Gettman MT, Segura JW (March 2005). "Management of ureteric stones: issues and controversies".

6226: 6077: 4694: 4432:"Urinary excretion of oxalate, calcium, magnesium, and uric acid in inflammatory bowel disease" 4364: 3086: 2840: 2829:

suggests there were practicing surgeons in ancient Greece to whom physicians were to defer for

2782: 2146: 2018: 1654: 1561: 1237: 980: 586: 423:

stone passes down from the kidney or proximal ureter to the distal ureter. This pain, known as

122: 9482: 9269: 8103: 8034: 7836: 6146: 5076:

Elliot JS, Rabinowitz IN (March 1980). "Calcium oxalate crystalluria: crystal size in urine".

3636:

Wang RC, Smith-Bindman R, Whitaker E, Neilson J, Allen IE, Stoller ML, Fahimi J (March 2017).

1990:

limiting animal protein intake to no more than two meals daily (an association between animal

797:, these structures can generate reactive oxygen species that further enhance stone formation. 9762: 9639: 9602: 9369: 8721:

Ramirez J, Guarner F, Bustos Fernandez L, Maruy A, Sdepanian VL, Cohen H (24 November 2020).

8104:"Book VII, Chapter XXVI: Of the operation necessary in a suppression of urine, and lithotomy" 6216: 4253: 3282: 3188: 3143: 2926: 2383: 1744:, may produce uric acid stones. They also may form in association with conditions that cause 1699: 1611:, or triple-phosphate stones) form most often in the presence of infection by urea-splitting 1553: 1496:

Scanning electron micrograph of the surface of a kidney stone showing tetragonal crystals of

1076: 1050: 8667: 6687: 6670: 6087: 1141:

of abdomen without contrast, showing a 3-mm stone (marked by an arrow) in the left proximal

565:

A kidney stone (yellow) composed of calcium oxalate, next to a tourmaline gemstone for scale

9747: 9705: 9617: 8614: 4201: 3855: 2759: 2732: 2495:

ureteroscopes have become smaller. One ureteroscopic technique involves the placement of a

1839: 1703: 1229: 1156: 1099:

as an initial diagnostic test results in less radiation exposure and equally good outcome.

1070: 738: 663: 652: 612:

also showed an association between supplemental calcium intake and kidney stone formation.

312: 7160: 6480:(1st ed.). Shelton, Connecticut: People's Medical Publishing House. pp. 411–12. 5516:"Urinary citrate and renal stone disease: the preventive role of alkali citrate treatment" 4266: 3827: 3822: 2954:, meaning "pebble". Lithiasis (stone formation) in the kidneys is called nephrolithiasis ( 2037:(since ascorbate is metabolized to oxalate) and restriction of oxalate-rich foods such as 1965:

and citrate are effective as is allopurinol in those with high uric acid levels in urine.

8: 9797: 9752: 9416: 8199: 5023: 4635: 3891: 2950: 2914: 2883: 2863: 2332: 2284: 2082: 1714: 1648: 1557: 1367: 1058: 528: 447: 268: 232:. If a stone grows to more than 5 millimeters (0.2 inches), it can cause blockage of the 213: 8618: 7998: 5226: 4408: 3826: This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the 3613: 3588: 9757: 9674: 9579: 9358: 9217: 8995: 8978: 8952: 8814: 8781: 8757: 8722: 8703: 8578: 8543: 8519: 8494: 8475: 8427: 8402: 8378: 8353: 8257: 8232: 8153: 8011: 7930: 7905: 7889:"Kidney stones: a global picture of prevalence, incidence, and associated risk factors" 7888: 7812: 7787: 7685: 7660: 7603: 7466: 7441: 7297: 7272: 7180: 7138: 7018: 6993: 6898: 6873: 6818: 6613: 6045: 5989: 5962: 5765: 5712: 5679: 5597: 5436: 5411: 5382: 5351: 5332: 5235: 5210: 5186: 5161: 5137: 5112: 4945: 4920: 4804: 4779: 4752: 4727: 4663: 4316: 4175: 4113: 4088: 4024: 4007: 3806: 3771: 3711: 3566: 3511: 3486: 3443: 3418: 3390: 3365: 3068: 2540: 2516: 2195: 2191: 2095: 2022: 1991: 1780: 1776: 1691: 1687: 1571: 636: 597: 578: 543: 459: 264: 229: 84: 9425: 9421: 8643: 8602: 7979: 7333: 6644: 6526: 5829: 5284: 5259: 5089: 5054: 4921:"Total, Dietary, and Supplemental Vitamin C Intake and Risk of Incident Kidney Stones" 4611: 4586: 4163: 3654: 3637: 3434: 3381: 1987:

limiting cola, including sugar-sweetened soft drinks; to less than one liter per week.

1984:

increasing total fluid intake to achieve more than two liters per day of urine output;

9684: 9669: 9607: 9453: 9306: 9275: 9254: 9209: 9199: 9144: 9085: 9041: 9036: 9019: 9000: 8944: 8902: 8853: 8819: 8801: 8762: 8744: 8695: 8687: 8648: 8630: 8601:

Duncan SH, Richardson AJ, Kaul P, Holmes RP, Allison MJ, Stewart CS (1 August 2002).

8583: 8565: 8524: 8467: 8432: 8383: 8329: 8262: 8179: 8145: 8141: 8081: 8071: 8040: 8003: 7988: 7941: 7910: 7844: 7817: 7746: 7690: 7614: 7580: 7471: 7413: 7373: 7337: 7302: 7245: 7227: 7185: 7130: 7126: 7092: 7023: 6974: 6903: 6854: 6823: 6767: 6736: 6692: 6648: 6605: 6601: 6550:"Section IV: Diseases of the Bladder, Chapter VII: Vesical Calculi (Cysto-lithiasis)" 6530: 6481: 6437:"Patient Information about Crixivan for HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) Infection" 6418: 6391: 6356: 6329: 6288: 6152: 6125: 6037: 5994: 5926: 5833: 5792: 5757: 5717: 5699: 5653: 5606: 5563: 5527: 5468: 5441: 5387: 5336: 5324: 5289: 5240: 5191: 5142: 5128: 5093: 5058: 4950: 4901: 4874: 4839: 4809: 4757: 4702: 4668: 4616: 4537: 4451: 4395: 4308: 4226: 4221: 4167: 4118: 4069: 4059: 4029: 3971: 3811: 3793: 3752: 3747: 3730: 3715: 3703: 3659: 3618: 3589:"Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and non-opioids for acute renal colic" 3558: 3516: 3448: 3395: 3342: 3288: 3194: 3053: 2879: 2875: 2814: 2524: 2367: 2344: 2336: 2323: 2280: 2199: 2130: 2103: 2099: 1980:

kidneys. Dietary recommendations to minimize the formation of kidney stones include:

1847: 1706:. They are also commonly seen in people with underlying metabolic disorders, such as 1636: 1537: 1340: 1185: 972: 948: 895: 815: 790: 524: 336: 284: 105: 68: 9221: 8956: 8707: 8626: 8354:"Medical and surgical interventions for the treatment of urinary stones in children" 8157: 7661:"Alpha-blockers after shock wave lithotripsy for renal or ureteral stones in adults" 7142: 6617: 5769: 5515: 5275: 4693:

Committee on Fluoride in Drinking Water of the National Academy of Sciences (2006).

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in the left kidney (indicated by yellow arrow), with a kidney stone in the inferior

1240:

count) suggestive of bacterial infection, as seen in the setting of struvite stones;

711: 9493: 9246: 9191: 9136: 9075: 9031: 8990: 8936: 8894: 8809: 8793: 8752: 8734: 8679: 8638: 8622: 8573: 8555: 8514: 8506: 8479: 8459: 8422: 8414: 8373: 8369: 8365: 8319: 8252: 8244: 8231:

Dwyer ME, Krambeck AE, Bergstralh EJ, Milliner DS, Lieske JC, Rule AD (July 2012).

8137: 8015: 7993: 7983: 7975: 7900: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7738: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7572: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7405: 7365: 7329: 7292: 7284: 7175: 7122: 7082: 7013: 7005: 6964: 6893: 6885: 6813: 6805: 6726: 6682: 6640: 6597: 6522: 6383: 6151:(3 ed.). Philadelphia, Pa. : Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. p. 684. 6049: 6029: 5984: 5974: 5825: 5749: 5707: 5691: 5431: 5423: 5377: 5367: 5316: 5279: 5271: 5230: 5222: 5181: 5173: 5132: 5124: 5085: 5050: 4940: 4932: 4866: 4799: 4791: 4747: 4739: 4658: 4650: 4606: 4598: 4527: 4443: 4300: 4216: 4159: 4108: 4100: 4019: 3801: 3783: 3742: 3693: 3649: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3550: 3506: 3498: 3438: 3430: 3385: 3377: 3332: 3155: 2957: 2903: 2826: 2810: 2806: 1819: 1642: 1634:

the urine, resulting in favorable conditions for the formation of struvite stones.

1222:

urine culture to identify any infecting organisms present in the urinary tract and

1204: 1193: 1135: 356: 6176: 4202:"Pathogenesis of Dent's disease and related syndromes of X-linked nephrolithiasis" 1947: 1159:

of a stone located at the pyeloureteric junction with accompanying hydronephrosis.

651:

Kidney stones are more likely to develop, and to grow larger, if a person has low

585:, kidney stone formation was used as an indicator of excess calcium intake by the 228:

and leave the body in the urine stream. A small calculus may pass without causing

9679: 9447: 9365: 9334: 9250: 9185: 8847: 8324: 8307: 8203: 7409: 7369: 6473: 5925:(6th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 962–7. 5562:(7th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 45–50. 4870: 4263:

Information about Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases: A-Z list of Topics and Titles

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reducing sodium intake is associated with a reduction in urine calcium excretion.

