982:, a professor of education at Ohio State University, was one of the first critics of Thorndike's vocabulary-frequency lists. He claimed that they did not distinguish between the different meanings that many words have. He created two new lists of his own. One, his "short list" of 769 easy words, was used by Irving Lorge in his formula. The other was his "long list" of 3,000 easy words, which were understood by 80% of fourth-grade students. However, one has to extend the word lists by regular plurals of nouns, regular forms of the past tense of verbs, progressive forms of verbs etc. In 1948, he incorporated this list into a formula he developed with
1051:
a multiple-choice test. The best level for unassisted reading is one for which readers can correctly answer 80% of the questions. These cutoff scores were later confirmed by
Vygotsky and Chall and Conard. Among other things, Bormuth confirmed that vocabulary and sentence length are the best indicators of reading ease. He showed that the measures of reading ease worked as well for adults as for children. The same things that children find hard are the same for adults of the same reading levels. He also developed several new measures of cutoff scores. One of the most well known was the
875:, one-third at the 7th to 12th-grade level, and one-third at the 13th–17th grade level. The authors emphasized that one-half of the adult population at that time lacked suitable reading materials. They wrote, "For them, the enriching values of reading are denied unless materials reflecting adult interests are adapted to their needs." The poorest readers, one-sixth of the adult population, need "simpler materials for use in promoting functioning
1968:
720:. Formulas do not fully address the various content, purpose, design, visual input, and organization of a text. Text leveling is commonly used to rank the reading ease of texts in areas where reading difficulties are easy to identify, such as books for young children. At higher levels, ranking reading ease becomes more difficult, as individual difficulties become harder to identify. This has led to better ways to assess reading ease.
634:
readability exist from various sources. The definition fluctuates based on the type of audience to whom one is presenting a certain type of content to. For example, a technical writer might focus on clear and concise language and formatting that allows easy-reading. In contrast, a scholarly journal would use sophisticated writing that would appeal and make sense to the type of audience to whom they are directing information.
51:
625:, readability is necessary for understanding and applying a given text. Techniques to simplify readability are essential to communicate a set of information to the intended audience. Whether it is code, news information, or storytelling, every writer has a target audience that they have to adjust their readability levels to.
963:
Flesch formulas could increase readership up to 60%. Flesch's work made an enormous impact on journalism. The Flesch
Reading Ease formula became one of the most widely used, tested, and reliable readability metrics. In 1951, Farr, Jenkins, and Patterson simplified the formula further by changing the syllable count.
708:. Starting with his own journal at the age of 13, Rubakin published many articles and books on science and many subjects for the great numbers of new readers throughout Russia. In Rubakin's view, the people were not fools. They were simply poor and in need of cheap books, written at a level they could grasp.
740:
textbooks. Their formula used five variable inputs and six constants. For each thousand words, it counted the number of unique words, the number of words not on the
Thorndike list, and the median index number of the words found on the list. Manually, it took three hours to apply the formula to a book.
2041:
forms in the auxiliary .40 X _________ ___ 7. Number of
Prepositional Phrases .75 X _________ ___ 8. Number of Possessive nouns and pronouns .70 X _________ ___ 9. Number of Adverbs of Time (when, then, once, while...) .60 X _________
2032:
1. Words/T-unit .95 X _________ ___ 2. Subordinate clauses/T-unit .90 X _________ ___ 3. Main clause word length (mean) .20 X _________ ___ 4. Subordinate clause length (mean)
1223:
In 2008, it was shown that syntactic complexity is correlated with longer processing times in text comprehension. It is common to use a rich set of these syntactic features to predict the readability of a text. The more advanced variants of syntactic readability features are frequently computed from
1050:
developed by Wilson Taylor. His work supported earlier research including the degree of reading ease for each kind of reading. The best level for classroom "assisted reading" is a slightly difficult text that causes a "set to learn", and for which readers can correctly answer 50% of the questions of
763:
of 10,000 words. He also published his readability formula. He wrote that word skills can be increased if the teacher introduces new words and repeats them often. In 1939, W.W. Patty and W. I Painter published a formula for measuring the vocabulary burden of textbooks. This was the last of the early
743:
After the Lively–Pressey study, people looked for formulas that were more accurate and easier to apply. In 1928, Carleton
Washburne and Mabel Vogel created the first modern readability formula. They validated it by using an outside criterion, and correlated .845 with test scores of students who read
2323:
Writing for a class of readers other than one's own is very difficult. It takes training, method, and practice. Among those who are good at this are writers of novels and children's books. The writing experts all advise that, besides using a formula, observe all the norms of good writing, which are
2028:
The Golub
Syntactic Density Score was developed by Lester Golub in 1974. It is among a smaller subset of readability formulas that concentrate on the syntactic features of a text. To calculate the reading level of a text, a sample of several hundred words is taken from the text. The number of words
1668:
Gray and Leary analyzed 228 variables that affect reading ease and divided them into four types: content, style, format, and organization. They found that content was most important, followed closely by style. Third was format, followed closely by organization. They found no way to measure content,
1215:
approaches to readability assessment (also known as
Automatic Readability Assessment) incorporate myriad linguistic features and construct statistical prediction models to predict text readability. These approaches typically consist of three steps: 1. a training corpus of individual texts, 2. a set
950:
formula in two parts. Rather than using grade levels, it used a scale from 0 to 100, with 0 equivalent to the 12th grade and 100 equivalent to the 4th grade. It dropped the use of affixes. The second part of the formula predicts human interest by using personal references and the number of personal
767:
In 1981 the World Book
Encyclopedia listed the grade levels of 44,000 words. A popular strategy amongst educators in modern times is "incidental vocabulary learning," which enforces efficiency in learning vocabulary in the short-term rather than drilling words and meanings teachers hope will stick.
723:
In the 1920s, the scientific movement in education looked for tests to measure students' achievement to aid in curriculum development. Teachers and educators had long known that, to improve reading skill, readers—especially beginning readers—need reading material that closely matches their ability.
1132:
Bonnie Meyer and others tried to use organization as a measure of reading ease. While this did not result in a formula, they showed that people read faster and retain more when the text is organized into topics. She found that a visible plan for presenting content greatly helps readers to assess a
1017:
In 1973, a study commissioned by the US military of the reading skills required for different military jobs produced the FORCAST formula. Unlike most other formulas, it uses only a vocabulary element, making it useful for texts without complete sentences. The formula satisfied requirements that it
862:
one of the most important books in readability research. Like Dale and Tyler, they focused on what makes books readable for adults of limited reading ability. Their book included the first scientific study of the reading skills of
American adults. The sample included 1,690 adults from a variety of
2319:
Writing experts have warned that an attempt to simplify the text only by changing the length of the words and sentences may result in text that is more difficult to read. All the variables are tightly related. If one is changed, the others must also be adjusted, including approach, voice, person,
1147:
Armbruster confirmed
Kintsch's finding that coherence and structure are more help for younger readers. R. C. Calfee and R. Curley built on Bonnie Meyer's work and found that an unfamiliar underlying structure can make even simple text hard to read. They brought in a graded system to help students
1074:
The project was one of the widest reading ease projects ever. The developers of the formula used 650 normed reading texts, 474 million words from all the text in 28,000 books read by students. The project also used the reading records of more than 30,000 who read and were tested on 950,000 books.
962:
Both Rudolf Flesch and Robert Gunning worked extensively with newspapers and the wire services in improving readability. Mainly through their efforts in a few years, the readability of US newspapers went from the 16th to the 11th-grade level, where it remains today. Publishers discovered that the
958:
of 20 November 1947. He divided the items into those above the 8th-grade level and those at the 8th grade or below. He chose the 8th-grade breakpoint, as that was determined to be the average reading level of adult readers. An 8th-grade text "...will reach about 50% of all American grown-ups," he
1066:
for assessing readability and matching students with appropriate texts. The Lexile framework uses average sentence length, and average word frequency in the American Heritage Intermediate Corpus to predict a score on a 0–2000 scale. The AHI Corpus includes five million words from 1,045 published
932:
Wilber Schramm, who directed the Communications Research program at the University of Illinois interviewed 1,050 newspaper readers in 1947. He found that an easier reading style helps to determine how much of an article is read. This was called reading persistence, depth, or perseverance He also
928:
used a split-run edition to study the effects of making text easier to read. He found that reducing from the 9th to the 6th-grade reading level increased readership by 43% for an article about 'nylon'. He also found a 60% increase in readership for an article on corn, with better responses from
882:
In 1939, Irving Lorge published an article that reported other combinations of variables that indicate difficulty more accurately than the ones Gray and Leary used. His research also showed that, "The vocabulary load is the most important concomitant of difficulty." In 1944, Lorge published his
633:
The term "readability" is inherently broad and can become confusing when examining all of the possible definitions. Readability is a concept that involves audience, content, quality, legibility, and can even involve the formatting and design structure of any given text. Different definitions of
1202:
consists of characteristics of the explicit text that play some role in helping the reader mentally connect ideas in the text." The definition of coherence is the subject of much debate. Theoretically, the coherence of a text is defined by the interaction between linguistic representations and
1120:
Beginning in the 1970s, cognitive theorists began teaching that reading is really an act of thinking and organization. The reader constructs meaning by mixing new knowledge into existing knowledge. Because of the limits of the reading ease formulas, some research looked at ways to measure the
936:
A study in 1947 by Melvin Lostutter showed that newspapers were generally written at a level five years above the ability of average American adult readers. The reading ease of newspaper articles was not found to have much connection with the education, experience, or personal interest of the
657:(12 million), are written at the 9th-grade level. The most popular novels are written at the 7th-grade level. This supports the fact that the average adult reads at the 9th-grade level. It also shows that, for recreation, people read texts that are two grades below their actual reading level.
