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a.m. to cross the
Tallapoosa river and cut off the Red Sticks' retreat and prevent reinforcements. Coffee's brigade was made up of 700 mounted infantry and 600 allied Indians. Meanwhile Jackson marched to the breastworks. He had one six-pound and one three-pound artillery piece that started a bombardment at 10:30 a.m. This lasted till noon when Jackson realized that it was having little effect and decided to storm the fortifications. The first person to scale the fortification was Major Lemuel Montgomery who was promptly shot in the head. The fight for the breastworks was a quick but bloody affair but in the end Jackson's men prevailed. The Red Sticks fell back to their second line of defense, a breastwork of logs and underbrush. The Creeks asked for no quarter while their prophets where saying that it would be worse if they were captured. Jackson offered them a chance to surrender and instead the Creeks fired on the party offering it. The fighting lasted until sunset.
340:. Made up mostly of Creek of the Upper Towns that supported traditional leadership and culture, as well as the preservation of communal land for cultivation and hunting, the Red Sticks arose at a time of increasing pressure on Creek territory by European American settlers. Creek of the Lower Towns were closer to the settlers, had more mixed-race families, and had already been forced to make land cessions to the Americans. In this context, the Red Sticks led a resistance movement against European American encroachment and
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650: with: authoritative, referenced content that describes the consensus factual material for the actions appearing here (e.g., including the principal leaders especially among the Creek, as well as relevant alliances, and details of roles, ages, genders, and ethnicities of casualties/fatalities/captives), cf. Braund (2017), Waselkov (2009), Waselkov (2017), also replacing student interpretation with balanced scholarly perspectives. You can help by
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commonly called the Creek War (1813–1814), was essentially a civil war as the Creek struggled among themselves for their future; after the Lower Creek issued a statement of "unqualified and unanimous friendship for the United States", tensions broke out into violence. Red Sticks attacked the Lower Creek towns. The Red Sticks were backed by the
British, who were engaged in the
460: with: authoritative, referenced content that describes the roles of nations (such as Spain and Britain), the principal players (especially from among the Creek), and other consensus factual material on the background of the actions that are described in following, cf. Braund (2017), Waselkov (2009), Waselkov (2017). You can help by
546:, he was impressed – though he did not know the Creek were in a civil war and that other tribes like the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Cherokee joined the Americans. He wanted to strike the Gulf Coast and wanted to use the Indians as a diversion from the Canadian theater. He sent Captain Hugh Pigot who anchored by the mouth of the
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piece of iron, steel, or bone projecting about two inches. The Red Sticks faction came primarily from the Upper Towns of the Creek
Confederacy and supported traditional leadership and culture, including the preservation of communal land for cultivation and hunting, while opposing assimilation into European American culture.
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on 14 March. This was after his scouts reported a force of 1,000 Red Stick warriors and their families were living there. Jackson's army had to march over 60 miles of rugged terrain. Before they left he gave out a warning that anyone who retreated without being compelled by significant force would be
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History graduate student Karl Davis, in a manner contrary to prevailing scholarship at the time, interpreted the attack in a journal article treatment as a punitive expedition specifically directed against the Tensaw, a group of Lower Creek who were "separated from core Creek values." Hence, Davis
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culture, in which a person's place and status were determined by their maternal clan. The Creek of the Lower Towns, who comprised the majority of the population, had adopted more
European-American ways; in addition, they had more intermarriage among their women with white traders and settlers, and
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Jackson's army arrived on March 26 and set up camp six miles away near the site of the battle of
Emuckfau Creek. The day before, the Creek's commander, William Weatherford, left to be with his pregnant wife, leaving Chief Menewa in charge. Jackson's cavalry, under the command of Coffee, left at 3
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as a Major who was impressed with him. Because he was half-white and, in
Jackson's eyes, "civilized" he was able to gain Jackson's trust and when Georgians attacked friendly Creek settlements only McIntosh's complaints made it to the government. His actions in the Creek War mainly joining Jackson
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The term "Red Sticks" (alternatively "Redsticks" or "Red Clubs"), was derived from the name of the two-foot-long wooden war club, or atássa, used by the Creek. The preferred weapon of the Red Stick warriors, this war club had a red-painted wooden handle with a curve at its head that held a small
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During the battle atrocities took place. In one instance a five-year-old boy was killed with the butt of a musket because "someday the boy would be a warrior." Another person killed an Indian who was just sitting down because he wanted to brag about it. After the fighting was over some soldiers
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The fort was poorly guarded and the Red Sticks overwhelmed its defenses on 30 August 1813, killing most of the people who had taken refuge there. Estimates of the number of settlers at Fort Mims at the time of the massacre vary from 300 or so to 500 (including whites, slaves, and Lower Creek).