1851: 1745: 1533: 1513: 1308: 1092: 847: 810: 794: 774: 766: 726: 570: 428: 348: 316: 308: 292: 115: 9516: 8542:

Stanford J, Charlton K, Stefoska-Needham A, Ibrahim R, Lambert K (5 June 2020).

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Macaluso JN (November 1996). "Management of stone disease--bearing the burden".

7113:

Tiselius HG (May 2003). "Epidemiology and medical management of stone disease".

6387: 3502: 9458: 8683: 8560: 8248: 7576: 7009: 4936: 4515: 3865: 3788: 3160: 3081: 3025: 2922: 2907: 2899: 2818: 2755: 2508: 2496: 2430: 2348: 2256: 2091: 2011: 1863: 1710: 1627: 1247: 1243: 1208: 1171:

Measurement of a 5.6 mm large kidney stone in soft tissue versus skeletal

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Medical-surgical nursing : assessment and management of clinical problems

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of UTI, need for a repeat procedure or narrowing of the ureter from scarring.

1915: 1760:), resulting in precipitation of uric acid crystals. A diagnosis of uric acid 89:

Severe pain in the lower back or abdomen, blood in the urine, vomiting, nausea

9781: 9725: 9548: 9329: 9303:

Urinary stone disease: the practical guide to medical and surgical management

9140: 8805: 8748: 8691: 8634: 8569: 8085: 6793: 6755: 6446:. Whitehouse Station, New Jersey: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corporation. 2010. 5703: 5372: 4431: 4073: 3797: 2887: 2492: 2449: 2404: 2399: 2240: 2228: 2182: 2150: 2086: 1904: 1784: 1749: 1120: 1062: 887: 750: 582: 547: 532: 470: 395: 304: 221: 46:

Urolithiasis, kidney stone, renal calculus, nephrolith, kidney stone disease,

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Primary care medicine: office evaluation and management of the adult patient

5791:. Vol. 1 (8th ed.). Philadelphia: WB Saunders. pp. 1299–349. 5695: 5638: 5356:

on Calcium Oxalate Crystallization, Crystal Growth, and Crystal Aggregation"

4568:

Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium 2011

4487:

Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium 2011

2735:

is about 10-15% in the developed world, but can be as high as 20-25% in the

1886: 1492: 1355: 149:

Drinking fluids such that more than two liters of urine are produced per day

9742: 9730: 9720: 9213: 9089: 9004: 8823: 8797: 8766: 8699: 8652: 8587: 8528: 8471: 8436: 8387: 8333: 8266: 8149: 8007: 7914: 7821: 7750: 7694: 7584: 7475: 7417: 7377: 7231: 7189: 7134: 7096: 7027: 6978: 6907: 6858: 6827: 6771: 6740: 6696: 6609: 6129: 6113: 6041: 5998: 5837: 5761: 5721: 5657: 5531: 5472: 5445: 5391: 5328: 5244: 5211:"Reactive oxygen species, inflammation and calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis" 5195: 5146: 4954: 4905: 4843: 4813: 4761: 4672: 4620: 4541: 4312: 4230: 4171: 4122: 4104: 4006:

Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ (February 1996).

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As with adults, most pediatric kidney stones are predominantly composed of

2895: 2891: 2855: 2822: 2512: 2488: 2468: 2434: 2371: 2299: 2187: 1924: 1871: 1843: 1765: 1761: 1678: 1504: 1261: 1233: 1226:

to determine the susceptibility of these organisms to specific antibiotics;

1216: 1054: 992: 907: 786: 742: 667: 458:, as well as the nausea and vomiting that are also common in urolithiasis. 380: 165: 135: 9148: 9080: 9045: 8948: 8940: 8906: 8898: 7742: 7341: 7306: 6969: 6952: 6652: 6534: 6422: 6395: 6360: 6333: 6033: 6015:"Ultrasonography versus computed tomography for suspected nephrolithiasis" 5293: 5097: 5062: 4878: 4795: 4654: 4455: 4447: 4033: 3012: 1519: 1323: 9735: 9569: 9477: 8510: 7711:

Ch. 38: "Indications for Surgical Removal, Including Asymptomatic Stones"

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machine to deliver externally applied, focused, high-intensity pulses of

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Calcium is one component of the most common type of human kidney stones,

519:

Kidney stones can result from an underlying metabolic condition, such as

481: 436: 424: 412: 344: 237: 6809: 6078:

National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse (2007).

5979: 5850: 4365:

National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse (2008).

2731:

Kidney stones affect all geographical, cultural, and racial groups. The

2535:(Ho:YAG) laser to fragment stones in the bladder, ureters, and kidneys. 2467:

less invasive treatments such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy,

2141:

One of the recognized medical therapies for prevention of stones is the

1079:

can sometimes be useful, because it gives details about the presence of

9657: 9612: 9574: 9564: 9499: 8541: 6713:

Qaseem A, Dallas P, Forciea MA, Starkey M, Denberg TD (November 2014).

4726:

Ferraro PM, Mandel EI, Curhan GC, Gambaro G, Taylor EN (October 2016).

3319:

Qaseem A, Dallas P, Forciea MA, Starkey M, Denberg TD (November 2014).

3128:

to be excreted in urine. (Most saliva phosphate is fecally excreted.)

3091: 2751: 2456: 2307: 2267: 2252: 2244: 2154: 2066: 1815: 1811: 1707: 1666: 1631: 1616: 1497: 1116: 1016: 964: 879: 871: 758: 746: 683: 679: 671: 539:. 3–20% of people who form kidney stones have medullary sponge kidney. 443: 372: 296: 288: 111: 77: 9385: 6217:

National Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service (2008).

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Johri N, Cooper B, Robertson W, Choong S, Rickards D, Unwin R (2010).

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Stamatelou KK, Francis ME, Jones CA, Nyberg LM, Curhan GC (May 2003).

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Increasing the urine pH to around 6.5 provides optimal conditions for

1938:

Stones that are large enough to fill out the renal calyces are called

1721:. Infection stones can grow rapidly, forming large calyceal staghorn ( 1652:

are the most common organisms isolated; less common organisms include

9488: 8065: 7087: 7070: 6731: 6714: 5427: 5028: 4636:"Probiotics and other key determinants of dietary oxalate absorption" 3896: 3337: 3320: 2830: 2477: 2392: 2119: 2107: 2054: 2050: 1928: 1867: 1788: 1737: 1509: 1378: 1254: 1212: 1084: 1043: 1020: 926: 863: 762: 696: 641: 601: 574: 509: 432: 360: 320: 241: 157: 8019: 3587:

Afshar K, Jafari S, Marks AJ, Eftekhari A, MacNeily AE (June 2015).

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6181: 3103: 3049: 2851: 2847: 2340: 2142: 2030:

carbonate, because it helps to increase urinary citrate excretion.

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levels (whereas tea, coffee, wine and beer may decrease the risk).

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in a vast majority of cases, which forms only in the presence of

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Conditions limiting water intake can result in stone formation.

2833:, or the surgical removal of stones. The Roman medical treatise 2476:

results are favorable. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy or, rarely,

2219:

Management of pain often requires intravenous administration of

1771:

As noted above (section on calcium oxalate stones), people with

1748:(an excessive amount of uric acid in the urine) with or without 741:) with one or more calculogenic (crystal-forming) substances, a 275:

and not drinking enough fluids. Calculi form in the kidney when

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Pain in the lower-left quadrant can sometimes be confused with

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A 2010 review concluded that rates of disease are increasing.

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infections in the kidney and when urine is alkaline (high pH)

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contractions of the ureter as it attempts to expel the stone.

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The mainstay for medical management of uric acid stones is

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Radiograph showing a large staghorn calculus involving the

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may be considered for relief of obstructive urolithiasis.

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Laboratory investigations typically carried out include:

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Examples of people who had kidney stone disease include

2057:

intake decreases the risk of symptomatic kidney stones.

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are present. The most common type among pregnant women.

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tests to look for abnormally high blood calcium levels (

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have a higher risk of developing kidney stones. In the

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is usually the first measure, using medications such as

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and recurrence of kidney stones has been shown in men);