937:
journalists writing the stories. It instead had more to do with the convention and culture of the industry. Lostutter argued for more readability testing in newspaper writing. Improved readability must be a "conscious process somewhat independent of the education and experience of the staffs
739:
published the first reading ease formula. They were concerned that junior high school science textbooks had so many technical words and that teachers would spend all class time explaining these words. They argued that their formula would help to measure and reduce the "vocabulary burden" of
1128:
and others showed the central role of coherence in reading ease, mainly for people learning to read. In 1983, Susan Kemper devised a formula based on physical states and mental states. However, she found this was no better than word familiarity and sentence length in showing reading ease.
792:
It was a two-year study of adult reading interests. Their book showed not only what people read but what they would like to read. They found that many readers lacked suitable reading materials: they would have liked to learn but the reading materials were too hard for them.
642:
Readability is essential to the clarity and accessibility of texts used in classrooms, work environments, and everyday life. The government prioritizes readability as well through Plain Language Laws which enforces important documents to be written at an 8th grade level.
811:
and artistry that few people who have ideas will take the trouble to achieve... If simple language were easy, many of our problems would have been solved long ago." Bryson helped set up the Readability Laboratory at the college. Two of his students were Irving Lorge and
842:
published the first adult reading ease formula based on passages on health topics from a variety of textbooks and magazines. Of 29 factors that are significant for young readers, they found ten that are significant for adults. They used three of these in their formula.
1203:
knowledge representations. While coherence can be defined as characteristics of the text (i.e., aspects of cohesion) that are likely to contribute to the coherence of the mental representation, Coh-Metrix measurements provide indices of these cohesion characteristics.
1070:
In 2000, researchers of the School Renaissance Institute and Touchstone Applied Science Associates published their Advantage-TASA Open Standard (ATOS) Reading ease Formula for Books. They worked on a formula that was easy to use and that could be used with any texts.
2151:
The type-token ratio is one of the features that are often used to captures the lexical richness, which is a measure of vocabulary range and diversity. To measure the lexical difficulty of a word, the relative frequency of the word in a representative corpus like the
768:
The incidental learning tactic is meant to help learners build comprehension and learning skills rather than memorizing words. Through this strategy, students would hopefully be able to navigate various levels of readability using context clues and comprehension.
1650:
754:
of Columbia University noted that, in Russia and Germany, teachers used word frequency counts to match books to students. Word skill was the best sign of intellectual development, and the strongest predictor of reading ease. In 1921, Thorndike published
1010:
Harry McLaughlin determined that word length and sentence length should be multiplied rather than added as in other formulas. In 1969, he published his SMOG (Simple Measure of Gobbledygook) formula. It is often recommended for use in healthcare.
699:
In 1889 in Russia, the writer Nikolai A. Rubakin published a study of over 10,000 texts written by everyday people. From these texts, he took 1,500 words he thought most people understood. He found that the main blocks to comprehension are
1311:
website, which provide texts for different age groups. In total, there are 3125 articles that are divided into five readability levels (from age 7 to 16). Weebit corpus has been used in several AI-based readability assessment research.
728:, one of the first books to apply psychology to marketing. Kitson's work showed that each type of reader bought and read their own type of text. On reading two newspapers and two magazines, he found that short sentence length and short
819:
In 1934, Ralph Ojemann investigated adult reading skills, factors that most directly affect reading ease, and causes of each level of difficulty. He did not invent a formula, but a method for assessing the difficulty of materials for
971:
In the 1940s, Robert Gunning helped bring readability research into the workplace. In 1944, he founded the first readability consulting firm dedicated to reducing the "fog" in newspapers and business writing. In 1952, he published
933:
found that people will read less of long articles than of short ones, for example, a story nine paragraphs long will lose 3 out of 10 readers by the fifth paragraph. In contrast, a shorter story will lose only 2 out of 10 readers.
695:
Sherman wrote: "No man should talk worse than he writes, no man should write better than he should talk..." He wrote this wanting to emphasize that the closer writing is to speech, the more clear and effective the content becomes.
2324:
essential for writing readable texts. Writers should study the texts used by their audience and their reading habits. This means that for a 5th-grade audience, the writer should study and learn good quality 5th-grade materials.
670:
For centuries, teachers and educators have seen the importance of organization, coherence, and emphasis in good writing. In the 1880s, English professor L. A. Sherman found that the English sentence was getting shorter. In
2029:
in the sample is counted, as are the number of T-units. A T-unit is defined as an independent clause and any dependent clauses attached to it. Other syntactical units are then counted and entered into the following table:
1486:
959:
wrote. Among the wire-service stories, the lower group got two-thirds more readers, and among local stories, 75% more readers. Feld also believed in drilling writers in Flesch's clear-writing principles.
827:
Ojemann emphasized the reported features, such as whether the text was coherent or unduly abstract. He used his 16 passages to compare and judge the reading ease of other texts, a method now called
2312:
can be highly misleading. Even though the traditional features like the average sentence length have high correlation with reading difficulty, the measure of readability is much more complex. The
913:, which included a readability formula to predict the difficulty of adult reading material. Investigators in many fields began using it to improve communications. One of the variables it used was
1232:) and Ani Nenkova (University of Pennsylvania) are considered pioneers in evaluating the parse-tree syntactic features and making it widely used in readability assessment. Some examples include:
1346:), in 2021. Whilst introducing his features hybridization method, he also explored handcrafted advanced semantic features which aim to measure the amount of knowledge contained in a given text.
3594:
Graesser, A.C.; McNamara, D.S.; Louwerse, M.M. (2003), Sweet, A.P.; Snow, C.E. (eds.), "What do readers need to learn in order to process coherence relations in narrative and expository text",
824:. He was the first to assess the validity of this method by using 16 magazine passages tested on actual readers. He evaluated 14 measurable and three reported factors that affect reading ease.
2045:
Users add the numbers in the right hand column and divide the total by the number of T-units. Finally, the quotient is entered into the following table to arrive at a final readability score.
3245:: Final Report, Project no 7-0052, Contract No. OEC-3-7-0070052-0326. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, Bureau of Research, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
1402:
1493:
986:, who later founded the Harvard Reading Laboratory. In 1995, Dale and Chall published a new version of their formula with an upgraded word list, the New Dale–Chall readability formula.
1121:
content, organization, and coherence of text. Although this did not improve the reliability of the formulas, their efforts showed the importance of these variables in reading ease.
1331:
corpus to the academic field in 2015. The corpus is a collection of thousands of news articles professionally leveled to different reading complexities by professional editors at
646:
Much research has focused on matching prose to reading skill, resulting in formulas for use in research, government, teaching, publishing, the military, medicine, and business.
2289:
The accuracy of readability formulas increases when finding the average readability of a large number of works. The tests generate a score based on characteristics such as
3551:
Klare, G. R., J. E. Mabry, and L. M. Gustafson. 1955. "The relationship of patterning (underlining) to immediate retention and to acceptability of technical material."
1198:
can be used in many different ways to investigate the cohesion of the explicit text and the coherence of the mental representation of the text. "Our definition of
764:
formulas that used the Thorndike vocabulary-frequency list. Until computers came along, word frequency lists were the best aids for grading reading ease of texts.
1669:
format, or organization—but they could measure variables of style. Among the 17 significant measurable style variables, they selected five to create a formula:
1133:
text. A hierarchical plan shows how the parts of the text are related. It also aids the reader in blending new information into existing knowledge structures.
1032:
In 1975, in a project sponsored by the U.S. Navy, the Reading Ease formula was recalculated to give a grade-level score. The new formula is now called the
4245:
807:
had long tried to teach how to write in a clear and readable style, Bryson found that it was rare. He wrote that such language is the result of a "...
724:
University-based psychologists did much of the early research, which was later taken up by textbook publishers. In 1921, Harry D. Kitson published
2896:
1125:
4240:
3192:
Derivation of new readability formulas (Automated Readability Index, Fog Count, and Flesch Reading Ease Formula) for Navy enlisted personnel.
2935:
Dale, E. and R. Tyler. 1934. "A study of the factors influencing the difficulty of reading materials for adults of limited reading ability."