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The time in question was one of increasing pressure on Creek territory by
European American settlers. The Creek of the Lower Towns, who were closer to the settlers and had more mixed-race families, had already been forced to make numerous land cessions to the Americans. The Red Stick War, more
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The stockade and fort have been reconstructed at the historic site. The state installed a historic plaque at the Fort Mims site that notes the
British had provided weapons to the Red Sticks as part of its campaign against Captain Kaleb Johnson's troops in the South during the War of 1812.
724:, in southwestern Alabama), in an attempt to reduce the influence of the Tensaw Creek who controlled the fort. Also at the fort were intermarried whites, and other settlers and their slaves from the frontier who had become alarmed after the battle that had occurred at Burnt Corn.
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children as "the
Indians"; Benjamin Griffith argues that Hawkins failed to understand the closer relationship that children in Creek culture had with their mother's eldest brother, closer than with their biological father, because of the importance of the clan structure.
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The massacre had significant short-term and long-term effects. Alarmed by the fall of the fort and understanding little of internal Creek tensions, settlers demanded government protection from the Creek. With federal forces otherwise engaged in the War of 1812,
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on May 10, 1814. They proceeded to give the
Indians arms and a small British attachment of men. Pigot then reported to his superiors that he could have as much as 2,800 Creek and Seminoles trained in 8 to 10 weeks. This report would eventually lead to the
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in 1813. After the initial assault, the Red Sticks regrouped and defeated these troops. While the militia had provoked the attack, frontier settlers and U.S. officials became alarmed about the Red Sticks' actions on the frontier as a result.
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started to cut skin from Indians to make bridle reins. In the end only thirty-two Americans were killed, and ninety-nine were injured. In contrast only twenty Red Sticks were able to escape, including their leader Menewa.
538:) that helped and encouraged Native Americans to fight against America, mainly as a diversionary tactic. Most of their influence with the tribes flowed from the Great Lakes region. That was until
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in the Southeast and then as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the territory south of the Ohio River, lived among the Creek and Choctaw and knew them well. He commented in letters to President
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and become state and U.S. citizens, but treaty provisions to secure their land were not followed, and many became landless. Some Creek migrated to Florida, where they joined the Seminoles.
849:, traditional enemy of the Creek. Historian Frank L. Owsley, Jr. suggests that the state-sponsored military activity in the area likely prevented the British from occupying an undefended
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that Creek women were matriarchs and had control of children "when connected with a white man". Hawkins further observed that even wealthy traders were nearly as "inattentive" to their
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tribes' territories, forcing land cessions under numerous treaties but always demanding more. After the war, the Creek were forced to cede half their remaining lands to the U.S.
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was one of the principal leaders of the Red Sticks. After the war, he continued to oppose white encroachment on Muscogee lands, visiting Washington, D.C., in 1826 to protest the
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of the Upper Towns. The war heightened the hostility between the Creek and the Americans in the Southeast, at a time when Americans had steadily encroached on Creek and other
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Estimates of survivors have varied; at the most, about three dozen have been claimed. At least 100 Creek attackers were found dead at the scene of the battle.
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visited the Upper Creeks and convinced them to make war against the United States. When incomplete reports of the Creek War reached Vice Admiral Sir
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in 1813. Initially a civil war among the Creek, the conflict drew in United States state forces while the nation was already engaged in the
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Halbert, Henry S., & Ball, Timothy H. (1995) . With Introduction, Notes, Bibliography and Index by Frank L. Owsley Jr. (ed.).