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Part of the 2322:Common adverse effects of ESWL include acute 2021:, thereby preventing its absorption into the 773:stones, but calcium-based stones (especially 648:, an inhibitor of calcium crystal formation. 542:Kidney stones are more common in people with 454:is the basis of the radiation of pain to the 9160: 9158: 9126: 9024:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 8977:Forman SA, Whiting F, Connell R (May 1959). 8192: 8123: 8121: 8092: 7927: 7873: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7596: 7594: 7435: 7433: 7431: 7429: 7427: 7264: 7103: 6950: 6747: 6429: 6340: 5549: 5547: 5545: 5543: 5541: 5410:Coe FL, Evan A, Worcester E (October 2005). 4509: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4290: 4286: 4284: 4249: 4247: 3540: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3358: 3356: 2343:. 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Renal calculi typically form in the 9701:Urologic chronic pelvic pain syndrome 9520: 9228:from the original on 9 September 2014 8394: 8173: 7857:from the original on 20 February 2021 7271:Cameron JS, Simmonds HA (June 1987). 6834:from the original on 15 October 2008. 6754:Goldfarb DS, Coe FL (November 1999). 6633:The Urologic Clinics of North America 6285:Heptinstall's Pathology of the Kidney 6189:from the original on 26 February 2014 5637:Pietrow PK, Karellas ME (July 2006). 5503:from the original on 26 October 2020. 5416:The Journal of Clinical Investigation 4967: 4682:from the original on 16 January 2016. 4240:from the original on 5 November 2012. 4053: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4043: 3948:from the original on 18 October 2011. 3675: 3673: 3577: 3485:Miller NL, Lingeman JE (March 2007). 3305: 2292:Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy 623: 546:; Crohn's disease is associated with 402: 377:extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy 162:extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy 9164: 9068:Reproduction, Nutrition, Development 8063: 7763: 7252:from the original on 7 November 2021 6778:from the original on 22 August 2005. 6259:(2nd ed.). 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For those with symptoms, 8340: 7839:Ch. 26: "Laser Lithotripsy Physics" 7647: 6453:from the original on 15 August 2011 6376:The New England Journal of Medicine 6022:The New England Journal of Medicine 5818:Radiologic Clinics of North America 5598:"Ch. 14: Renal and Urological Care" 5258:Jones BD, Mobley HL (August 1988). 5227:10.3978/j.issn.2223-4683.2014.06.04 5215:Translational Andrology and Urology 5001:Knudsen BE, Beiko DT, Denstedt JD, 4925:American Journal of Kidney Diseases 4634:Liebman M, Al-Wahsh IA (May 2011). 4142: 3935:United States Public Health Service 3284:Clinical Management of Urolithiasis 3097: 2790:In 1901, a stone discovered in the 2437:(highest red arrow) and one in the 1974: 1968: 1731: 1508:Multiple kidney stones composed of 1049:Where a CT scan is unavailable, an 780: 263:, certain foods, some medications, 24: 9301:Stoller ML, Meng MV, eds. (2007). 9288:from the original on 14 April 2021 9099:from the original on 16 April 2021 8866:from the original on 14 April 2021 8849:Sheep & Goat Medicine - E-Book 8212:from the original on 14 April 2021 7868:Rao, Preminger & Kavanagh 2011 7717:Rao, Preminger & Kavanagh 2011 7181:10.1097/01.ASN.0000146012.44570.20 6560:from the original on 14 April 2021 6494:from the original on 20 March 2021 6322:Mineral and Electrolyte Metabolism 6301:from the original on 20 March 2021 6059:from the original on 14 March 2020 5939:from the original on 21 March 2021 5921:. In Goroll AH, Mulley AG (eds.). 5576:from the original on 14 April 2021 4715:from the original on 30 July 2011. 4462:from the original on 20 March 2020 4342: 4040: 4025:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a008734 3984:from the original on 14 April 2021 3921:. In Litwin MS, Saigal CS (eds.). 3670: 2441:beside the stent (lower red arrow) 2362:published by researchers from the 2214: 1764:is supported by the presence of a 1582: 1454: 1422: 1390: 1386:when urine is persistently acidic 1354: 1322: 986: 706: 556: 496:, sugars including honey, refined 375:or may require procedures such as 25: 9809: 9342:to help reach a consensus. › 9321: 8114:from the original on 8 July 2014. 7058:from the original on 5 July 2010. 6851:Comparative Effectiveness Reviews 6411:The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics 6112:Frassetto L, Kohlstadt I (2011). 5863:from the original on 7 March 2014 5558:. In Graham SD, Keane TE (eds.). 5556:"Ch. 7: Anatrophic Nephrolithomy" 3866:Merck Sharp and Dohme Corporation 3655:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.06.044 3075: 1830:often produce stones composed of 1350:when urine is alkaline (high pH) 941: 658: 589:committee for calcium in adults. 240:). A calculus may also result in 9120: 9111: 9052: 9037:10.1113/expphysiol.1988.sp003148 9011: 8970: 8913: 8878: 8846:Pugh DG, Baird N (27 May 2012). 8773: 8714: 8659: 8594: 8535: 8407:European Journal of Epidemiology 8273: 8142:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02769.x 8057: 8026: 7779: 7722: 7348: 7238: 7127:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04208.x 6992:Gul Z, Monga M (December 2014). 6602:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2005.05206.x 6472:Schlossberg D, Samuel R (2011). 6347:Kamatani N (December 1996). "". 5129:10.1097/00000658-193706000-00014 5004:Ch. 16: "Uric Acid Urolithiasis" 4222:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2000.00916.x 4012:American Journal of Epidemiology 3821: 3748:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00917.x 3117: 2956: 2455:A kidney stone at the tip of an 2448: 2419: 2360:retrospective case-control study 1164: 1149: 1128: 1104: 745:may form through the process of 550:and malabsorption of magnesium. 8627:10.1128/AEM.68.8.3841-3847.2002 7641:Smith's Textbook on Endourology 7519:American Urological Association 7211: 7071:"Nutrition and chronic disease" 7042:"Citric Acid and Kidney Stones" 7034: 6914: 6201: 6169: 6138: 6005: 5875: 5844: 5789:Brenner and Rector's The Kidney 5671: 5507: 5479: 5343: 5300: 5276:10.1128/jb.170.8.3342-3349.1988 5251: 5202: 5162:"Mechanisms of Stone Formation" 5153: 5104: 5069: 5034: 4912: 4885: 4719: 3772:"Epidemiology of Kidney Stones" 3763: 3722: 3258:. February 2013. Archived from 3166:Kidney stone formation in space 3118:carbonate and phosphate calculi 2754:) or infections in the case of 2546: 2380:American Urological Association 2378:To address these concerns, the 2231:does not have further benefit. 1696:ileal conduit urinary diversion 682:), uric acid, and other acidic 476: 283:are at high concentration. The 9625:Neurogenic bladder dysfunction 9018:Scott D, Buchan W (May 1988). 8370:10.1002/14651858.CD010784.pub2 7804:10.1002/14651858.CD012703.pub2 7677:10.1002/14651858.CD013393.pub2 7458:10.1002/14651858.CD008509.pub3 7273:"Use and abuse of allopurinol" 6013:Cummings SR (September 2014). 4093:Hormone and Metabolic Research 3605:10.1002/14651858.CD006027.pub2 3274: 2501:postrenal acute kidney failure 2459:stone disintegration apparatus 2407:as a part of their treatment. 2262: 2160: 2125: 1801: 1268: 488:High dietary intake of animal 287:is usually based on symptoms, 13: 1: 9630:Bladder sphincter dyssynergia 9327: 7980:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0 7334:10.1016/S0022-5347(01)65452-1 6645:10.1016/S0094-0143(05)70355-4 6527:10.1016/S0022-5347(17)39734-3 6207:Bailey & Love's/25th/1296 5830:10.1016/S0033-8389(05)70138-X 5595:Weaver SH, Jenkins P (2002). 5090:10.1016/S0022-5347(17)55918-2 5055:10.1016/S0140-6736(69)92598-7 4859:Archives of Internal Medicine 4164:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68071-9 3931:National Institutes of Health 3487:"Management of kidney stones" 3435:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1 3382:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6 3171: 2917:popularized the technique of 2627:New cases per 100,000 (year) 2302:. ESWL involves the use of a 1953: 1890:Illustration of kidney stones 1207:of the urine, which may show 1009:kidneys, ureters, and bladder 925:Sufficient dietary intake of 888:S-100 calcium-binding protein 854:Inhibitors of stone formation 838:. This increases the urinary 521:distal renal tubular acidosis 9251:10.1007/978-1-84800-362-0_26 8852:. Elsevier Health Sciences. 8325:10.1016/j.jpurol.2013.07.010 8312:Journal of Pediatric Urology 7410:10.1016/j.eururo.2009.06.012 7370:10.1016/j.eururo.2017.11.001 4871:10.1001/archinte.158.20.2187 3642:Annals of Emergency Medicine 2932: 2798:was dated to 4,800 BC. 2776:List of kidney stone formers 2744:number of new cases per year 2557:Earliest prevalence (years) 2473:percutaneous nephrolithotomy 2205: 2136: 1822:may form stones composed of 1593:ammonium magnesium phosphate 1023:stones are usually entirely 958: 385:percutaneous nephrolithotomy 170:percutaneous nephrolithotomy 7: 9243:Urinary Tract Stone Disease 6719:Annals of Internal Medicine 6675:Annals of Internal Medicine 6388:10.1056/NEJM196806272782601 4978:Reilly & Perazella 2005 4353:Reilly & Perazella 2005 3503:10.1136/bmj.39113.480185.80 3325:Annals of Internal Medicine 3281:Knoll T, Pearle MS (2012). 