4177:
1136:
Bonnie Armbruster found that the most important feature for learning and comprehension is textual coherence, which comes in two types:
3418:
Coleman, E. B. and P. J. Blumenfeld. 1963. "Cloze scores of nominalization and their grammatical transformations using active verbs."
1409:
2922:
Ojemann, R. H. 1934. "The reading ability of parents and factors associated with reading difficulty of parent-education materials."
2800:
A teacher's word book of the twenty thousand words found most frequently and widely in general reading for children and young people
196:
2388:
2033:.50 X _________ ___ 5. Number of Modals (will, shall, can, may, must, would...) .65 X _________ ___ 6. Number of
621:
Higher readability in a text eases reading effort and speed for the general population of readers. For those who do not have high
2153:
99:
1261:, but was proved to improve readability assessment accuracy in general. Cognitively-motivated features, in combination with a
3178:
1342:
Advanced semantic or semantic features' influence on text readability was pioneered by Bruce W. Lee during his study at the (
800:
4235:
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1704:
1266:
1033:
947:
191:
887:, a readability formula that used three variables and set the stage for simpler and more reliable formulas that followed.
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and liked the criterion books. It was also the first to introduce the variable of interest to the concept of readability.
3829:
Proceedings of the 12th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics on - EACL '09
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Collins-Thompson, Kevyn (2015). "Computational assessment of text readability: A survey of current and future research".
2413:
Link to external site, this link will open in a new tab; Link to external site, this link will open in a new tab (2023).
2602:(1979), "Rubakin, Nikolai Aleksandrovic", in Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Nasri, William Z.; Daily, Jay Elwood (eds.),
4229:
1747:
2716:
Washburne, C. and M. Vogel. 1928. "An objective method of determining grade placement of children's reading material.
867:, magazines, and books—as well as a standard reading test. They found a mean grade score of 7.81 (eighth month of the
615:
24:
3258:
Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, Bureau of Research, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
2613:
2015:
522:
1997:
1645:{\displaystyle n\cdot {\frac {\sum _{i=1}^{n}(p_{i}-{\bar {p}})^{4}}{(\sum _{i=1}^{n}(p_{i}-{\bar {p}})^{2})^{2}}}}
298:
3175:
Methodologies for determining reading requirements of military occupational specialties: Technical report No. 73-5
4170:
1353:
1155:
Image words, abstraction, direct and indirect statements, types of narration and sentences, phrases, and clauses;
611:
4150:
2368:
1993:
603:
1781:
Raw score = uncorrected reading grade of a student who can answer one-half of the test questions on a passage.
276:
114:
3105:
Farr, J. N., J. J. Jenkins, and D. G. Paterson. 1951. "Simplification of the Flesch Reading Ease Formula."
2156:(COCA) is often used. Below includes some examples for lexico-semantic features in readability assessment.
1989:
747:
Between 1929 and 1939, Alfred Lewerenz of the Los Angeles School District published several new formulas.
4281:
4212:
3704:"On Improving the Accuracy of Readability Classification using Insights from Second Language Acquisition"
2692:
Lively, Bertha A. and S. L. Pressey. 1923. "A method for measuring the 'vocabulary burden' of textbooks.
1254:
1004:
3564:
Klare, G. R. 1957. "The relationship of typographic arrangement to the learning of technical material."
1791:
Finally, to compensate for the "grade-equivalent curve", apply the following chart for the Final Score:
976:
with his own Fog Index, a formula that correlates 0.91 with comprehension as measured by reading tests.
4335:
4325:
4293:
4163:
1343:
1320:
1316:
1249:
Lijun Feng pioneered some cognitively-motivated features (mostly lexical) in 2009. This was during her
1229:
990:
34:
3657:
Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Natural Language Processing Techniques for Educational Applications
2828:
Patty. W. W. and W. I. Painter. 1931. "A technique for measuring the vocabulary burden of textbooks."
2706:
The Classic Readability Studies, William H. DuBay, Editor (chapter on Washburne, C. i M. Vogel. 1928).
2531:
Rabin, A. T. 1988 "Determining difficulty levels of text written in languages other than English." In
2522:
Paper presented at the 31st Annual Meeting of the International Reading Association, Philadelphia, PA.
4315:
2857:"Exploration of Incidental Vocabulary Learning Strategies from Different Modes to Acquire Vocabulary"
1759:
Compute the average sentence length in words (divide the number of words by the number of sentences).
1140:
Global coherence, which integrates high-level ideas as themes in an entire section, chapter, or book.
343:
3907:
Proceedings of the Fifteenth Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications
1300:
675:
times, the average sentence was 50 words long while in Sherman's modern time, it was 23 words long.
1978:
1931:
Where: polysyllable count = number of words of more than two syllables in a sample of 30 sentences.
1768:
Raw score = 0.1579*(PDW) + 0.0496*(ASL) if the percentage of PDW is less than 5%, otherwise compute
1324:
492:
231:
1102:
For reading alone below the 4th grade, the best learning gain requires at least 85% comprehension.
119:
4258:
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Spyridakis, J. H. 1989. "Signaling effects: Increased content retention and new answers-Part 2."
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1982:
1902:
1258:
997:
855:
226:
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4223:
4201:
3653:"LXPER Index 2.0: Improving Text Readability Assessment Model for L2 English Students in Korea"
3615:
Proceedings of the 11th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications
1674:
1199:
149:
104:
74:
2603:
897:
Found that unusual words and sentence length were among the first causes of reading difficulty
3942:"Pushing on Text Readability Assessment: A Transformer Meets Handcrafted Linguistic Features"
3256:
Development of standards of readability: Towards a rational criterion of passage performance.
2890:
2878:
2436:
2348:
1151:
Many other studies looked at the effects on reading ease of other text variables, including:
851:
622:
515:
472:
139:
20:
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4075:
Fry, E. B. 1988. "Writeability: the principles of writing for increased comprehension." In
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1692:
599:
555:
365:
4144:
3577:
Jatowt, A. and K. Tanaka. 2012. "Longitudinal analysis of historical texts' readability."
8:
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Readability Scoring Tool - Scores against many readability formulas at once - Readable.io
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385:
221:
206:
79:
1046:
In 1978, John Bormuth of the University of Chicago looked at reading ease using the new
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Kintsch, W. and J. R. Miller 1981. "Readability: A view from cognitive psychology." In
2042:
___ 10. Number of gerunds, participles, and absolutes Phrases .85 X _________ ___
1719:
ASW = average word length in syllables (number of syllables divided by number of words)
831:. He showed that even though these factors cannot be measured, they cannot be ignored.
482:
338:
144:
109:
4139:
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3946:
Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing
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Proceedings of the 2008 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing
3734:
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Clark, H. H. and S. E. Haviland. 1977. "Comprehension and the given-new contract." In
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Coleman, E. B. 1966. "Learning of prose written in four grammatical transformations."
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Lewerenz, A. S. 1939. "Selection of reading materials by pupil ability and interest."
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people under 35. The result was a gain of 42,000 readers in a circulation of 275,000.
4264:
4019:
3971:
3738:
3401:
2609:
2584:
Analytics of literature: A manual for the objective study of English prose and poetry
2501:
1878:
1716:
Where: ASL = average sentence length (number of words divided by number of sentences)
1078:
They found that three variables give the most reliable measure of text reading ease:
1028:
Easy enough for Army clerical personnel to use without special training or equipment.
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539:
452:
236:
211:
69:
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Gibson, Edward (1998). "Linguistic complexity: locality of syntactic dependencies".
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eds. B. L. Zakaluk and S. J. Samuels. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
1762:
Compute the percentage of words NOT on the Dale–Chall word list of 3,000 easy words.
1257:(CUNY). The cognitively-motivated features were originally designed for adults with
1111:
Feedback and interaction with the teacher are the most important factors in reading.
4320:
4186:
3959:
3920:
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3832:
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3628:
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Felker, D. B., F. Pickering, V. R. Charrow, V. M. Holland, and J. C. Redish. 1981.
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2742:
Lewerenz, A. S. 1929. "Objective measurement of diverse types of reading material.
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found that many adults had poor reading ability due to poor education. Even though
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559:
551:
508:
420:
308:
181:
159:
61:
3750:
3708:
Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Building Educational Applications Using NLP
2755:
Lewerenz, A. S. 1930. "Vocabulary grade placement of typical newspaper content."
2705:
2175:
Language model perplexity (comparing the text to generic or genre-specific models)
685:
Shorter sentences and concrete terms help people to make sense of what is written.
173:
3824:
3680:
Feng, Lijun; Jansche, Martin; Huernerfauth, Matt; Elhadad, Noémie (August 2010).
3431:
Gough, P. B. 1965. "Grammatical transformations and the speed of understanding."
2996:
no. 187. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.
2882:
2440:
2358:
2353:
951:
sentences. The new formula correlated 0.70 with the McCall-Crabbs reading tests.
847:
777:
607:
563:
467:
462:
375:
154:
4155:
3941:
3902:
3322:
Meyer, B. J. 1982. "Reading research and the teacher: The importance of plans."
1220:
model to predict the readability, using the computed linguistic feature values.