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against the United States, and the Spanish, who were trying to retain a foothold in Florida and in territories to the west of the
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on March 27, 1814. His forces killed or captured most of the Creek, but some survivors escaped to Florida, where they joined the
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The war had begun over internal divisions among Creek who resisted the assimilation and loss of traditions, led by the chiefs
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Frank, Andrew K. (2002). "The Rise and Fall of William McIntosh: Authority and Identity on the Early American Frontier".
689:. The armed conflict occurred when a group of Red Sticks were attacked by American white militiamen while returning from
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Imperialism and Expansionism in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection
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does not believe the Fort Mims attack was representative of the overall conflict between the Upper and Lower Towns.
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commanded the state militias to campaign against the Red Sticks. The U.S. forces finally defeated the Creek at the
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economic relations with the United States settlers. At the same time, the mixed-race children, such as the chiefs
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Some of the notable people present at the battle were: Sam Houston, John Coffee, and Andrew Jackson
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1587:(Bicentennial ed.). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 123–161, esp. 145–151.
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Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815
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Davis, Karl (2002). "'Remember Fort Mims': Reinterpreting the Origins of the Creek War".
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336:—refers to an early 19th century traditionalist faction of Muscogee Creek people in the
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Note, the current article does not yet reflect the content of these further readings.
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Coming Down From Above: Prophecy, Resistance, and Renewal in Native American Religions
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Kanon, Thomas (1999). "'a Slow, Laborious Slaughter': The Battle of Horseshoe Bend".
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Within twenty years, they lost the remainder of their lands as a result of the
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The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812: A Political, Social, and Military History
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Chief of Coweta, William McIntosh was a leader of the Lower Creek. During the
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Mahon, John K. (1966). "British Strategy and Southern Indians: War of 1812".
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Jackson led a force of 3,000 men to Horseshoe Bend (Tohopeka in Creek), from
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1503:. Library of Alabama Classics. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.
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332:)—the name deriving from the red-painted war clubs of some Native American
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he opposed the Red Sticks and sided with the Americans instead. He joined
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800: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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415: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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Osceola and the Great Seminole War: A Struggle for Justice and Freedom
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alienated him after the war was over in Creek society. By supplying
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A Conquering Spirit: Fort Mims and the Redstick War of 1813–1814
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A Conquering Spirit: Fort Mims and the Redstick War of 1813–1814
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971:. In Spencer Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (eds.).
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for defense and engaged Native American allies, such as the
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Faction of Muscogee Creek people in the early 19th century
1618:(2nd ed.). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
1539:
Heidler, David Stephen & Heidler, Jeanne T. (1997).
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Heidler, David Stephen & Heidler, Jeanne T. (1997).
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Owsley Jr., Frank L. (1971). "The Fort Mims Massacre".
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1581:Hickey, Donald R. (2012). "The Campaign of 1813 ".
865:and continued the resistance to the United States.
202:Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
108:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
344:, tensions that culminated in the outbreak of the
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712:The Red Sticks decided to attack the garrison at
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2237:Indigenous topics of the Southeastern Woodlands
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1264:. University of New Mexico Press. p. 89.
1137:McIntosh and Weatherford, Creek Indian Leaders
30:For the Central Asian paramilitary group, see
2247:Pre-statehood history of Georgia (U.S. state)
1703:
1109:. In Chris J. Magoc; David Bernstein (eds.).
1029:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 38.
1002:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 195.
1572:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1545:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 355.
1530:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1389:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1362:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 355.
1646:. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
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1140:. University of Alabama Press. p. 10.
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932:. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
735:
501:, who was first appointed as United States
71:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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1696:
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1668:Waselkov, Gregory A. (January 11, 2017).
1437:
1332:
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1092:, and are thought by some to be relevant.
1088:Ceremonial red sticks were used by Creek
1063:Waselkov, Gregory A. (January 11, 2017).
995:
816:Learn how and when to remove this message
621:Learn how and when to remove this message
497:, were generally raised among the Creek.