3149: 3063: 3032: 2801:Medical texts from ancient 1881: 1808:inborn errors of metabolism 1794:Uric acid stones appear as 1548:. Factors that promote the 690: 10: 9814: 8684:10.1136/gutjnl-2017-315734 8561:10.1186/s12882-020-01805-w 8493:Zisman AL (October 2017). 8249:10.1016/j.juro.2012.03.021 8176:A History of Bladder Stone 7577:10.1016/j.juro.2007.09.107 7010:10.4111/kju.2014.55.12.775 5209:Khan SR (September 2014). 4937:10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.09.005 4436:Cleveland Clinic Quarterly 3789:10.3390/healthcare11030424 2773: 2769: 2560:Latest prevalence (years) 2478:anatrophic nephrolithotomy 2410: 2277:mobile fluoroscopic system 1972: 1773:inflammatory bowel disease 9693: 9663:Non-gonococcal urethritis 9648: 9588: 9555: 9468: 9379: 9129:Journal of Animal Science 8929:Journal of Animal Science 8740:10.3389/fcimb.2020.572912 8464:10.1007/s00240-016-0908-3 8419:10.1007/s10654-018-0426-4 7767:Ch. 25: "Ureteral Stents" 7289:10.1136/bmj.294.6586.1504 6998:Korean Journal of Urology 6922:"What are kidney stones?" 6760:American Family Physician 5785:"Ch. 37: Nephrolithiasis" 5754:10.2214/ajr.175.1.1750003 5646:American Family Physician 5360:Frontiers in Microbiology 5178:10.1007/s12018-011-9104-8 4603:10.1136/bmj.328.7453.1420 4520:Nephron Clinical Practice 4346:Ch. 13: "Nephrolithiasis" 4305:10.1007/s00467-003-1234-x 4200:Thakker RV (March 2000). 3699:10.1016/j.euf.2020.08.011 3256:"Kidney Stones in Adults" 2948:, meaning "kidneys", and 2241:alpha adrenergic blockers 2235:Medical expulsive therapy 1806:People with certain rare 1528:Calcium-containing stones 1015:calculi are only faintly 594:Women's Health Initiative 257:high urine calcium levels 183: 175: 153: 145: 128:Abdominal aortic aneurysm 121: 104: 100:and environmental factors 93: 83: 67: 59: 50: 42: 37: 9716:Retroperitoneal fibrosis 9635:Vesicointestinal fistula 9340:templates for discussion 9176: 9141:10.2527/jas1972.3561233x 8887:The Journal of Nutrition 7069:Heaney RP (March 2006). 5560:Glenn's Urologic Surgery 5373:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02507 5309:Urologia Internationalis 5024:Nephrolithiasis~Overview 3892:Nephrolithiasis~Overview 3193:. Springer. p. 27. 2533:yttrium aluminium garnet 2279:("C-arm") is seen in an 2249:calcium channel blockers 1927:in a person with severe 1684:urinary tract infections 1065:followed by a KUB film. 721:Supersaturation of urine 664:Diets in Western nations 628:Calcium is not the only 506:high fructose corn syrup 9711:Urinary tract infection 9359:Kidney Stone Guide Book 9167:Merck veterinary manual 8106:. In Collier GF (ed.). 7774:Stoller & Meng 2007 7517:. Linthicum, Maryland: 7277:British Medical Journal 7075:Mayo Clinic Proceedings 5787:. In Brenner BM (ed.). 5696:10.1038/nrurol.2016.154 5684:Nature Reviews. Urology 5264:Journal of Bacteriology 5111:Randall A (June 1937). 5011:Stoller & Meng 2007 4585:Parmar MS (June 2004). 4143:Moe OW (January 2006). 3187:Schulsinger DA (2014). 2794:of an ancient Egyptian 2347:and even lead to acute 2181:or hyperuricemia (high 2147:thiazide-like diuretics 1948:urease-forming bacteria 1910: 1205:microscopic examination 1194:microscopic examination 898:, uropontin (a form of 725:When the urine becomes 537:medullary sponge kidney 512:excretion and elevated 214:solid piece of material 8798:10.1681/ASN.2017111213 8237:The Journal of Urology 7731:Journal of Endourology 7565:The Journal of Urology 7549:Campbell-Walsh Urology 7322:The Journal of Urology 6515:The Journal of Urology 5887:www.choosingwisely.org 5412:"Kidney stone disease" 5078:The Journal of Urology 4784:Journal of Endourology 4105:10.1055/s-0030-1265145 3968:Diseases and Disorders 3925:. Bethesda, Maryland: 3858:. In Cutler RE (ed.). 3686:European Urology Focus 3087:Oxalobacter formigenes 2841:Aulus Cornelius Celsus 2783:Saducismus Triumphatus 2728: 2288: 2019:gastrointestinal tract 1931: 1891: 1704:obstructive uropathies 1655:Ureaplasma urealyticum 1562:renal tubular acidosis 1524: 1516: 1512:and a small amount of 1501: 1459: 1450:rare genetic disorder 1427: 1395: 1359: 1327: 1238:neutrophil granulocyte 1197: 1181:Laboratory examination 983:on the affected side. 717: 587:Reference Daily Intake 566: 452:gastrointestinal tract 419: 198:renal calculus disease 123:Differential diagnosis 9793:Urological conditions 9640:Vesicoureteral reflux 9603:Interstitial cystitis 9370:University of Chicago 9364:3 August 2020 at the 9271:Nephrology in 30 Days 9165:Kahn CM, ed. (2005). 8941:10.2527/1991.6952225x 7989:10536/DRO/DU:30050819 7743:10.1089/end.2012.0160 7708:Young JG, Keeley FX, 6970:10.1038/sj.ki.5001656 6034:10.1056/NEJMoa1404446 4796:10.1089/end.2013.0173 4655:10.3945/an.111.000414 4643:Advances in Nutrition 4448:10.3949/ccjm.41.3.109 3916:"Ch. 8: Urolithiasis" 3854:Preminger GM (2007). 3023:, meaning stone, and 2694: 2484:Ureteroscopic surgery 2270: 1918: 1889: 1834:. People affected by 1700:vesicoureteral reflux 1686:, such as those with 1554:primary hyperoxaluria 1522: 1507: 1495: 1458: 1426: 1394: 1389:Yellow/reddish brown 1358: 1326: 1188: 1077:Renal ultrasonography 1059:intravenous injection 1051:intravenous pyelogram 892:Tamm–Horsfall protein 714: 695:The evidence linking 637:fluoridated tap water 564: 410: 313:what they are made of 9748:Urinary incontinence 9706:Obstructive uropathy 9618:Hemorrhagic cystitis 9505:Kidney stone disease 9372:Kidney Stone Program 9345:Kidney stone disease 8511:10.2215/cjn.11201016 6957:Kidney International 6890:10.2215/CJN.11661112 4971:Ch. 14: "Urinalysis" 4744:10.2215/CJN.01520216 4293:Pediatric Nephrology 4209:Kidney International 3962:Cavendish M (2008). 3941:. pp. 283–319. 3735:Kidney International 3429:(10053): 1459–1544. 3376:(10053): 1545–1602. 3116:favors formation of 3017:, meaning kidney, + 2760:bimodal distribution 2273:lithotriptor machine 2169:and calcium stones, 2061:Urine alkalinization 1942:and are composed of 1840:2,8-dihydroxyadenine 1658:and some species of 1230:complete blood count 1157:Renal ultrasonograph 1071:retrograde pyelogram 1042:urine, such as from 737:than it can hold in 610:Nurses' Health Study 194:Kidney stone disease 38:Kidney stone disease 9081:10.1051/rnd:2003021 8899:10.1093/jn/87.4.499 8619:2002ApEnM..68.3841D 8287:on 17 November 2007 7870:, pp. 301–310. 7719:, pp. 441–454. 7515:Clinical Guidelines 6810:10.1503/cmaj.051517 5980:10.2147/ijwh.s51416 5893:on 23 February 2017 5013:, pp. 299–308. 4894:Progres en Urologie 4355:, pp. 192–207. 2915:Henry Jacob Bigelow 2884:Michel de Montaigne 2356:prospective studies 2333:acute kidney injury 2188:low serum uric acid 2083:retrograde ureteral 1715:hyperparathyroidism 1690:and other forms of 1649:Morganella morganii 1558:hyperparathyroidism 1036:computed tomography 882:inhibitors include 870:, that inhibit the 801:Pathogenic bacteria 598:international units 529:hyperparathyroidism 269:hyperparathyroidism 265:calcium supplements 179:22.1 million (2015) 110:Based on symptoms, 9675:Urethral stricture 9580:Ureteric stricture 9469:External resources 7974:(9859): 2095–128. 7893:Reviews in Urology 7776:, pp. 465–83. 6596:(Suppl 2): 85–93. 6548:McNutt WF (1893). 6255:De Mais D (2009). 6145:Becker KL (2001). 5805:on 8 October 2011. 5031:§ Pathophysiology. 4980:, pp. 209–26. 4489:, pp. 403–56. 3964:"Kidney disorders" 3112:Alkaline (higher) 3069:Metabolic syndrome 2729: 2541:bleeding disorders 2517:topical anesthesia 2384:risk-benefit ratio 2289: 2285:anesthesia machine 2196:sodium bicarbonate 2192:alkalinizing agent 2096:sodium bicarbonate 2012:US fl oz 1932: 1892: 1854:produce stones of 1781:ulcerative colitis 1692:neurogenic bladder 1688:spinal cord injury 1525: 1517: 1502: 1460: 1428: 1396: 1360: 1328: 1198: 1192:crystals found on 1085:radiation exposure 1007:that includes the 973:Clinical diagnosis 896:glycosaminoglycans 813:bacteria, such as 718: 624:Other electrolytes 579:dietary supplement 567: 460:Postrenal azotemia 420: 403:Signs and symptoms 242:blood in the urine 220:) develops in the 9773: 9772: 9685:Urethral caruncle 9670:Urethral syndrome 9514: 9513: 9312:978-1-59259-972-1 9281:978-0-07-143701-1 9260:978-1-84800-361-3 9205:978-0-309-16394-1 8859:978-1-4377-2354-0 8678:(12): 2097–2106. 8505:(10): 1699–1708. 8413:(11): 1033–1047. 8185:978-0-632-06140-2 8130:BJU International 8046:978-0-7817-9149-6 8033:Windus D (2008). 7947:978-1-58829-109-7 7850:978-1-84800-362-0 7764:Lam JS, Gupta M, 7620:978-0-7817-0263-8 7115:BJU International 6590:BJU International 6487:978-1-60795-084-4 6294:978-0-7817-4750-9 6158:978-0-7817-1750-2 5932:978-0-7817-7513-7 5798:978-1-4160-3105-5 5612:978-1-58255-082-4 5569:978-0-7817-9141-0 5321:10.1159/000519842 5117:Annals of Surgery 4738:(10): 1834–1844. 4708:978-0-309-65799-0 4533:10.1159/000317196 4065:978-0-323-32852-4 4054:Lewis SM (2017). 3977:978-0-7614-7772-3 3648:(3): 353–361.e3. 3294:978-3-642-28732-9 3200:978-3-319-12105-5 3054:calcium phosphate 2880:Benjamin Franklin 2876:Lyndon B. Johnson 2689: 2688: 2619: 2618: 2582:1.7% (1993–1994) 2571:5.2% (1988–1994) 2568:2.6% (1964–1972) 2525:Laser lithotripsy 2368:diabetes mellitus 2345:blood transfusion 2337:internal bleeding 2308:ultrasonic energy 2200:potassium citrate 2131:Calcium hydroxide 2104:magnesium citrate 2100:potassium citrate 1848:homogentisic acid 1637:Proteus mirabilis 1538:calcium phosphate 1490: 1489: 1321:Black/dark brown 949:potassium citrate 826:, which converts 816:Proteus mirabilis 791:calcium phosphate 687:stone formation. 