1096:
To help learning, the teacher should match book reading ease with reading skill.
4079:, eds. B. I. Zakaluk and S. J. Samuels. Newark, DE: International Reading Assn.
3925:
2482:"Applying statistical rigor to a validation study of the fry readability graph"
2481:
2338:
2333:
2298:
2184:
The correlation with comprehension as measured by reading tests is as follows:
835:
785:
781:
760:
430:
241:
201:
3486:
Spyridakis, J. H. 1989. "Signaling effects: A review of the research-Part 1."
3348:
Calfee, R. C. and R. Curley. 1984. "Structures of prose in content areas." In
2497:
4309:
4276:
4011:
3393:
3269:
The ATOS readability formula for books and how it compares to other formulas.
3218:
Should textbooks challenge students? The case for easier or harder textbooks.
2729:
Lewerenz, A. S. 1929. "Measurement of the difficulty of reading materials."
2505:
1887:
Grade level= 0.4 * ( (average sentence length) + (percentage of Hard Words) )
1304:
1274:
1040:
996:
In 1963, while teaching English teachers in Uganda, Edward Fry developed his
868:
813:
543:
457:
271:
3837:
3801:
3765:
3703:
3681:
3610:
2873:
2856:
1062:
In 1988, Jack Stenner and his associates at MetaMetrics, Inc. published the
3633:
2966:
Lorge, I. 1939. "Predicting reading difficulty of selections for children.
2363:
2316:, data-driven approach (see above) was studied to tackle this shortcoming.
1883:
The Gunning fog formula is one of the most reliable and simplest to apply:
1308:
983:
796:
266:
186:
4023:
3742:
3405:
2412:
3984:
Dale, E. and J. S. Chall. 1948. '"A formula for predicting readability".
3878:
3861:
3766:"Revisiting Readability: A Unified Framework for Predicting Text Quality"
3021:
Schramm, W. 1947. "Measuring another dimension of newspaper readership."
2431:
2414:
1014:
The Golub Syntactic Density Score was developed by Lester Golub in 1974.
872:
729:
672:
595:
587:
477:
400:
3190:
Kincaid, J. P., R. P. Fishburne, R. L. Rogers, and B. S. Chissom. 1975.
1713:
Reading Ease score = 206.835 − (1.015 × ASL) − (84.6 × ASW)
4122:
The Science of Reading: Information, Media, and Mind in Modern America.
3285:
2301:
is taken into account) and sentence length (as an unreliable proxy for
1225:
1195:
1047:
979:
900:
Used vocabulary and sentence length in formulas to predict reading ease
839:
808:
716:
The earliest reading ease assessment is the subjective judgment termed
579:
575:
567:
487:
415:
410:
333:
303:
3940:
Lee, Bruce W.; Jang, Yoo Sung; Lee, Jason Hyung-Jong (November 2021).
3783:
3781:
3779:
3697:
3695:
3034:
Lostutter, M. 1947. "Some critical factors in newspaper readability."
2453:
Dale, Edgar and Jeanne S. Chall. 1949. "The concept of readability."
1148:
progress from simpler story lines to more advanced and abstract ones.
3862:"Problems in Current Text Simplification Research: New Data Can Help"
3352:, ed. J. Flood. Newark, DE: International Reading Assn., pp. 414–430.
2343:
2294:
1303:
created the WeeBit corpus by combining educational articles from the
1250:
864:
583:
3093:
Columbus, OH: Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University.
1967:
1784:
PDW = Percentage of difficult words not on the Dale–Chall word list.
3954:
3915:
3776:
3692:
3665:
3623:
3602:
3008:
Murphy, D. 1947. "How plain talk increases readership 45% to 60%."
2608:, vol. 26 (illustrated ed.), CRC Press, pp. 178–79,
2166:
Type-token ratio: the ratio of unique terms to total terms observed
1655:
where the count of discovered topics (n) and topic probability (p)
1000:. It became one of the most popular formulas and easiest to apply.
876:
776:
During the recession of the 1930s, the U.S. government invested in
444:
395:
390:
380:
357:
328:
3997:
McLaughlin, G. H. 1969. "SMOG grading-a new readability formula."
1729:
New reading ease score = 1.599nosw − 1.015sl − 31.517
1332:
1328:
1269:
by more than 70%. The newly discovered features by Feng include:
804:
591:
547:
425:
405:
370:
261:
216:
42:
3512:
Halbert, M. G. 1944. "The teaching value of illustrated books."
1143:
Local coherence, which joins ideas within and between sentences.
1105:
Advanced readers need 92% comprehension for independent reading.
4270:
4051:
How to write in plain English: A book for lawyers and consumers
3682:"A Comparison of Features for Automatic Readability Assessment"
3335:
Armbruster, B. B. 1984. "The problem of inconsiderate text" In
3173:
Caylor, J. S., T. G. Stitch, L. C. Fox, and J. P. Ford. 1973.
2768:
Lewerenz, A. S. 1935. "A vocabulary grade placement formula."
2468:
The Literacy Dictionary, The Vocabulary of Reading and Writing.
2302:
1953:
Where N = number of single-syllable words in a 150-word sample.
1481:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{n}}\cdot \sum _{i=1}^{n}max(p)-p_{i}}
1216:
of linguistic features to be computed from each text, and 3. a
1063:
571:
3823:
Feng, Lijun; Elhadad, Noémie; Huenerfauth, Matt (March 2009).
3679:
3120:
Readability revisited: The new Dale–Chall readability formula.
2627:
Lorge, I. 1944. "Word lists as background for communication."
954:
In 1948, Bernard Feld did a study of every item and ad in the
863:
settings and regions. The test used a number of passages from
3866:
Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics
3060:
Feld, B. 1948. "Empirical test proves clarity adds readers."
2551:
Smart language: Readers, Readability, and the Grading of Text
1339:
research, but was also used for text readability assessment.
894:
Successfully used statistical methods to analyze reading ease
16:
Level of ease with which a reader can understand written text
3901:
Deutsch, Tovly; Jasbi, Masoud; Shieber, Stuart (July 2020).
3609:
Xia, Menglin; Kochmar, Ekaterina; Briscoe, Ted (June 2016).
3473:
Hornby, P. A. 1974. "Surface structure and presupposition."
2843:
The living word vocabulary: A national vocabulary inventory.
1732:
Where: nosw = number of one-syllable words per 100 words and
4287:
3825:"Cognitively motivated features for readability assessment"
3309:
Kemper, S. 1983. "Measuring the inference load of a text."
1913:
50:
3860:
Xu, Wei; Callison-Burch, Chris; Napoles, Courtney (2015).
3611:"Text Readability Assessment for Second Language Learners"
3144:
Fry, E. B. 1968. "A readability formula that saves time."
2855:
He, Shumin 1 1 Country Garden Experimental School (2023).
917:
such as names and personal pronouns. Another variable was
3579:
Proceedings of Joint Conference on Digital Libraries 2012
3361:
Dolch. E. W. 1939. "Fact burden and reading difficulty."
2571:
Know Your Reader: The scientific approach to readability.
2308:
Most experts agree that simple readability formulas like
2169:
Ratio of function words, in comparison to the full corpus
691:
Over time, text becomes easier if it is more like speech.
616:
the ease with which humans can read computer program code
3593:
2163:
Out-of-vocabulary rate, in comparison to the full corpus
4134:
3859:
1892:
Where: Hard Words = words with more than two syllables.
1212:
1115:
1059:
system used by the College Entrance Examination Board.
909:
In 1943, Rudolf Flesch published his PhD dissertation,
3822:
3525:
Vernon, M. D. 1946. "Learning from graphic material."
3464:
ed. R. O. Freedle. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Press, pp. 1–40.
3091:
Readability: An appraisal of research and application.
2466:
Harris, Theodore L. and Richard E. Hodges, eds. 1995.
2293:
word length (which is used as an unreliable proxy for
1067:
works often read by students in grades three to nine.
25:
Computer programming § Readability of source code
2819:
36:1–19, 123–44, 229–41. October, November, December.
2815:
Thorndike, E. 1934. "Improving the ability to read."
2653:
Fry, E. B. 2002. "Text readability versus leveling."
2642:
Becoming literate: The construction of inner control.
1496:
1412:
1356:
3229:
Bormuth, J. R. 1966. "Readability: A new approach."
2415:"Text Simplification to Specific Readability Levels"
1756:
Select several 100-word samples throughout the text.
649:
The two publications with the largest circulations,
3900:
3542:
Washington, D. C: American Institutes for Research.
2172:
Ratio of pronouns, in comparison to the full corpus
1043:Raygor readability estimate was developed in 1977.
1644:
1480:
1396:
1108:Book length can be a good measure of reading ease.
966:
4185:
3608:
3598:, New York: Guilford Publications, pp. 82–98
879:and in establishing fundamental reading habits."
682:Literature is a subject for statistical analysis.
4307:
3903:"Linguistic Features for Readability Assessment"
3787:
3284:Madison, WI: School Renaissance Institute, Inc.