431:Learn how and when to remove this message
240:Learn how and when to remove this message
222:Learn how and when to remove this message
168:Learn how and when to remove this message
2149:Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States
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534:was one of the principal nations (with
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1113:. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. p. 399.
975:. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 169.
899:. Some remnant Creek chose to stay in
681:The Red Sticks were involved with the
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1584:The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict
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1477:Braund, Kathryn (January 30, 2017).
798:adding citations to reliable sources
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413:adding citations to reliable sources
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1450:. St. Martin's Press. p. 19.
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1107:"Horseshoe Bend, Battle of (1814)"
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52:This article has multiple issues.
2242:Pre-statehood history of Alabama
2176:Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas
1225:The Florida Historical Quarterly
1163:The Georgia Historical Quarterly
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184:
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2056:Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)
1670:"Fort Mims Battle and Massacre"
1542:Encyclopedia of the War of 1812
1359:Encyclopedia of the War of 1812
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1251:
1216:
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1065:"Fort Mims Battle and Massacre"
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859:Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)
785:needs additional citations for
590:needs additional citations for
400:needs additional citations for
93:needs additional citations for
60:or discuss these issues on the
1958:College of the Muscogee Nation
1500:The Creek War of 1813 and 1814
1411:Tennessee Historical Quarterly
1261:The Cherokee Nation: A History
1204:. University of South Carolina
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1082:
1056:
13:
1:
2181:Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town
2117:Treaty of Fort Jackson (1814)
2061:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
1822:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
1640:Waselkov, Gregory A. (2009).
1299:Journal of the Early Republic
1134:Benjamin W. Griffith (1998).
926:Waselkov, Gregory A. (2009).
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2201:Poarch Band of Creek Indians
2186:Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana
2001:(predecessor to Lower Towns)
891:, and the forced removal to
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2167:Federally recognized tribes
2133:Treaty of Washington (1826)
1202:South Carolina Encyclopedia
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10:
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2122:Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost
1719:Muscogee Creek Confederacy
1258:Conley, Robert J. (2005).
1105:John R. Burch Jr. (2015).
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685:that become known as the
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32:Red Sticks (Central Asia)
2206:Thlopthlocco Tribal Town
2128:Treaty of Moultrie Creek
1023:Jean-Marc Serme (2015).
967:Andrew K. Frank (2012).
742:Battle of Horseshoe Bend
736:Battle of Horseshoe Bend
544:Alexander F. I. Cochrane
369:treaty of Indian Springs
2196:Muscogee (Creek) Nation
1674:Encyclopedia of Alabama
1483:Encyclopedia of Alabama
1069:Encyclopedia of Alabama
289:; 210 years ago
2091:Creek National Capitol
2051:Kimbell-James Massacre
2010:Leon-Jefferson culture
1479:"Creek War of 1813–14"
376:
2096:Crazy Snake Rebellion
1999:Apalachicola Province
1974:Mississippian culture
1855:(Francis the Prophet)
839:Mississippi Territory
718:Mississippi Territory
702:Massacre at Fort Mims
553:Battle of New Orleans
363:
352:against the British.
2191:Kialegee Tribal Town
2041:Battle of Burnt Corn
1943:Four Mothers Society
1610:Owsley Jr., Frank L.
1051:A Conquering Spirit,
1026:1812 in the Americas
955:References and notes
794:improve this article
687:Battle of Burnt Corn
677:Battle of Burnt Corn
599:improve this article
409:improve this article
195:factual accuracy is
102:improve this article
1948:Green Corn Ceremony
1884:William Weatherford
1444:Thom Hatch (2012).
870:William Weatherford
565:Louisiana Territory
491:William Weatherford
270:William Weatherford
2138:Indian Removal Act
2076:Indian Removal Act
2066:Battle of Ocheesee
2046:Fort Mims Massacre
996:Lee Irwin (2014).
889:Indian Removal Act
708:Fort Mims Massacre
671:Skirmish over arms
555:six months later.
548:Apalachicola River
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2143:Treaty of Cusseta
2086:Creek War of 1836
2037:(Creek civil war)
2020:State of Muskogee
1922:Mikasuki-Hitchiti
1726:Four mother towns
1457:978-0-312-35591-3
1196:Groover, Mark D.