653:dietary magnesium 337:thiazide diuretic 246:painful urination 191: 190: 106:Diagnostic method 32:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 9805: 9547:Diseases of the 9541: 9534: 9527: 9518: 9517: 9377: 9376: 9316: 9297: 9295: 9293: 9264: 9237: 9235: 9233: 9171: 9170: 9162: 9153: 9152: 9135:(6): 1233–1238. 9124: 9118: 9115: 9109: 9108: 9106: 9104: 9098: 9083: 9065: 9056: 9050: 9049: 9039: 9015: 9009: 9008: 8998: 8974: 8968: 8967: 8966:on 2 March 2019. 8965: 8959:. Archived from 8926: 8917: 8911: 8910: 8882: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8843: 8828: 8827: 8817: 8792:(6): 1731–1740. 8777: 8771: 8770: 8760: 8742: 8718: 8712: 8711: 8663: 8657: 8656: 8646: 8613:(8): 3841–3847. 8598: 8592: 8591: 8581: 8563: 8539: 8533: 8532: 8522: 8490: 8484: 8483: 8447: 8441: 8440: 8430: 8398: 8392: 8391: 8381: 8349: 8338: 8337: 8327: 8303: 8297: 8296: 8294: 8292: 8283:. Archived from 8277: 8271: 8270: 8260: 8228: 8222: 8221: 8219: 8217: 8196: 8190: 8189: 8174:Ellis H (1969). 8171: 8162: 8161: 8125: 8116: 8115: 8096: 8090: 8089: 8061: 8055: 8054: 8030: 8024: 8023: 8018:. Archived from 8001: 7991: 7958: 7952: 7951: 7935: 7925: 7919: 7918: 7908: 7884: 7871: 7865: 7864: 7862: 7832: 7826: 7825: 7815: 7783: 7777: 7771: 7761: 7755: 7754: 7726: 7720: 7714: 7705: 7699: 7698: 7688: 7671:(11): CD013393. 7656: 7645: 7644: 7636: 7625: 7624: 7608: 7598: 7589: 7588: 7559: 7553: 7552: 7544: 7538: 7537: 7535: 7533: 7527: 7521:. Archived from 7512: 7503: 7480: 7479: 7469: 7437: 7422: 7421: 7398:European Urology 7393: 7382: 7381: 7358:European Urology 7352: 7346: 7345: 7317: 7311: 7310: 7300: 7283:(6586): 1504–5. 7268: 7262: 7261: 7259: 7257: 7242: 7236: 7235: 7215: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7204: 7198: 7183: 7165: 7156: 7147: 7146: 7110: 7101: 7100: 7090: 7088:10.4065/81.3.297 7066: 7060: 7059: 7057: 7046: 7038: 7032: 7031: 7021: 6989: 6983: 6982: 6972: 6948: 6942: 6941: 6939: 6937: 6928:. Archived from 6918: 6912: 6911: 6901: 6869: 6863: 6862: 6845: 6836: 6835: 6821: 6789: 6780: 6779: 6751: 6745: 6744: 6734: 6732:10.7326/m13-2908 6710: 6701: 6700: 6690: 6666: 6657: 6656: 6628: 6622: 6621: 6585: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6565: 6545: 6539: 6538: 6510: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6499: 6469: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6452: 6441: 6433: 6427: 6426: 6406: 6400: 6399: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6344: 6338: 6337: 6317: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6306: 6276: 6261: 6260: 6252: 6239: 6238: 6236: 6234: 6214: 6208: 6205: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6194: 6177:"Cystine stones" 6173: 6167: 6166: 6142: 6136: 6133: 6118:Am Fam Physician 6109: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6095: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6058: 6019: 6009: 6003: 6002: 5992: 5982: 5958: 5949: 5948: 5946: 5944: 5917:Fang LS (2009). 5914: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5898: 5889:. Archived from 5879: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5848: 5842: 5841: 5824:(5): 911–52, v. 5813: 5807: 5806: 5801:. Archived from 5780: 5774: 5773: 5737: 5726: 5725: 5715: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5643: 5634: 5617: 5616: 5600: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5581: 5551: 5536: 5535: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5491: 5483: 5477: 5476: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5439: 5428:10.1172/JCI26662 5422:(10): 2598–608. 5407: 5396: 5395: 5385: 5375: 5354:Escherichia coli 5347: 5341: 5340: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5287: 5270:(8): 3342–3349. 5255: 5249: 5248: 5238: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5189: 5172:(3–4): 187–197. 5157: 5151: 5150: 5140: 5123:(6): 1009–1027. 5108: 5102: 5101: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5038: 5032: 5020: 5014: 5008: 4998: 4981: 4975: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4948: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4854: 4848: 4847: 4827: 4818: 4817: 4807: 4775: 4766: 4765: 4755: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4681: 4666: 4640: 4631: 4625: 4624: 4614: 4597:(7453): 1420–4. 4582: 4571: 4570:, pp. 1–14. 4564: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4535: 4511: 4490: 4483: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4377:on 7 August 2011 4362: 4356: 4350: 4340: 4325: 4324: 4288: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4251: 4242: 4241: 4239: 4224: 4206: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4158:(9507): 333–44. 4149: 4140: 4127: 4126: 4116: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4051: 4038: 4037: 4027: 4003: 3994: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3959: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3920: 3911: 3900: 3888: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3851: 3832: 3825: 3819: 3809: 3791: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3750: 3741:(5): 1817–1823. 3726: 3720: 3719: 3701: 3692:(6): 1468–1475. 3677: 3668: 3667: 3657: 3633: 3627: 3626: 3616: 3584: 3575: 3574: 3538: 3525: 3524: 3514: 3497:(7591): 468–72. 3482: 3457: 3456: 3446: 3413: 3404: 3403: 3393: 3360: 3351: 3350: 3340: 3338:10.7326/M13-2908 3316: 3303: 3302: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3252: 3209: 3208: 3184: 3156:Nephrocalcinosis 3098:In other animals 3009: 3008: 3005: 3004: 3001: 2998: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2904:Herman Boerhaave 2827:Hippocratic Oath 2724: 2718: 2712: 2706: 2700: 2621: 2620: 2551: 2550: 2452: 2423: 2339:and subcapsular 2165:For people with 2069:(increasing the 2036: 1969:Dietary measures 1852:iminoglycinurics 1820:Fanconi syndrome 1732:Uric acid stones 1643:Proteus vulgaris 1446: 1414: 1273: 1272: 1168: 1153: 1132: 1108: 1057:. This involves 914:F1 peptide, and 866:agents, such as 819:can produce the 781:Randall's plaque 729:(when the urine 431:, restlessness, 196:, also known as 55: 35: 34: 21: 9813: 9812: 9808: 9807: 9806: 9804: 9803: 9802: 9788:Kidney diseases 9778: 9777: 9774: 9769: 9689: 9680:Meatal stenosis 9644: 9584: 9551: 9545: 9515: 9510: 9509: 9464: 9463: 9388: 9366:Wayback Machine 9343: 9324: 9319: 9313: 9291: 9289: 9282: 9261: 9231: 9229: 9206: 9179: 9174: 9163: 9156: 9125: 9121: 9116: 9112: 9102: 9100: 9096: 9063: 9057: 9053: 9016: 9012: 8975: 8971: 8963: 8924: 8918: 8914: 8883: 8879: 8869: 8867: 8860: 8844: 8831: 8778: 8774: 8719: 8715: 8664: 8660: 8599: 8595: 8540: 8536: 8491: 8487: 8448: 8444: 8399: 8395: 8364:(6): CD010784. 8350: 8341: 8304: 8300: 8290: 8288: 8279: 8278: 8274: 8229: 8225: 8215: 8213: 8197: 8193: 8186: 8172: 8165: 8126: 8119: 8097: 8093: 8078: 8062: 8058: 8047: 8031: 8027: 8022:on 19 May 2020. 7959: 7955: 7948: 7926: 7922: 7899:(2–3): e86-96. 7885: 7874: 7860: 7858: 7851: 7833: 7829: 7798:(2): CD012703. 7784: 7780: 7762: 7758: 7737:(10): 1268–74. 7727: 7723: 7706: 7702: 7657: 7648: 7637: 7628: 7621: 7599: 7592: 7560: 7556: 7545: 7541: 7531: 7529: 7528:on 18 July 2013 7525: 7510: 7504: 7483: 7452:(4): CD008509. 7438: 7425: 7394: 7385: 7353: 7349: 7318: 7314: 7269: 7265: 7255: 7253: 7244: 7243: 7239: 7216: 7212: 7202: 7200: 7196: 7174:(12): 3225–32. 7163: 7157: 7150: 7111: 7104: 7067: 7063: 7055: 7044: 7040: 7039: 7035: 6990: 6986: 6949: 6945: 6935: 6933: 6920: 6919: 6915: 6870: 6866: 6846: 6839: 6790: 6783: 6752: 6748: 6711: 6704: 6667: 6660: 6629: 6625: 6586: 6573: 6563: 6561: 6546: 6542: 6511: 6507: 6497: 6495: 6488: 6470: 6466: 6456: 6454: 6450: 6439: 6435: 6434: 6430: 6407: 6403: 6382:(26): 1407–13. 6372: 6368: 6351:(in Japanese). 6345: 6341: 6318: 6314: 6304: 6302: 6295: 6277: 6264: 6253: 6242: 6232: 6230: 6229:on 28 July 2011 6215: 6211: 6206: 6202: 6192: 6190: 6175: 6174: 6170: 6159: 6143: 6139: 6134: 6124:(11): 1234–42. 6110: 6103: 6093: 6091: 6090:on 26 July 2011 6076: 6072: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6028:(12): 1100–10. 6017: 6010: 6006: 5959: 5952: 5942: 5940: 5933: 5915: 5906: 5896: 5894: 5881: 5880: 5876: 5866: 5864: 5857:Choosing Wisely 5849: 5845: 5814: 5810: 5799: 5781: 5777: 5738: 5729: 5690:(11): 654–662. 5676: 5672: 5664: 5641: 5635: 5620: 5613: 5593: 5589: 5579: 5577: 5570: 5552: 5539: 5512: 5508: 5500: 5489: 5485: 5484: 5480: 5457: 5453: 5408: 5399: 5348: 5344: 5305: 5301: 5256: 5252: 5207: 5203: 5158: 5154: 5109: 5105: 5074: 5070: 5049:(7610): 21–24. 5039: 5035: 5021: 5017: 4999: 4984: 4966: 4962: 4917: 4913: 4890: 4886: 4865:(20): 2187–91. 4855: 4851: 4828: 4821: 4790:(12): 1487–92. 4776: 4769: 4724: 4720: 4709: 4691: 4687: 4679: 4638: 4632: 4628: 4587:"Kidney stones" 4583: 4574: 4565: 4561: 4551: 4549: 4512: 4493: 4484: 4475: 4465: 4463: 4428: 4424: 4414: 4412: 4394: 4390: 4380: 4378: 4363: 4359: 4341: 4328: 4289: 4282: 4272: 4270: 4252: 4245: 4237: 4204: 4198: 4194: 4186: 4147: 4141: 4130: 4085: 4081: 4066: 4052: 4041: 4004: 3997: 3987: 3985: 3978: 3960: 3953: 3945: 3918: 3912: 3903: 3889: 3885: 3875: 3873: 3852: 3835: 3768: 3764: 3727: 3723: 3678: 3671: 3634: 3630: 3599:(6): CD006027. 