3047:Flesch, R. 1948. "A new readability yardstick."
1957:
1771:Raw score = 0.1579*(PDW) + 0.0496*(ASL) + 3.6365
3589:
3587:
3339:, ed. G. Duffy. New York: Longmann, p. 202–217.
3271:Madison, WI: School Renaissance Institute, Inc.
3157:Doak, C. C., L. G. Doak, and J. H. Root. 1996.
2994:Columbia University contributions to education,
2605:Encyclopedia of library and information science
2179:
4113:Vacca, J. A., R. Vacca, and M. K. Gove. 1995.
3991:
3702:Vajjala, Sowmya; Meurers, Detmar (June 2012).
3701:
3501:Journal of technical writing and communication
3488:Journal of technical writing and communication
3475:Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior
3433:Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior
1283:Average number of entity mentions per sentence
1280:Average number of unique entities per sentence
904:
4171:
4056:
3763:
3646:
3644:
2736:
2723:
1211:Unlike the traditional readability formulas,
516:
4145:Text Content Analysis Tool -UsingEnglish.com
4043:
4004:
3790:International Journal of Applied Linguistics
3764:Pitler, Emily; Nenkova, Ani (October 2008).
3584:
2775:
2762:
2749:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2320:tone, typography, design, and organization.
1907:
1335:. The corpus was originally introduced for
732:were the best contributors to reading ease.
4069:
3988:January 21 and February 17, 27:1–20, 37–54.
3386:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3210:
3112:
2986:
2924:University of Iowa studies in child welfare
2895:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2533:Readability: Its past, present, and future,
1996:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1397:{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}p_{i}\cdot i}
1289:Total number of entity mentions in document
1286:Total number of unique entities in document
1245:Average number of verb phrases per sentence
1242:Average number of noun phrases per sentence
1025:Suitable for the young adult-male recruits.
4178:
4164:
4077:Readability: Its past, present, and future
4030:
3978:
3939:
3641:
3480:
3443:
3441:
3412:
3329:
3169:
3167:
3161:. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co.
3159:Teaching patients with low literacy skills
3041:
3004:
3002:
2979:Lorge, I. 1944. "Predicting readability."
2973:
2835:
2694:Educational administration and supervision
2621:
2594:
2592:
2460:
1868:Raw score = 64 - 0.95 *(PDW) - 0.69 *(ASL)
1206:
871:). About one-third read at the 2nd to 6th-
523:
509:
3953:
3924:
3914:
3877:
3836:
3664:
3632:
3622:
3558:
3545:
3028:
2960:
2929:
2872:
2757:Los Angeles educational research bulletin
2744:Los Angeles educational research bulletin
2731:Los Angeles educational research bulletin
2710:
2556:
2447:
2430:
2016:Learn how and when to remove this message
688:Speech is easier to understand than text.
562:, the readability of text depends on its
4252:
4094:How to increase reading ability, 8th Ed.
3368:
3248:
3235:
3207:Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
3197:
3085:
3083:
2992:Flesch, R. "Marks of a readable style."
2647:
2576:
2389:"Typographic Readability and Legibility"
1896:
1265:model, can correct the average error of
1055:, which was used in 1981 to produce the
197:Directed listening and thinking activity
3506:
3462:Discourse production and comprehension,
3438:
3300:Newark, DE: International Reading Assn.
3290:
3223:
3184:
3164:
3101:
3099:
3077:. Ames, Iowa: University of Iowa Press.
3067:
3015:
2999:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2916:
2804:The teacher's word book of 30,000 words
2670:Newark, DE: International Reading Assn.
2598:
2589:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2520:Varied uses of readability measurement.
2470:Newark, DE: International Reading Assn.
2154:Corpus of Contemporary American English
1658:
1099:Reading often helps with reading gains.
4308:
4010:
3720:
3651:Lee, Bruce W.; Lee, Jason (Dec 2020).
3650:
3571:
3532:
3519:
3493:
3467:
3392:
3342:
3303:
3194:CNTECHTRA Research Branch Report 8-75.
2903:
2809:
2699:
2686:
2673:
2479:
1872:
1735:sl = average sentence length in words.
771:
4159:
4124:Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3454:
3425:
3355:
3324:College composition and communication
3316:
3216:Chall, J. S. and S. S. Conard. 1991.
3179:Human Resources Research Organization
3135:. London: Cambridge University Press.
3080:
2913:Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2822:
2512:
1741:
801:Teachers College, Columbia University
4196:Tests and formulas that measure the
4106:Manzo, A. V. and U. C. Manzo. 1995.
4101:Teaching children to read and write.
3286:http://www.renlearn.com/GIRP2008.pdf
3274:
3267:School Renaissance Institute. 2000.
3261:
3231:Reading research quarterly 1:79–132.
3151:
3138:
3096:
3054:
2957:. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
2942:
2845:World Book-Childcraft International.
2666:Fry, Edward B. 2006. "Readability."
2634:
2538:
2525:
2480:Fusaro, Joseph A. (September 1988).
2160:Average number of syllables per word
1994:adding citations to reliable sources
1961:
1116:Measuring coherence and organization
1022:Based on Army-job reading materials.
322:Reading differences and disabilities
4140:Readability Tests - Joe's Web Tools
3948:. EMNLP '21. pp. 10669–10686.
3350:Understanding reading comprehension
3243:Development of readability analysis
3125:
2660:
13:
4092:Harris, A. J. and E. Sipay. 1985.
4086:
3540:Guidelines for document designers.
2854:
2146:
1935:
1698:
750:In 1934, educational psychologist
14:
4347:
4128:
4108:Teaching children to be literate.
3311:Journal of educational psychology
3220:New York: Teachers College Press.
2770:Journal of experimental education
1765:Compute this equation from 1948:
1663:
678:Sherman's work established that:
665:
4236:Flesch–Kincaid readability tests
3596:Rethinking reading comprehension
3118:Chall, J. S. and E. Dale. 1995.
2953:Gray, W. S. and B. Leary. 1935.
2841:Dale, E. and J. O'Rourke. 1981.
2569:Klare, G. R. and B. Buck. 1954.
2553:. Costa Mesa:Impact Information.
2486:Reading Research and Instruction
1966:
1705:Flesch–Kincaid readability tests
574:) and its presentation (such as
120:The active view of reading model
49:
4096:New York & London: Longman.
3964:10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.834
3933:
3894:
3853:
3816:
3757:
3714:
3673:
3122:Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
2911:What adults want to read about.
2909:Waples, D. and R. Tyler. 1931.
2848:
2830:Journal of educational research
2788:
1864:The new Dale-Chall formula is:
1299:In 2012, Sowmya Vajjala at the
967:Formula refinement and variants
790:What Adults Want to Read About.
711:
637:
4230:Dale–Chall readability formula
4064:How to write readable English.
3381:The Technique of Clear Writing
3107:Journal of Applied Psychology.
3075:The measurement of readability
2473:
2406:
2381:
2369:Bourbaki dangerous bend symbol
1748:Dale–Chall readability formula
1679:Number of different hard words
1630:
1620:
1613:
1591:
1567:
1556:
1549:
1527:
1462:
1456:
974:The Technique of Clear Writing
946:In 1948, Flesch published his
735:In 1923, Bertha A. Lively and
558:though in different forms. In
93:Scientific theories and models
1:
4151:Check text readability online
4115:Reading and learning to read.
3986:Educational research bulletin
3735:10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00034-1
3566:Journal of Applied Psychology
3553:Journal of Applied Psychology
3527:British journal of psychology
3514:American school board journal
3449:Journal of Applied Psychology
3049:Journal of Applied Psychology
2582:Sherman, Lucius Adelno 1893.
2374:
1958:Golub Syntactic Density Score
1787:ASL = Average sentence length
628:
550:. The concept exists in both
2180:Readability formula accuracy
1292:Average lexical chain length
1085:average grade level of words
890:By 1940, investigators had:
602:, things such as programmer
23:. For code readability, see
7:
4282:Raygor readability estimate
4213:Automated readability index
4110:Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.
4016:The Art of Readable Writing
3398:The Art of Readable Writing
3298:Teaching: Research reviews.
3282:Guided independent reading.
2861:The Educational Review, USA
2327:
1255:City University of New York
1005:automated readability index
905:Readership formula adoption
860:What Makes a Book Readable,
10:
4352:
4294:Spache readability formula
4246:Flesch–Kincaid grade level
4147:, free membership required
2955:What makes a book readable
2668:Reading Hall of Fame Book.
2644:Portsmouth, NH: Heinneman.
2310:Flesch–Kincaid grade-level
2233:Original Dale‐Chall (1948)
2222:Flesch Reading Ease (1948)
1944:Grade level = 20 − (
1911:
1900:
1876:
1745:
1702:
1688:Percentage of unique words
1344:University of Pennsylvania
1321:University of Pennsylvania
1317:University of Pennsylvania
1295:Average lexical chain span
1267:Flesch–Kincaid grade-level
1230:University of Pennsylvania
1034:Flesch–Kincaid grade-level
991:Spache readability formula
924:In 1947, Donald Murphy of
660:
115:Scarborough's Reading Rope
18:
4208:
4194:
3363:Elementary English review
3337:Comprehension instruction
2968:Elementary English Review
2802:. 1944 (with J.E. Lorge)
2783:Elementary English review
2718:Elementary school journal
2573:New York: Heritage House.