1147:978-0-8173-0914-5
1120:978-1-61069-430-8
1049:Waselkov (2009),
1036:978-1-4438-8293-4
1009:978-0-8061-8579-8
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2124:(unratified)
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1979:Pisgah phase
1771:Apalachicola
1677:. Retrieved
1673:
1657:. Retrieved
1642:
1629:. Retrieved
1614:
1598:. Retrieved
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1556:. Retrieved
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1169:(1): 18–48.
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1090:medicine men
1084:
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943:. Retrieved
928:
920:Bibliography
914:
895:west of the
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792:Please help
787:verification
784:
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680:
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652:adding to it
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597:Please help
592:verification
589:
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503:Indian agent
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462:adding to it
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407:Please help
402:verification
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342:assimilation
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117:"Red Sticks"
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100:Please help
95:verification
92:
68:
61:
55:
54:Please help
51:
1953:Stomp dance
1837:Tribal town
1748:Tukabatchee
1417:(1): 2–15.
905:Mississippi
561:War of 1812
528:long rifles
486:matrilineal
350:War of 1812
311:Communalism
2221:Categories
2030:Red Sticks
1989:Moundville
1832:Tallapoosa
1797:Miccosukee
1208:26 January
1053:pp. 86–88.
851:Gulf Coast
837:, and the
806:March 2017
751:executed.
659:March 2017
611:March 2017
530:in trade,
511:mixed-race
469:March 2017
421:March 2017
356:Background
318:Red Sticks
294:1814-05-10
257:Red Sticks
212:March 2017
158:March 2017
128:newspapers
57:improve it
2232:Creek War
1907:Apalachee
1894:Languages
1874:Neamathla
1776:Coushatta
1612:(2000) .
1568:cite book
1526:cite book
1423:0040-3261
1385:cite book
1237:0015-4113
1175:0016-8297
863:Seminoles
835:Tennessee
766:Aftermath
714:Fort Mims
519:Creek War
381:Creek War
346:Creek War
330:Red Clubs
322:Redsticks
63:talk page
18:Red Stick
2227:Muscogee
1938:Religion
1827:Sabacola
1817:Okfuskee
1807:Muscogee
1802:Muklassa
1792:Hitchiti
1786:Fowltown
1679:March 5,
1659:March 5,
1631:March 5,
1600:March 5,
1558:March 5,
1516:March 5,
1488:March 5,
1431:42627446
1375:March 5,
1277:March 5,
1245:30147227
1183:40584639
1074:March 5,
969:"Creeks"
945:March 5,
911:Memorial
847:Cherokee
843:militias
683:skirmish
540:Tecumseh
303:Ideology
197:disputed
1967:History
1931:Culture
1917:Koasati
1902:Alabama
1879:Osceola
1846:Leaders
1781:Eufaula
1766:Alabama
1743:Kasihta
1319:3124760
901:Alabama
831:Georgia
716:in the
691:Florida
532:England
375:, 1837.
292: (
284:Founded
142:scholar
2005:Chiaha
1984:Etowah
1869:Menawa
1812:Okchai
1738:Coweta
1733:Abihka
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722:Tensaw
365:Menawa
320:(also
274:Menawa
265:Leader
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115:
1427:JSTOR
1315:JSTOR
1241:JSTOR
1179:JSTOR
693:with
536:Spain
334:Creek
328:, or
149:JSTOR
135:books
1681:2017
1661:2017
1648:ISBN
1633:2017
1620:ISBN
1602:2017
1589:ISBN
1574:link
1560:2017
1547:ISBN
1532:link
1518:2017
1505:ISBN
1490:2017
1452:ISBN
1419:ISSN
1391:link
1377:2017
1364:ISBN
1279:2017
1266:ISBN
1233:ISSN
1210:2021
1171:ISSN
1142:ISBN
1115:ISBN
1076:2017
1031:ISBN
1004:ISBN
977:ISBN
947:2017
934:ISBN
903:and
695:arms
493:and
121:news
1307:doi
796:by
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