3585: 3578: 3555:10.1136/bmj.i52 3539: 3528: 3483: 3460: 3414: 3407: 3361: 3354: 3317: 3306: 3295: 3279: 3275: 3265: 3263: 3254: 3253: 3212: 3201: 3185: 3178: 3174: 3152: 3100: 3078: 3066: 3046:calcium oxalate 3035: 2959: 2955: 2935: 2927:Dornier MedTech 2872:Oliver Cromwell 2860:Peter the Great 2778: 2772: 2756:struvite stones 2727: 2726: 2722: 2720: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2708: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2549: 2507:and infection ( 2486: 2464: 2463: 2462: 2461: 2460: 2453: 2444: 2443: 2442: 2424: 2413: 2317:body mass index 2265: 2237: 2217: 2215:Pain management 2208: 2167:hyperuricosuria 2163: 2139: 2128: 2063: 2039:leaf vegetables 2034: 1977: 1971: 1956: 1940:staghorn stones 1913: 1884: 1804: 1789:colon resection 1783:) tend to have 1777:Crohn's disease 1746:hyperuricosuria 1734: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1591:(hexa-hydrated 1585: 1583:Struvite stones 1572:Crohn's disease 1540:in the form of 1534:calcium oxalate 1530: 1514:calcium oxalate 1478:extremely rare 1444: 1412: 1342: 1310: 1296: 1294: 1286: 1284: 1279: 1277: 1271: 1219:, and crystals; 1209:red blood cells 1183: 1176: 1169: 1160: 1154: 1145: 1133: 1124: 1109: 1093:ultrasonography 1032:helical CT scan 989: 987:Imaging studies 961: 944: 856: 848:calcium oxalate 811:urease-positive 803: 795:Duct of Bellini 783: 775:calcium oxalate 767:hyperuricosuria 723: 709: 707:Pathophysiology 693: 661: 626: 571:calcium oxalate 559: 557:Calcium oxalate 544:Crohn's disease 514:urinary oxalate 479: 429:urinary urgency 405: 349:phosphoric acid 317:calcium oxalate 293:medical imaging 244:, vomiting, or 202:nephrolithiasis 158:Pain medication 116:medical imaging 33: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9811: 9801: 9800: 9795: 9790: 9771: 9770: 9768: 9767: 9766: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9745: 9740: 9739: 9738: 9733: 9728: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9697: 9695: 9691: 9690: 9688: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9667: 9666: 9665: 9654: 9652: 9646: 9645: 9643: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9621: 9620: 9615: 9610: 9608:Hunner's ulcer 9605: 9594: 9592: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9561: 9559: 9553: 9552: 9544: 9543: 9536: 9529: 9521: 9512: 9511: 9508: 9507: 9496: 9485: 9473: 9472: 9470: 9466: 9465: 9462: 9461: 9450: 9439: 9428: 9409: 9389: 9384: 9383: 9381: 9380:Classification 9374: 9373: 9356: 9351: 9323: 9322:External links 9320: 9318: 9317: 9311: 9298: 9280: 9265: 9259: 9238: 9204: 9196:10.17226/13050 9180: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9172: 9154: 9119: 9110: 9074:(3): 285–300. 9051: 9010: 8969: 8912: 8893:(4): 499–504. 8877: 8858: 8829: 8772: 8713: 8658: 8593: 8548:BMC Nephrology 8534: 8485: 8458:(3): 271–278. 8442: 8393: 8339: 8298: 8272: 8223: 8191: 8184: 8163: 8117: 8091: 8076: 8056: 8045: 8025: 7953: 7946: 7920: 7872: 7849: 7827: 7778: 7756: 7721: 7700: 7646: 7626: 7619: 7590: 7571:(6): 2418–34. 7554: 7539: 7481: 7423: 7383: 7364:(4): 583–595. 7347: 7328:(5): 1579–80. 7312: 7263: 7237: 7210: 7148: 7102: 7061: 7033: 6984: 6943: 6932:on 14 May 2013 6913: 6884:(8): 1389–95. 6864: 6837: 6804:(10): 1407–9. 6781: 6766:(8): 2269–76. 6746: 6702: 6658: 6623: 6571: 6540: 6521:(6): 1339–40. 6505: 6486: 6474:"Sulfadiazine" 6464: 6428: 6401: 6366: 6355:(12): 3321–7. 6339: 6312: 6293: 6262: 6240: 6209: 6200: 6168: 6157: 6137: 6101: 6070: 6004: 5950: 5931: 5904: 5874: 5843: 5808: 5797: 5775: 5727: 5670: 5618: 5611: 5587: 5568: 5537: 5506: 5478: 5451: 5397: 5342: 5315:(6): 616–622. 5299: 5250: 5221:(3): 256–276. 5201: 5152: 5103: 5084:(3): 324–327. 5068: 5033: 5015: 4982: 4968:Perazella MA, 4960: 4911: 4884: 4849: 4819: 4767: 4718: 4707: 4685: 4626: 4572: 4566:"Summary". In 4559: 4526:(3): c159-71. 4491: 4473: 4422: 4411:on 9 June 2014 4388: 4357: 4326: 4299:(10): 986–91. 4280: 4269:on 24 May 2011 4243: 4192: 4128: 4099:(12): 868–73. 4079: 4064: 4039: 3995: 3976: 3951: 3901: 3883: 3833: 3762: 3721: 3669: 3628: 3576: 3526: 3458: 3405: 3352: 3304: 3293: 3273: 3262:on 11 May 2015 3210: 3199: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3169: 3168: 3163: 3161:Kidney disease 3158: 3151: 3148: 3099: 3096: 3082:gut microbiota 3077: 3076:Gut microbiota 3074: 3065: 3062: 3034: 3031: 2939:renal calculus 2934: 2931: 2923:mortality rate 2908:Antonio Scarpa 2900:William Harvey 2771: 2768: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2687: 2686: 2683: 2680: 2676: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2665: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2654: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2643: 2642: 2639: 2636: 2635:United States 2632: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2617: 2616: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2605: 2602: 2599: 2595: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2584: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2573: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2565:United States 2562: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2509:pyelonephritis 2497:ureteral stent 2485: 2482: 2454: 2447: 2446: 2445: 2431:ureteral stent 2425: 2418: 2417: 2416: 2415: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2405:alpha-blockers 2400:Alpha-blockers 2349:kidney failure 2281:operating room 2264: 2261: 2257:corticosteroid 2236: 2233: 2229:antispasmodics 2216: 2213: 2207: 2204: 2162: 2159: 2151:chlorthalidone 2138: 2135: 2127: 2124: 2092:alkali citrate 2067:alkalinization 2062: 2059: 2003: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1988: 1985: 1975:Hypocitraturia 1970: 1967: 1955: 1952: 1912: 1909: 1905:bladder stones 1883: 1880: 1864:hydroxyproline 1803: 1800: 1733: 1730: 1711:hypercalciuria 1628:carbon dioxide 1604: 1600: 1596: 1584: 1581: 1529: 1526: 1488: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1468: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1451: 1448: 1442: 1436: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1419: 1416: 1410: 1404: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1375: 1374: 1364: 1361: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1337: 1336: 1332: 1329: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1305: 1304: 1301: 1300:Radio-density 1298: 1291: 1290:Circumstances 1288: 1281: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1265: 1258: 1251: 1244:renal function 1241: 1232:, looking for 1227: 1220: 1182: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1170: 1163: 1161: 1155: 1148: 1146: 1134: 1127: 1125: 1121:bladder stones 1113:KUB radiograph 1110: 1103: 1081:hydronephrosis 1063:contrast agent 988: 985: 960: 957: 953:Alkali citrate 943: 942:Hypocitraturia 940: 936:dose-dependent 855: 852: 836:carbon dioxide 802: 799: 782: 779: 733:contains more 727:supersaturated 722: 719: 708: 705: 692: 689: 668:animal protein 660: 659:Animal protein 657: 625: 622: 558: 555: 525:Dent's disease 478: 475: 467:diverticulitis 448:genital system 404: 401: 305:cystolithiasis 218:renal calculus 210:crystallopathy 189: 188: 185: 181: 180: 177: 173: 172: 155: 151: 150: 147: 143: 142: 140:pyelonephritis 132:diverticulitis 125: 119: 118: 108: 102: 101: 95: 91: 90: 87: 81: 80: 71: 65: 64: 57: 56: 48: 47: 44: 40: 39: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9810: 9799: 9796: 9794: 9791: 9789: 9786: 9785: 9783: 9776: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9750: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9726:Bladder stone 9724: 9723: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9698: 9696: 9692: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9671: 9668: 9664: 9661: 9660: 9659: 9656: 9655: 9653: 9651: 9647: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9600: 9599: 9596: 9595: 9593: 9591: 9587: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9562: 9560: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9549:urinary tract 9542: 9537: 9535: 9530: 9528: 9523: 9522: 9519: 9506: 9502: 9501: 9497: 9495: 9491: 9490: 9486: 9484: 9480: 9479: 9475: 9474: 9471: 9467: 9460: 9456: 9455: 9451: 9449: 9445: 9444: 9440: 9438: 9434: 9433: 9429: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9408: 9404: 9400: 9399: 9395: 9391: 9390: 9387: 9382: 9378: 9371: 9367: 9363: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9346: 9341: 9337: 9336: 9331: 9326: 9325: 9314: 9308: 9304: 9299: 9287: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9272: 9266: 9262: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9244: 9239: 9227: 9223: 9219: 9215: 9211: 9207: 9201: 9197: 9193: 9189: 9188: 9182: 9181: 9168: 9161: 9159: 9150: 9146: 9142: 9138: 9134: 9130: 9123: 9114: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9082: 9077: 9073: 9069: 9062: 9055: 9047: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9030:(3): 315–22. 9029: 9025: 9021: 9014: 9006: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8989:(5): 157–62. 8988: 8984: 8980: 8973: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8950: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8935:(5): 2225–9. 8934: 8930: 8923: 8916: 8908: 8904: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8888: 8881: 8865: 8861: 8855: 8851: 8850: 8842: 8840: 8838: 8836: 8834: 8825: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8776: 8768: 8764: 8759: 8754: 8750: 8746: 8741: 8736: 8732: 8728: 8724: 8717: 8709: 8705: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8677: 8673: 8669: 8662: 8654: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8597: 8589: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8545: 8538: 8530: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8489: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8457: 8453: 8446: 8438: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8420: 8416: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8397: 8389: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8363: 8359: 8355: 8348: 8346: 8344: 8335: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8317: 8313: 8309: 8302: 8286: 8282: 8276: 8268: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8243:(1): 247–52. 