2498:10.1080/19388078809557957
2305:complexity) of the work.
1908:McLaughlin's SMOG formula
1799:
1796:
1725:The modified formula is:
1709:The original formula is:
1350:Semantic Richness :
1323:), and Courtney Napoles (
1319:), Chris Callison-Burch (
1239:Average parse tree height
1182:Diagrams and line graphs;
1170:Active and passive voice;
911:Marks of a Readable Style
856:Xavier College in Chicago
538:is the ease with which a
344:Reading for special needs
4117:New York: HarperCollins.
4103:Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
3926:10.18653/v1/2020.bea-1.1
3383:. New York: McGraw–Hill.
1406:Semantic Clarity :
1325:Johns Hopkins University
232:Sustained silent reading
4259:Fry readability formula
3838:10.3115/1609067.1609092
3802:10.1075/itl.165.2.01col
3133:Teaching faster reading
2981:Teachers college record
2874:10.26855/er.2023.07.014
2817:Teachers college record
2796:The teacher's word book
2679:Kitson, Harry D. 1921.
2629:Teachers College Record
2393:Web Design Envato Tuts+
2314:artificial intelligence
2201:Gray & Leary (1935)
1903:Fry readability formula
1259:intellectual disability
1236:Average sentence length
1213:artificial intelligence
1207:Artificial Intelligence
1057:Degree of Reading Power
1007:was developed in 1967.
993:was developed in 1952.
566:(the complexity of its
227:Structured word inquiry
4038:The art of plain talk.
2681:The Mind of the Buyer.
2586:. Boston: Ginn and Co.
2297:difficulty; sometimes
2266:McLaughlin Smog (1969)
1848:Grades 13–15 (college)
1752:To apply the formula:
1646:
1590:
1526:
1490:Semantic Noise :
1482:
1446:
1398:
1377:
1301:University of Tübingen
1092:They also found that:
759:, which contained the
150:Phonological awareness
105:Simple view of reading
75:Vocabulary development
4120:Johns, Adrian. 2023.
4099:Ruddell, R. B. 1999.
3254:Bormuth, J. R. 1971.
3241:Bormuth, J. R. 1969.
2349:Accessible publishing
2211:Flesch‐Kincaid (1948)
1897:Fry readability graph
1856:Grades 16 and above.
1693:prepositional phrases
1647:
1570:
1506:
1483:
1426:
1399:
1357:
854:and Bernice Leary of
852:University of Chicago
726:The Mind of the Buyer
623:reading comprehension
556:programming languages
473:Functional illiteracy
21:Readability (service)
19:For the website, see
4053:. New York: Harpers.
4018:. New York: Harper.
3879:10.1162/tacl_a_00139
3831:. pp. 229–237.
3686:Coling 2010: Posters
3634:10.18653/v1/W16-0502
3400:. New York: Harper.
3062:Editor and publisher
3036:Journalism quarterly
3023:Journalism quarterly
2794:Thorndike E.L. 1921
2683:New York: Macmillan.
2432:10.3390/math11092063
1990:improve this section
1659:Readability formulas
1494:
1410:
1354:
915:personal references,
578:aspects that affect
366:Alphabetic principle
299:Automatic assessment
4241:Flesch reading ease
4066:London: Hutchinson.
4062:Klare, G. R. 1980.
3203:Vygotsky, L. 1978.
3146:Journal of reading
3089:Chall, J. S. 1958.
3073:Klare, G. R. 1963.
2549:DuBay, W. H. 2006.
2291:statistical average
1919:SMOG grading = 3 +
1873:Gunning fog formula
1337:text simplification
1263:logistic regression
1158:Difficult concepts;
1088:characters per word
1048:Cloze deletion test
772:Readability studies
386:History of printing
222:Reciprocal teaching
207:Independent reading
174:Reading instruction
133:Cognitive processes
80:Vocabulary learning
4224:Coleman–Liau index
3999:Journal of reading
3503:19, no. 4:395–415.
3420:Psychology reports
3379:Gunning, R. 1952.
3313:75, no. 3:391–401.
3109:35, no. 5:333–357.
2657:56 no. 23:286–292.
2455:Elementary English
2244:Gunning Fog (1952)
1923:polysyllable count
1742:Dale–Chall formula
1642:
1478:
1394:
1179:The use of images;
1082:words per sentence
1053:Mean Cloze Formula
757:Teachers Word Book
483:Literary criticism
339:Reading disability
145:Phonemic awareness
110:Science of reading
4336:Reading (process)
4326:Readability tests
4303:
4302:
4265:Gunning fog index
4187:Readability tests
4049:Flesch, R. 1979.
4040:New York: Harper.
4036:Flesch, R. 1946.
3516:108, no. 5:43–44.
3490:19, no 3:227-240.
3177:. Alexander, VA:
3131:Fry, E. B. 1963.
2937:Library quarterly
2518:Fry, E. B. 1986.
2287:
2286:
2144:
2143:
2026:
2025:
2018:
1879:Gunning fog index
1860:
1859:
1808:Grade 4 and below
1684:personal pronouns
1640:
1616:
1552:
1421:
1327:) introduced the
1188:Fonts and layout;
998:Readability Graph
737:Sidney L. Pressey
653:(13 million) and
592:character spacing
533:
532:
453:Critical literacy
237:Synthetic phonics
212:Literature circle
100:Dual route theory
70:Reading readiness
4343:
4316:Learning to read
4180:
4173:
4166:
4157:
4156:
4080:
4073:
4067:
4060:
4054:
4047:
4041:
4034:
4028:
4027:
4008:
4002:
3995:
3989:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3957:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3928:
3918:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3881:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3840:
3820:
3814:
3813:
3785:
3774:
3773:
3761:
3755:
3754:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3699:
3690:
3689:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3648:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3626:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3591:
3582:
3575:
3569:
3562:
3556:
3549:
3543:
3536:
3530:
3523:
3517:
3510:
3504:
3497:
3491:
3484:
3478:
3471:
3465:
3458:
3452:
3445:
3436:
3429:
3423:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3390:
3384:
3377:
3366:
3359:
3353:
3346:
3340:
3333:
3327:
3326:33, no. 1:37–49.
3320:
3314:
3307:
3301:
3294:
3288:
3278:
3272:
3265:
3259:
3252:
3246:
3239:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3214:
3208:
3205:Mind in society.
3201:
3195:
3188:
3182:
3171:
3162:
3155:
3149:
3142:
3136:
3129:
3123:
3116:
3110:
3103:
3094:
3087:
3078:
3071:
3065:
3058:
3052:
3045:
3039:
3032:
3026:
3019:
3013:
3006:
2997:
2990:
2984:
2977:
2971:
2964:
2958:
2951:
2940:
2933:
2927:
2920:
2914:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2894:
2886:
2876:
2852:
2846:
2839:
2833:
2826:
2820:
2813:
2807:
2792:
2786:
2779:
2773:
2766:
2760:
2753:
2747:
2740:
2734:
2727:
2721:
2714:
2708:
2703:
2697:
2690:
2684:
2677:
2671:
2664:
2658:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2632:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2596:
2587:
2580:
2574:
2567:
2554:
2547:
2536:
2529:
2523:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2477:
2471:
2464:
2458:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2434:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2400:
2385:
2255:Fry Graph (1963)
2187:
2186:
2048:
2047:
2021:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2001:
1970:
1962:
1940:The formula is:
1925:
1924:
1794:
1793:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1628:
1627:
1618:
1617:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1589:
1584:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1554:
1553:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1525:
1520:
1504:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1476:
1445:
1440:
1422:
1414:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1387:
1386:
1376:
1371:
1228:. Emily Pitler (
1218:machine learning
1176:Structural cues;
1064:Lexile Framework
926:Wallace's Farmer
822:parent education
752:Edward Thorndike
702:unfamiliar words
560:natural language
552:natural language
525:
518:
511:
421:Written language
309:Readability test
277:Words per minute
192:Concept-oriented
182:Analytic phonics
160:Word recognition
62:Learning to read
53:
30:
29:
4351:
4350:
4346:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4341:
4340:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4204:
4190:
4184:
4131:
4089:
4087:Further reading
4084:
4083:
4074:
4070:
4061:
4057:
4048:
4044:
4035:
4031:
4009:
4005:
3996:
3992:
3983:
3979:
3938:
3934:
3899:
3895:
3858:
3854:
3821:
3817:
3786:
3777:
3762:
3758:
3719:
3715:
3700:
3693:
3678:
3674:
3649:
3642:
3607:
3603:
3592:
3585:
3576:
3572:
3568:41, no 1:41–45.