8242: 8238: 8234: 8227: 8211: 8207: 8206: 8201: 8195: 8187: 8181: 8177: 8170: 8168: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8139: 8136:(8): 801–10. 8135: 8131: 8124: 8122: 8113: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8095: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8077:1-171-33286-6 8073: 8069: 8068: 8060: 8052: 8048: 8042: 8038: 8037: 8029: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8009: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7957: 7949: 7943: 7939: 7934: 7933: 7924: 7916: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7883: 7881: 7879: 7877: 7869: 7856: 7852: 7846: 7842: 7841: 7838: 7831: 7823: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7782: 7775: 7769: 7766: 7760: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7725: 7718: 7713: 7710: 7704: 7696: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7655: 7653: 7651: 7642: 7635: 7633: 7631: 7622: 7616: 7612: 7607: 7606: 7597: 7595: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7558: 7550: 7543: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7509: 7502: 7500: 7498: 7496: 7494: 7492: 7490: 7488: 7486: 7477: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7436: 7434: 7432: 7430: 7428: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7404:(3): 455–71. 7403: 7399: 7392: 7390: 7388: 7379: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7351: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7316: 7308: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7267: 7251: 7247: 7241: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7214: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7162: 7155: 7153: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7121:(8): 758–67. 7120: 7116: 7109: 7107: 7098: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7065: 7054: 7050: 7043: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7004:(12): 775–9. 7003: 6999: 6995: 6988: 6980: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6947: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6917: 6909: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6868: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6844: 6842: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6788: 6786: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6750: 6742: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6725:(9): 659–67. 6724: 6720: 6716: 6709: 6707: 6698: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6681:(7): 535–43. 6680: 6676: 6672: 6665: 6663: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6627: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6584: 6582: 6580: 6578: 6576: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6544: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6509: 6493: 6489: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6468: 6449: 6445: 6438: 6432: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6405: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6370: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6343: 6335: 6331: 6328:(6): 424–31. 6327: 6323: 6316: 6300: 6296: 6290: 6286: 6282: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6269: 6267: 6258: 6251: 6249: 6247: 6245: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6213: 6204: 6188: 6184: 6183: 6178: 6172: 6164: 6160: 6154: 6150: 6149: 6141: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6108: 6106: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6074: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6016: 6008: 6000: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5957: 5955: 5938: 5934: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5911: 5909: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5878: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5812: 5804: 5800: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5779: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5723: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5674: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5640: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5614: 5608: 5604: 5599: 5591: 5575: 5571: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5544: 5542: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5510: 5499: 5495: 5488: 5482: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5393: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5355: 5346: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5303: 5295: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5107: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5072: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5037: 5030: 5026: 5025: 5019: 5012: 5006: 5003: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4987: 4979: 4973: 4970: 4964: 4956: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4900:(6): 1290–4. 4899: 4895: 4888: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4853: 4845: 4841: 4838:(3): 267–71. 4837: 4833: 4826: 4824: 4815: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4774: 4772: 4763: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4689: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4649:(3): 254–60. 4648: 4644: 4637: 4630: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4569: 4563: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4510: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4488: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4442:(3): 109–17. 4441: 4437: 4433: 4426: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4392: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4361: 4354: 4348: 4345: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4331: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4287: 4285: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4250: 4248: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4215:(3): 787–93. 4214: 4210: 4203: 4196: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4146: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4061: 4057: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4035: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4002: 4000: 3983: 3979: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3958: 3956: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3899:§ Background. 3898: 3894: 3893: 3887: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3862: 3857: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3831: 3829: 3824: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3674: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3581: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3454: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3412: 3410: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3359: 3357: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3331:(9): 659–67. 3330: 3326: 3322: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3300: 3296: 3290: 3286: 3285: 3277: 3261: 3257: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3206: 3202: 3196: 3192: 3191: 3183: 3181: 3176: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3153: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3136: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3089: 3088: 3083: 3073: 3070: 3061: 3057: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3040: 3030: 3028: 3027: 3022: 3021: 3016: 3014: 3007: 2953: 2952: 2947: 2944: 2940: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2921:in 1878, the 2920: 2916: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2888:Francis Bacon 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2842: 2838: 2837: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2777: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2748: 2745: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2733:lifetime risk 2693: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2677: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2666: 2662: 2660:114.3 (2005) 2659: 2656: 2655: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2637: 2634: 2633: 2629: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2615:14.8% (1989) 2614: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2604:10.0% (1991) 2603: 2600: 2597: 2596: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2585: 2581: 2578: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2563: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2552: 2544: 2542: 2536: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2481: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2458: 2451: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2408: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2318: 2312: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2232: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2212: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2134: 2132: 2123: 2121: 2116: 2111: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2087:Acetazolamide 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2031: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2000: 1996: 1993: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1976: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1921:major calyces 1917: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1888: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1844:alkaptonurics 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1799: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1785:hyperoxaluria 1782: 1778: 1774: 1769: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1750:hyperuricemia 1747: 1743: 1739: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1674: 1669: 1668: 1663: 1662: 1657: 1656: 1651: 1650: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1594: 1590: 1580: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550:precipitation 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1521: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1499: 1494: 1486: 1484:Radio-lucent 1483: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1465: 1463:Radio-opaque 1462: 1457: 1452: 1449: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1433: 1431:Radio-opaque 1430: 1425: 1420: 1417: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1405: 1401: 1399:Radio-lucent 1398: 1393: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1376: 1372: 1370: 1365: 1363:Radio-opaque 1362: 1357: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1339: 1338: 1333: 1331:Radio-opaque 1330: 1325: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1307: 1306: 1302: 1299: 1292: 1289: 1282: 1275: 1274: 1263: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1249: 1248:hypercalcemia 1245: 1242: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1221: 1218: 1217:urinary casts 1214: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1202: 1201: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1174: 1167: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1147: 1144: 1140: 1137: 1131: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1107: 1102: 1101: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 984: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 956: 954: 950: 939: 937: 932: 928: 923: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 851: 849: 845: 842:and promotes 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 822: 818: 817: 812: 808: 798: 796: 792: 788: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 754: 752: 751:renal papilla 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 713: 704: 701: 698: 688: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 656: 654: 649: 647: 643: 638: 633: 631: 621: 617: 613: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 590: 588: 584: 583:United States 580: 576: 572: 563: 554: 551: 549: 548:hyperoxaluria 545: 540: 538: 534: 533:hyperoxaluria 530: 526: 522: 517: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 486: 483: 474: 472: 471:sigmoid colon 468: 463: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 444:embryological 440: 438: 434: 430: 426: 418: 414: 409: 400: 397: 396:Western world 393: 388: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 332: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 289:urine testing 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 249: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 222:urinary tract 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 187:16,100 (2015) 186: 182: 178: 174: 171: 167: 163: 159: 156: 152: 148: 144: 141: 137: 133: 129: 126: 124: 120: 117: 113: 112:urine testing 109: 107: 103: 99: 96: 92: 88: 86: 82: 79: 75: 72: 70: 66: 63: 58: 54: 49: 45: 41: 36: 30: 19: 18:Renal calculi 9775: 9743:Malakoplakia 9731:Kidney stone 9721:Urolithiasis 9498: 9487: 9476: 9452: 9441: 9430: 9411: 9392: 9333: 9302: 9290:. Retrieved 9270: 9242: 9230:. Retrieved 9186: 9166: 9132: 9128: 9122: 9113: 9101:. Retrieved 9071: 9067: 9054: 9027: 9023: 9013: 8986: 8982: 8972: 8961:the original 8932: 8928: 8915: 8890: 8886: 8880: 8868:. Retrieved 8848: 8789: 8785: 8775: 8730: 8726: 8716: 8675: 8671: 8661: 8610: 8606: 8596: 8551: 8547: 8537: 8502: 8498: 8488: 8455: 8452:Urolithiasis 8451: 8445: 8410: 8406: 8396: 8361: 8357: 8318:(1): 130–5. 8315: 8311: 8301: 8289:. Retrieved 8285:the original 8275: 8240: 8236: 8226: 8214:. Retrieved 8204: 8194: 8175: 8133: 8129: 8107: 8094: 8066: 8064:Glanvill J. 8059: 8035: 8028: 8020:the original 7971: 7967: 7956: 7931: 7923: 7896: 7892: 7859:, retrieved 7843:, Springer, 7840: 7837: 7830: 7795: 7791: 7781: 7768: 7765: 7759: 7734: 7730: 7724: 7712: 7709: 7703: 7668: 7664: 7640: 7604: 7568: 7564: 7557: 7548: 7542: 7530:. Retrieved 7523:the original 7514: 7449: 7445: 7401: 7397: 7361: 7357: 7350: 7325: 7321: 7315: 7280: 7276: 7266: 7254:. Retrieved 7240: 7226:(3): 145–8. 7223: 7219: 7213: 7201:. Retrieved 7171: 7167: 7118: 7114: 7081:(3): 297–9. 7078: 7074: 7064: 7049:uwhealth.org 7048: 7036: 7001: 6997: 6987: 6963:(5): 835–9. 6960: 6956: 6946: 6934:. Retrieved 6930:the original 6925: 6916: 6881: 6877: 6867: 6850: 6801: 6797: 6763: 6759: 6749: 6722: 6718: 6678: 6674: 6639:(1): 71–80. 6636: 6632: 6626: 6593: 6589: 6562:. Retrieved 6553: 6543: 6518: 6514: 6508: 6496:. Retrieved 6477: 6467: 6455:. Retrieved 6443: 6431: 6417:(2): 121–5. 6414: 6410: 6404: 6379: 6375: 6369: 6352: 6348: 6342: 6325: 6321: 6315: 6303:. Retrieved 6284: 6256: 6231:. Retrieved 6227:the original 6222: 6212: 6203: 6191:. Retrieved 6180: 6171: 6147: 6140: 6121: 6117: 6092:. Retrieved 6088:the original 6083: 6073: 6063:25 September 6061:. Retrieved 6025: 6021: 6007: 5970: 5966: 5941:. Retrieved 5922: 5895:. Retrieved 5891:the original 5886: 5877: 5865:. Retrieved 5856: 5846: 5821: 5817: 5811: 5803:the original 5788: 5778: 5745: 5741: 5687: 5683: 5673: 5652:(1): 86–94. 5649: 5645: 5602: 5590: 5578:. Retrieved 5559: 5526:(3): 182–7. 5523: 5519: 5509: 5493: 5481: 5467:(4): 363–8. 5464: 5460: 5454: 5419: 5415: 5363: 5359: 5353: 5345: 5312: 5308: 5302: 5267: 5263: 5253: 5218: 5214: 5204: 5169: 5165: 5155: 5120: 5116: 5106: 5081: 5077: 5071: 5046: 5042: 5036: 5022: 5018: 5005: 5002: 4972: 4969: 4963: 4931:(3): 400–7. 4928: 4924: 4914: 4897: 4893: 4887: 4862: 4858: 4852: 4835: 4831: 4787: 4783: 4735: 4731: 4721: 4698: 4688: 4646: 4642: 4629: 4594: 4590: 4562: 4550:. Retrieved 4523: 4519: 4464:. Retrieved 4439: 4435: 4425: 4413:. Retrieved 4409:the original 4404: 4391: 4379:. Retrieved 4375:the original 4370: 4360: 4347: 4344: 4296: 4292: 4271:. Retrieved 4267:the original 4262: 4212: 4208: 4195: 4155: 4151: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4058:. Elsevier. 4055: 4018:(3): 240–7. 4015: 4011: 3986:. Retrieved 3967: 3922: 3890: 3886: 3874:. Retrieved 3860: 3820: 3779: 3775: 3765: 3738: 3734: 3724: 3689: 3685: 3645: 3641: 3631: 3596: 3592: 3546: 3542: 3494: 3490: 3426: 3422: 3373: 3369: 3328: 3324: 3283: 3276: 3264:. Retrieved 3260:the original 3189: 3140:urethrostomy 3137: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3111: 3108: 3101: 3085: 3079: 3067: 3058: 3043: 3036: 3024: 3018: 3011: 2949: 2945: 2941:is from the 2938: 2936: 2912: 2896:Samuel Pepys 2892:Isaac Newton 2856:Napoleon III 2845: 2834: 2800: 2789: 2781: 2779: 2765: 2749: 2741: 2730: 2601:0.1% (1977) 2593:3.5% (1987) 2590:3.8% (1977) 2579:1.2% (1983) 2547:Epidemiology 2537: 2522: 2513:pyonephrosis 2489:Ureteroscopy 2487: 2469:ureteroscopy 2465: 2435:renal pelvis 2398: 2377: 2372:hypertension 2353: 2321: 2313: 2304:lithotriptor 2300:renal pelvis 2294:(ESWL) is a 2290: 2238: 2218: 2209: 2164: 2140: 2129: 2112: 2064: 2047:soy products 2032: 2026: 2016: 2004: 1978: 1957: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1925:renal pelvis 1893: 1872:sulfadiazine 1850:stones, and 1838:may produce 1805: 1793: 1770: 1762:urolithiasis 1735: 1727: 1679:Enterobacter 1677: 1671: 1665: 1659: 1653: 1647: 1641: 1635: 1586: 1577: 1566: 1531: 1453:Pink/yellow 1421:Dirty white 1368: 1353:Dirty white 1262:tea strainer 1234:neutrophilia 1211:, bacteria, 1199: 1196:of the urine 1115:. There are 1095:rather than 1089: 1075: 1055:urolithiasis 1048: 1040: 1029: 990: 969:radiographic 962: 945: 924: 908:glycoprotein 904:nephrocalcin 857: 814: 804: 787:crystalluria 784: 755: 743:seed crystal 724: 702: 694: 662: 650: 634: 627: 618: 614: 591: 568: 552: 541: 518: 487: 480: 477:Risk factors 469:because the 464: 441: 421: 389: 381:ureteroscopy 361:pain control 357:no treatment 333: 250: 217: 206:urolithiasis 205: 201: 197: 193: 192: 166:ureteroscopy 136:appendicitis 29: 9736:Renal colic 9570:Ureterocele 9478:MedlinePlus 9328:‹ The 6193:20 February 5973:: 599–604. 4343:Reilly RF, 2919:litholapaxy 2836:De Medicina 2831:lithotomies 2803:Mesopotamia 2737:Middle East 2685:increasing 2682:200 (1969) 2674:decreasing 2671:270 (1984) 2663:increasing 2652:increasing 2649:720 (2000) 2641:decreasing 2638:116 (2000) 2429:image of a 2388:white paper 2364:Mayo Clinic 2296:noninvasive 2263:Lithotripsy 2225:paracetamol 2171:allopurinol 2161:Allopurinol 2126:Slaked lime 2115:dissolution 2085:catheters. 2079:nephrostomy 2023:bloodstream 1901:major calyx 1876:triamterene 1828:xanthinuria 1802:Other types 1796:pleomorphic 1766:radiolucent 1661:Providencia 1632:alkalinizes 1575:childhood. 1335:formation. 1297:appearance 1269:Composition 1236:(increased 1224:sensitivity 1117:phleboliths 1034:imaging. 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