3563:
3559:
3555:39, no 1:40–42.
3550:
3546:
3537:
3533:
3524:
3520:
3511:
3507:
3498:
3494:
3485:
3481:
3472:
3468:
3459:
3455:
3446:
3439:
3430:
3426:
3417:
3413:
3391:
3387:
3378:
3369:
3360:
3356:
3347:
3343:
3334:
3330:
3321:
3317:
3308:
3304:
3295:
3291:
3280:Paul, T. 2003.
3279:
3275:
3266:
3262:
3253:
3249:
3240:
3236:
3228:
3224:
3215:
3211:
3202:
3198:
3189:
3185:
3172:
3165:
3156:
3152:
3143:
3139:
3130:
3126:
3117:
3113:
3104:
3097:
3088:
3081:
3072:
3068:
3059:
3055:
3046:
3042:
3033:
3029:
3020:
3016:
3007:
3000:
2991:
2987:
2978:
2974:
2965:
2961:
2952:
2943:
2934:
2930:
2921:
2917:
2908:
2904:
2888:
2887:
2853:
2849:
2840:
2836:
2827:
2823:
2814:
2810:
2793:
2789:
2780:
2776:
2767:
2763:
2754:
2750:
2741:
2737:
2728:
2724:
2715:
2711:
2704:
2700:
2691:
2687:
2678:
2674:
2665:
2661:
2655:Reading Teacher
2652:
2648:
2640:Clay, M. 1991.
2639:
2635:
2626:
2622:
2616:
2597:
2590:
2581:
2577:
2568:
2557:
2548:
2539:
2530:
2526:
2517:
2513:
2478:
2474:
2465:
2461:
2452:
2448:
2411:
2407:
2398:
2396:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2359:William S. Gray
2354:George R. Klare
2330:
2196:Standard Error
2182:
2149:
2147:Lexico-semantic
2043:
2022:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1987:
1971:
1960:
1938:
1936:FORCAST formula
1922:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1905:
1899:
1881:
1875:
1750:
1744:
1707:
1701:
1699:Flesch formulas
1675:sentence length
1666:
1661:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1619:
1608:
1607:
1598:
1594:
1585:
1574:
1566:
1559:
1555:
1544:
1543:
1534:
1530:
1521:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1472:
1468:
1441:
1430:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1382:
1378:
1372:
1361:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1209:
1167:Nominalization;
1164:Human interest;
1118:
984:Jeanne S. Chall
969:
956:Birmingham News
907:
848:William S. Gray
778:adult education
774:
714:
668:
663:
655:Reader's Digest
640:
631:
612:choice of names
610:structure, and
529:
500:
499:
468:Family literacy
463:Distant reading
448:
447:
436:
435:
376:Dolch word list
361:
360:
349:
348:
324:
323:
314:
313:
294:
293:
282:
281:
257:
256:
247:
246:
177:
176:
165:
164:
155:Subvocalization
135:
134:
125:
124:
95:
94:
85:
84:
65:
64:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4349:
4339:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4297:
4291:
4285:
4279:
4274:
4268:
4262:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4243:
4233:
4227:
4221:
4216:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4195:
4192:
4191:
4183:
4182:
4175:
4168:
4160:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4142:
4137:
4130:
4129:External links
4127:
4126:
4125:
4118:
4111:
4104:
4097:
4088:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4068:
4055:
4042:
4029:
4003:
3990:
3977:
3932:
3893:
3852:
3815:
3775:
3756:
3713:
3691:
3672:
3640:
3601:
3583:
3570:
3557:
3544:
3531:
3518:
3505:
3492:
3479:
3466:
3453:
3437:
3424:
3411:
3385:
3367:
3354:
3341:
3328:
3315:
3302:
3289:
3273:
3260:
3247:
3234:
3222:
3209:
3196:
3183:
3163:
3150:
3137:
3124:
3111:
3095:
3079:
3066:
3053:
3040:
3027:
3014:
3010:Printer's ink.
2998:
2985:
2972:
2959:
2941:
2928:
2915:
2902:
2867:(7): 927–932.
2847:
2834:
2821:
2808:
2787:
2774:
2761:
2748:
2735:
2722:
2709:
2698:
2685:
2672:
2659:
2646:
2633:
2620:
2614:
2588:
2575:
2555:
2537:
2524:
2511:
2472:
2459:
2446:
2405:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2339:Plain language
2336:
2334:Asemic writing
2329:
2326:
2299:word frequency
2285:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2277:FORCAST (1973)
2274:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2031:
2024:
2023:
2006:September 2024
1974:
1972:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1949:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1912:Main article:
1909:
1906:
1901:Main article:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1888:
1877:Main article:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1858:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1801:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1746:Main article:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1733:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1717:
1703:Main article:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1680:
1677:
1665:
1664:Gray and Leary
1662:
1660:
1657:
1653:
1652:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1558:
1551:
1548:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1499:
1488:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1417:
1404:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:lexical chains
1247:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1208:
1205:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1023:
968:
965:
906:
903:
902:
901:
898:
895:
834:Also in 1934,
782:Douglas Waples
773:
770:
713:
710:
706:long sentences
693:
692:
689:
686:
683:
667:
666:Early research
664:
662:
659:
639:
636:
630:
627:
614:can determine
531:
530:
528:
527:
520:
513:
505:
502:
501:
498:
497:
496:
495:
485:
480:
475:
470:
465:
460:
455:
449:
443:
442:
441:
438:
437:
434:
433:
431:Writing system
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
362:
356:
355:
354:
351:
350:
347:
346:
341:
336:
331:
325:
321:
320:
319:
316:
315:
312:
311:
306:
301:
295:
289:
288:
287:
284:
283:
280:
279:
274:
269:
264:
258:
254:
253:
252:
249:
248:
245:
244:
242:Whole language
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
202:Guided reading
199:
194:
189:
184:
178:
172:
171:
170:
167:
166:
163:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
136:
132:
131:
130:
127:
126:
123:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
96:
92:
91:
90:
87:
86:
83:
82:
77:
72:
66:
60:
59:
58:
55:
54:
46:
45:
39:
38:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4348:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4331:Plain English
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4295:
4292:
4289:
4286:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4277:Linsear Write
4275:
4272:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4260:
4257:
4254:
4251:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4237:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4193:
4188:
4181:
4176:
4174:
4169:
4167:
4162:
4161:
4158:
4152:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4123:
4119:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4102:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4078:
4072:
4065:
4059:
4052:
4046:
4039:
4033:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4007:
4000:
3994:
3987:
3981:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3897:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3856:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3819:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3796:(2): 97–135.
3795:
3791:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3771:
3767:
3760:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3696:
3687:
3683:
3676:
3667:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3647:
3645:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3605:
3597:
3590:
3588:
3580:
3574:
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2643:
2637:
2630:
2624:
2617:
2615:9780824720261
2611:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2600:Choldin, M.T.
2595:
2593:
2585:
2579:
2572:
2566:
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2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2199:
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2185:
2174:
2171:
2168:
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2159:
2158:
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2155:
2139:
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2118:
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2109:
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2100:
2097:
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2077:
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2068:
2065:
2062:
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2053:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2020:
2017:
2009:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1975:This section
1973:
1969:
1964:
1963:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1930:
1929:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1904:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1867:
1866:
1865:
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1855:
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1847:
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1836:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1805:4.9 and below
1804:
1803:
1795:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1764:
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1656:
1634:
1624:
1610:
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1586:
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1560:
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1497:
1489:
1473:
1469:
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1447:
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1434:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1415:
1405:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1305:Weekly Reader
1302:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1253:study at the
1252:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1219:
1214:
1204:
1201:
1197:
1191:Document age.
1190:
1187:
1185:Highlighting;
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1173:Embeddedness;
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1161:Idea density;
1160:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1126:Walter Kintch
1122:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1041:Linsear Write
1037:
1035:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1006:
1001:
999:
994:
992:
987:
985:
981:
977:
975:
964:
960:
957:
952:
949:
944:
943:
940:
934:
930:
927:
922:
920:
916:
912:
899:
896:
893:
892:
891:
888:
886:
880:
878:
874:
870:
869:seventh grade
866:
861:
857:
853:
849:
844:
841:
837:
832:
830:
825:
823:
817:
815:
814:Rudolf Flesch
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
791:
787:
783:
779:
769:
765:
762:
758:
753:
748:
745:
741:
738:
733:
731:
727:
721:
719:
718:text leveling
709:
707:
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569:
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491:
490:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
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471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
458:Close reading
456:
454:
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450:
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439:
432:
429:
427:
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414:
412:
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389:
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379:
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353:
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318:
317:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
296:
292:
286:
285:
278:
275:
273:
272:Speed reading
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
259:
251:
250:
243:
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180:
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169:
168:
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158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
140:Comprehension
138:
137:
129:
128:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
97:
89:
88:
81:
78:
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73:
71:
68:
67:
63:
57:
56:
52:
48:
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44:
41:
40:
36:
32:
31:
26:
22:
4197:
4121:
4114:
4107:
4100:
4093:
4076:
4071:
4063:
4058:
4050:
4045:
4037:
4032:
4015:
4006:
3998:
3993:
3985:
3980:
3945:
3935:
3906:
3896:
3869:
3865:
3855:
3828:
3818:
3793:
3789:
3769:
3759:
3726:
3722:
3716:
3707:
3685:
3675:
3656:
3614:
3604:
3595:
3578:
3573:
3565:
3560:
3552:
3547:
3539:
3534:
3526:
3521:
3513:
3508:
3500:
3495:
3487:
3482:
3474:
3469:
3461:
3456:
3448:
3432:
3427:
3419:
3414:
3397:
3388:
3380:
3362:
3357:
3349:
3344:
3336:
3331:
3323:
3318:
3310:
3305:
3297:
3292:
3281:
3276:
3268:
3263:
3255:
3250:
3242:
3237:
3230:
3225:
3217:
3212:
3204:
3199:
3191:
3186:
3174:
3158:
3153:
3145:
3140:
3132:
3127:
3119:
3114:
3106:
3090:
3074:
3069:
3061:
3056:
3048:
3043:
3035:
3030:
3022:
3017:
3009:
2993:
2988:
2980:
2975:
2967:
2962:
2954:
2936:
2931:
2923:
2918:
2910:
2905:
2891:cite journal
2864:
2860:
2850:
2842:
2837:
2829:
2824:
2816:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2790:
2782:
2777:
2769:
2764:
2756:
2751:
2743:
2738:
2730:
2725:
2717:
2712:
2701:
2693:
2688:
2680:
2675:
2667:
2662:
2654:
2649:
2641:
2636:
2628:
2623:
2604:
2583:
2578:
2570:
2550:
2532:
2527:
2519:
2514:
2492:(1): 44–48.
2489:
2485:
2475:
2467:
2462:
2454:
2449:
2422:
2418:
2408:
2397:. Retrieved
2395:. 8 May 2013
2392:
2383:
2364:Miles Tinker
2322:
2318:
2307:
2288:
2193:Correlation
2183:
2150:
2044:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2012:
2003:
1988:Please help
1976:
1945:
1939:
1882:
1863:
1861:
1853:10 and above
1840:Grades 11–12
1790:
1776:
1751:
1724:
1708:
1667:
1654:
1341:
1314:
1309:BBC Bitesize
1307:website and
1298:
1248:
1222:
1210:
1194:
1150:
1146:
1135:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1091:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1038:
1031:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1002:
995:
988:
978:
973:
970:
961:
955:
953:
948:Reading Ease
945:
942:
938:
935:
931:
925:
923:
918:
914:
910:
908:
889:
884:
881:
859:
845:
833:
828:
826:
818:
797:Lyman Bryson
795:
789:
775:
766:
756:
749:
746:
742:
734:
725:
722:
717:
715:
712:Reading ease
705:
701:
698:
694:
677:
669:
654:
650:
648:
645:
641:
638:Applications
632:
620:
606:, choice of
548:written text
535:
534:
290:
267:Slow reading
255:Reading rate
187:Basal reader
4198:readability
4189:for English
4001:22:639–646.
3872:: 283–297.
3729:(1): 1–76.
3529:36:145–158.
3477:13:530–538.
3451:49:332–341.
3422:13:651–654.
3365:16:135–138.
3148:11:513–516.
3038:24:307–314.
3025:24:293–306.
2983:45:404–419.
2970:16:229–233.
2832:24:127–134.
2785:16:151–156.
2631:45:543–552.
2425:(9): 2063.
2419:Mathematics
1832:Grades 9–10
1800:Final score
1277:in document
1124:Studies by
885:Lorge Index
873:grade level
836:Ralph Tyler
786:Ralph Tyler
780:. In 1931,
761:frequencies
730:word length
673:Elizabethan
600:programming
596:line length
588:line height
576:typographic
536:Readability
478:Great books
401:Orthography
291:Readability
4310:Categories
4012:Flesch, R.
3955:2109.12258
3916:2006.00377
3772:: 186–195.
3710:: 163–173.
3688:: 276–284.
3666:2010.13374
3624:1906.07580
3435:4:107–111.
3394:Flesch, R.
3051:32:221–33.
3012:220:35–37.
2939:4:384–412.
2883:2866467078
2720:28:373–81.
2696:9:389–398.
2441:2812618745
2399:2020-08-17
2375:References
1824:Grades 7–8
1816:Grades 5–6
1691:Number of
1682:Number of
1273:Number of
1226:parse tree
1196:Coh-Metrix
1018:would be:
980:Edgar Dale
865:newspapers
858:published
840:Edgar Dale
809:discipline
788:published
629:Definition
580:legibility
568:vocabulary
544:understand
493:Children's
488:Literature
416:Vocabulary
411:Sight word
334:Hyperlexia
304:Legibility
3972:237940206
3723:Cognition
3659:: 20–24.
3617:: 12–22.
2506:0886-0246
2344:Verbosity
2303:syntactic
1977:does not
1797:Raw score
1614:¯
1605:−
1572:∑
1550:¯
1541:−
1508:∑
1501:⋅
1466:−
1428:∑
1424:⋅
1389:⋅
1359:∑
1251:doctorate
1036:formula.
846:In 1935,
584:font size
4014:(1949).
3909:: 1–17.
3888:17817489
3847:13888774
3810:17571866
3396:(1949).
2926:8:11–32.
2879:ProQuest
2733:8:11–16.
2437:ProQuest
2328:See also
2295:semantic
2190:Formula
1673:Average
1315:Wei Xu (
1200:cohesion
939:writers.
877:literacy
805:colleges
651:TV Guide
604:comments
445:Literacy
396:Morpheme
391:Language
381:Grapheme
358:Language
329:Dyslexia
35:a series
33:Part of
4321:Writing
4253:FORCAST
3743:9775516
3581:353-354
2798:. 1932
2759:10:4–6.
2746:9:8–11.
1998:removed
1983:sources
1921:√
1845:9.0–9.9
1837:8.0–8.9
1829:7.0–7.9
1821:6.0–6.9
1813:5.0–5.9
1777:Where:
1333:Newsela
1329:Newsela
919:affixes
850:of the
829:scaling
661:History
582:, like
564:content
426:Writing
406:Phoneme
371:Braille
262:Fluency
217:Phonics
43:Reading
4296:(1952)
4290:(1969)
4284:(1977)
4273:(1989)
4271:Lexile
4267:(1952)
4261:(1968)
4255:(1973)
4232:(1948)
4226:(1975)
4215:(1967)
4024:318542
4022:
3970:
3886:
3845:
3808:
3751:377292
3749:
3741:
3406:318542
3404:
3064:81:38.
2881:
2772:3: 236
2612:
2504:
2457:26:23.
2439:
2098:Grade
598:). In
594:, and
572:syntax
540:reader
4200:of a
3968:S2CID
3950:arXiv
3911:arXiv
3884:S2CID
3843:S2CID
3806:S2CID
3747:S2CID
3661:arXiv
3619:arXiv
2283:3.61
2272:2.28
2261:2.31
2250:2.00
2239:1.76
2228:2.44
2093:10.9
2090:10.1
1948:/ 10)
4288:SMOG
4219:ATOS
4202:text
4020:OCLC
3739:PMID
3402:OCLC
2897:link
2610:ISBN
2502:ISSN
2217:1.9
2204:.645
2087:9.3
2084:8.5
2081:7.7
2078:6.9
2075:6.1
2072:5.3
2069:4.5
2066:3.7
2063:2.9
2060:2.1
2057:1.3
2054:0.5
2051:SDS
2039:Have
2037:and
1981:any
1979:cite
1914:SMOG
1039:The
1003:The
989:The
838:and
784:and
704:and
608:loop
570:and
554:and
542:can
3960:doi
3921:doi
3874:doi
3833:doi
3798:doi
3794:165
3731:doi
3629:doi
2869:doi
2494:doi
2427:doi
2280:.66
2269:.88
2258:.86
2247:.91
2236:.93
2225:.88
2214:.91
2140:14
2137:13
2134:12
2131:11
2128:10
1992:by
799:of
4312::
3966:.
3958:.
3944:.
3919:.
3905:.
3882:.
3868:.
3864:.
3841:.
3827:.
3804:.
3792:.
3778:^
3768:.
3745:.
3737:.
3727:68
3725:.
3706:.
3694:^
3684:.
3655:.
3643:^
3627:.
3613:.
3586:^
3440:^
3370:^
3166:^
3098:^
3082:^
3001:^
2944:^
2893:}}
2889:{{
2877:.
2863:.
2859:.
2591:^
2558:^
2540:^
2500:.
2490:28
2488:.
2484:.
2435:.
2423:11
2421:.
2417:.
2391:.
2125:9
2122:8
2119:7
2116:6
2113:5
2110:4
2107:3
2104:2
2101:1
2035:Be
921:.
816:.
618:.
590:,
586:,
546:a
37:on
4179:e
4172:t
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